A Doctor of Science (Latin: Scientiae Doctor ; most commonly abbreviated DSc or ScD ) is a science doctorate awarded in a number of countries throughout the world.
123-531: In Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, all universities accredited by the state award a "Doctorate" in all fields of science and humanities, equivalent to a PhD in the United Kingdom or United States. Some universities in these four North African countries award a "Doctorate of the State" in some fields of study and science. A "Doctorate of the State" is slightly higher in esteem than a regular doctorate, and
246-606: A "Commonwealth of Nations". Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887 , leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911. The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence" at
369-664: A Commonwealth country affords benefits in some member countries, particularly in the United Kingdom , and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another by high commissions rather than embassies. The Commonwealth Charter defines their shared values of democracy , human rights and the rule of law , as promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games . A majority of Commonwealth countries are small states , with small island developing states constituting almost half its membership. Queen Elizabeth II , in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that
492-635: A PhD degree is one of the prerequisites for heading a university department in Ukraine. In Belarus "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc, Belarusian: Доктар навук ) is the highest level of education that follows a PhD. Is awarded by The Higher Attestation Commission under the aegis of the President of the Republic of Belarus . In the United States, the formally recognized traditional Doctor of Science
615-540: A combined gross domestic product of over $ 9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($ 3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($ 3.124 trillion), Canada ($ 1.652 trillion), and Australia ($ 1.379 trillion). In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had
738-682: A doctoral defence. The oldest institute to award a DSc degree in India is Rajabazar Science College , University of Calcutta . Higher education institutes in Thailand generally grant PhD as a doctoral research degree, some universities including Chulalongkorn University award DSc. In exception, Mahidol University can grant both PhD and DSc. Doctoral students in Faculty of Science are always awarded PhD, but some other programs award DSc. DSc or PhD degrees are awarded after dissertation and fulfilling
861-553: A doctorate in economics and business administration ( kauppatieteiden tohtori ) would be translated as DSc (Econ). When conversing or writing in English, the prefix Dr may be used to address a holder of a doctoral degree awarded in Finland. The degrees are equivalent to filosofian tohtori (FT, English: PhD), but FT is usually awarded only in general sciences, not in specializations like engineering, economics or medicine. In France,
984-574: A former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined. Consideration for Rwanda's admission
1107-455: A fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised King George VI as " Head of the Commonwealth ". In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these
1230-548: A particular field and not for specific academic accomplishments. It is usual to signify this by adding DSc h.c. (for honoris causa ). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc behind the name), established in 1953, is equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Science in the sense in which the DSc is used in the Commonwealth. It is the highest academic qualification, different from both PhD and PhDr. titles. In
1353-563: A period of 10-years University of Calcutta/ Rajabazar Sc. College along with CRNN(Centre for Research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology) has been granted funds by several government agencies under R&D Infrastructure Division of Ministry of Science and Technology like DST-PURSE (Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence) and FIST (Fund for Improvement of Science and Technology). Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations , often simply referred to as
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#17327720656711476-596: A professional Master's degree, intended for practical subjects). The University of Costa Rica , for example, offers a general Doctor of Sciences degree for students of all natural and exact sciences, a Doctor of Engineering degree for students of Engineering (in cooperation with the Costa Rica Institute of Technology ), and a few other doctorate programs on applied sciences (for example, in Agricultural Sciences or Informatics). In Russia,
1599-541: A program focused on usable design/user experience (UX) and Human Computer Interaction (HCI). There are programs where the ScD and PhD have different degree requirements, though the two degrees are officially considered equivalent. The Engineering school at Washington University in St. Louis , for example, requires four more graduate courses in the DSc program, which can be completed in one year in conjunction with research duties, while
1722-456: A report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting . New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM . New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being
1845-735: A republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King George VI told Menon : "So, I've become 'as such'". Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, whilst others, such as Guyana , Mauritius and Dominica , have remained members. India's inaugural prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared on 16 May 1949, shortly following
1968-720: A republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948 ; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth. Whilst Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London . Under the London Declaration , as drafted by V. K. Krishna Menon , India agreed, when it became
2091-717: A requisite to be a professor in Brazilian universities, and German Habilitation is a requisite to be a professor in German universities. However, "Live-Docencia" is a requisite to be promoted to Associate Professor / "full" Professor (Professor Titular) at several of those public research Universities. Rajabazar Science College The University College of Science, Technology and Agriculture (commonly or formerly known as Rashbehari Siksha Prangan & Taraknath Palit Siksha Prangan or Rajabazar Science College & Ballygunge Science College ) are two of five main campuses of
2214-615: A substantial research association with the awarding university. The first University to admit an individual to this degree was the University of London in 1860. In 1893 Maria Gordon (née Ogilvie), was the first woman to receive this degree. In former times the doctorate in science was regarded as a greater distinction than a professorial chair and hence a professor who was also a DSc would be known as Doctor. The Doctor of Science may also be awarded as an honorary degree, that is, given to individuals who have made extensive contributions to
2337-533: Is a higher doctorate degree and it is awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences . In Finland, most doctoral degrees awarded in the fields of natural sciences, technology and economics are termed DSc degrees in English, with a suffix indicating the field of study. However, there is no translation of the term Doctor of Science to Finnish. For example, the proper translation for the doctorate in technology ( tekniikan tohtori ) would be DSc (Tech), whereas
2460-571: Is also responsible for introducing degrees like M.Sc. and D.Sc. for first time in India. The Faculty of Engineering and Technology arm of Science college is the second oldest in West Bengal after IIEST Shibpur (Formerly B.E. College affiliated to Calcutta University). The departments are as follows: From 2015 onwards, the department of CSE (Computer Science and Engineering), A.K. Chowdhury School of IT (Information Technology) and OOE (Optics and Opto Electronics Engineering) has been shifted to
2583-459: Is an academic research doctoral degree awarded by research universities. The academic research ScD (or DSc) is not higher than a PhD as is the case in some European countries. The first North American ScD was inaugurated by Harvard University in 1872, when graduate studies first began at Harvard, and where the PhD and ScD degrees were introduced in the same year. The Doctor of Science research degree
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#17327720656712706-514: Is awarded after performing additional in-depth post-doctorate research or achievement. Similarly to in the US and most of Europe, Japanese universities offer both the PhD and the ScD as initial doctorates in science. In India only a few prestigious universities offer ScD/DSc in science which is obtained in Graduate School after satisfactory evaluation of knowledge, research accomplishment, and
2829-768: Is called a scientific title of professor. "Habilitation" has been a mandatory requirement for many years to apply for full professorship in Poland. In Ireland, the United Kingdom and the countries of the Commonwealth , such as Australia and India (in the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay ), the degree of Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) is one of the Higher Doctorates . In some older universities it typically has precedence after Divinity, Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and above Music. The degree
2952-427: Is conferred on a member of the university who has a proven record of internationally recognised scholarship. A candidate for the degree will usually be required to submit a selection of their publications that follow a consistent theme to the board of the appropriate faculty, which will decide if the candidate merits this accolade. Quite often they will need to be a doctoral graduate of at least ten years standing and have
3075-507: Is e.g. Dr. rer. nat. habil., by adding the suffix "habil." to the earlier received Doctors degree. In Switzerland, the Dr sc. is a doctoral degree awarded only by the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology ( EPFL and ETHZ ), the University of Fribourg and the Department of Informatics of the University of Zurich . The Swiss Dr sc., like the DSc in the US, is equivalent to the PhD. It
3198-650: Is earned with the approval of a committee on the basis of original research, publications, and extensive applied professional contributions and is awarded in doctoral level science and technology programs. Since 2004 the Dr sc. is the only doctoral degree awarded by the ETH Zurich . The École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne awards the degree Docteur ès sciences , abbreviated Dr ès sc. and translated into English as PhD. In Poland "Doctor of Sciences" or "Habilitation" ( doktor habilitowany or dr hab. in Polish)
3321-486: Is earned with the formal dissertation defense and approval of a committee on the basis of original research and publications, and it is awarded predominantly in doctoral-level science programs, such as engineering, medical and health sciences, and health economics . Although rarer than the Doctor of Philosophy, the Doctor of Science is awarded by institutions including: A few university doctoral research programs offer both
3444-614: Is known as The Raman Effect . He announced his discovery on 28 February 1928 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, the day widely celebrated as the National Science Day in India. Sir Jnan Chandra Ghosh became the first director of the newly created IIT in 1951 ( Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur ). Sir J.C. Ghosh also was the second person to be associated with Sc. College (after Sir CV Raman) who became
3567-409: Is not represented. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply for British emergency passports . Australia issues Documents of Identity in exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently. The close association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of
3690-520: Is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members, the majority of which (36) are republics , and five have monarchs of different royal houses ( Brunei , Eswatini , Lesotho , Malaysia and Tonga ). The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government , including (amongst others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM
3813-692: Is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth countries, including the Cook Islands and Niue which are under the Realm of New Zealand (though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council). Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to the High Court of Fiji , with the Court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations. Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in
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3936-539: Is the degree higher than PhD and it is awarded for substantial accomplishments in teaching, research and service after getting the PhD degree (usually up to 8 years after PhD). It is very similar to the equivalent habilitation degree in Germany and Austria. It is also very similar (in terms of requirements) to associate professor with tenure. The highest scientific degree in Poland is "professorship" or "full professor" ( tytuł naukowy profesora, profesor tytularny ), which
4059-604: Is the second highest academic title given by the state's universities (University of São Paulo (USP), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) and São Paulo State University (UNESP)) and most Federal Universities, such as the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). The highest academic title is the Livre-Docência , which is not equivalent to the German Habilitation, since "Livre-Docência" is not
4182-511: Is the successor to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Meetings and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs. The head of government hosting
4305-502: Is therefore formally recognized as a PhD degree. Starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukrainian: Доктор філософії ) is the highest education level and first science degree. "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc Ukrainian: Доктор наук ) is the second and the highest science degree, awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. Since 2016,
4428-464: The 1926 Imperial Conference , the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term ' Commonwealth ' was officially adopted to describe the community. These aspects to
4551-608: The Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference , and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community and established the member states as "free and equal". It continues to be known colloquially as the British Commonwealth . The Head of
4674-640: The British Armed Forces . According to the British Army , "Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army." Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies. Gurkha soldiers from Nepal , though it is not a Commonwealth country, have long fought alongside British and Commonwealth troops. They continue to be recruited by
4797-668: The British Commonwealth Occupation Force in post-war Japan. After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following
4920-503: The Commonwealth Foundation , which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations. Numerous organisations are associated with and operate within the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through
5043-526: The Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations." As long ago as 18 January 1884 Lord Rosebery , while visiting Adelaide , South Australia , had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent , as
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5166-769: The Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War , and the end of apartheid in South Africa. The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme , which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has
5289-525: The High Court case of Sue v Hill , the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power". Similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs , the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens". Commonwealth citizens may receive consular assistance from other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country
5412-507: The London Declaration , the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature. Burma (Myanmar since 1989) and Aden (now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (part of which became
5535-673: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , attended by delegates from the Dominions as well as the United Kingdom. The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State . In the Balfour Declaration at
5658-547: The United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer . The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongst the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of
5781-618: The University of Calcutta (CU). The college served as the cradle of Indian sciences by winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 and many fellowships of the Royal Society London . Despite the fact that the Presidency College at Calcutta witnessed great scientific research by Jagadish Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Ray in the last decade of the 19th and the first decade of the 20th century, first organised scientific research at Calcutta University began with
5904-671: The Anti-Partition movement(1905). In June and October 1912, he donated total assets of fourteen and a half lakh rupees which included his own dwelling house. His donations were made over to the university for the advancement of Science and Technology and were used to maintain the income of endowment of Physics and Chemistry Chair and also to institute scholarships to distinguished graduates of Calcutta University for higher studies. The university had to provide "from its own funds" suitable lecture rooms, libraries, museums, laboratories, workshops and other facilities for teaching and research. As
6027-605: The British Army ( Brigade of Gurkhas ), Indian Army ( Gorkha regiments ) and Royal Brunei Armed Forces ( Gurkha Reserve Unit ), as well the Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force . Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police. The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931 , as
6150-724: The British Raj to encourage the Indian scientists in their works presumably under the idea that Indian brains were not suitable for scientific research despite great promise shown by Jagadish Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Ray at the Presidency College years before the foundation of the University College of Science and Technology. Of the total expenditure of rupees 1,813,959 of the University College of Science and Technology between March 1914 and March 1922,
6273-451: The CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position until the following CHOGM. The Commonwealth Secretariat , established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongst member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in
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#17327720656716396-442: The Commonwealth is Charles III . He is king of 15 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms , whilst 36 other members are republics , and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II , the position is not technically hereditary. Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though some have institutional links to other Commonwealth nations. Citizenship of
6519-539: The Commonwealth , is an international association of 56 member states , the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire from which it developed. They are connected through their use of the English language and historical-cultural ties. The chief institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat , which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and
6642-471: The Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors . Further institutional connections exist between Commonwealth countries. These include, between some, connections to other parts of the Commonwealth in their judicial and military institutions. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
6765-413: The Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion. The Commonwealth is the largest association of ' Third World ' or ' Global South ' countries. With a population of 1.4 billion, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people. The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status
6888-581: The Commonwealth's fundamental political values. The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general , who is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal , from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general
7011-400: The Czech Republic, DrSc has not been awarded since 2001; instead, since 2006, a "Doctor of Sciences" degree (DSc behind the name) has been awarded, not by universities but by the Czech Academy of Sciences mostly for research in the field of natural or formal science. In Slovakia, "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc) is awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences . In Hungary, "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc)
7134-427: The Declaration, during the Constituent Assembly Debates that: We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At
7257-400: The Doctor in Sciences (DSc) category is recognized as a higher doctorate, generally followed by the concentration area (program field). This kind of doctorate is obtained in Graduate School after satisfactory evaluation of knowledge, research accomplishment, and thesis defense. This doctorate is comparable to a PhD program found in other countries. In the state of São Paulo, the doctorate title
7380-416: The Doctor of Sciences degree ( doctorat ès sciences also called doctorat d'État ) was a higher doctorate in the fields of experimental and natural sciences, superseded in 1984 by the habilitation . In Denmark, Dr Scient. is a higher doctorate. In Bulgaria, "Doctor" (PhD) is the highest education level and first science degree. Doctor of Sciences (DrSc) is the second and the highest science degree. In
7503-589: The Europeans. He said, "To give this money to this place is to give money to the cause which will embarrass ourselves. The money will go to political ends rather than to truly educational ends." In August 1913, Sir Rashbehari Ghosh , an eminent jurist and scholar, in a letter to Asutosh Mookerjee placed in the hands of the university "a sum of ten lakh rupees" as per the conditions of his gift, there were to be established four chairs - one each for Applied Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Botany, with special reference to Agriculture, and eight studentships to be awarded to
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#17327720656717626-421: The Government of India's contributions from public funds was a meagre rupees 1,20,000 only. Yet in spite of these financial constraints and difficulties none of the scientists left for better position in imperial organisations. Instead classic example was provided by Prafulla Chandra Ray who when re-appointed Palit Professor for five years after reaching the age of superannuation donated his full monthly salary for
7749-414: The PhD level is considered a doctoral degree (level 8) similar to the doctorate degrees in Canada and the United States. The Doctor of Sciences degree is instead recognized as a Higher Degree (Grado Propio). In Costa Rica, doctorates are the highest academic degrees awarded by a university. They are focused on research and accessible only after the study of an academic Master's degree (as opposed to
7872-457: The PhD requires teaching assistance services. The Johns Hopkins University also offers both PhD and ScD in certain programs, with only minor differences in university administration of the degrees. In some institutions, the ScD has been converted to the PhD. For instance, the doctoral degree in biostatistics at Harvard recently converted from ScD to PhD, even though the doctoral degree structure and requirements have remained identical. In Mexico
7995-417: The Queen's Proclamation of 1858 after the Mutiny to allay fear, suspicion and distrust. In those days agriculture, manufacturing and commerce offered little to no incentives and was almost impossible to initiate without proper skills, capital and equality of terms with which it could compete with the European industry. Such discontentment among the educated unemployed gave rise to militant nationalism threatening
8118-575: The ScD and PhD degrees in the same academic field, such as Johns Hopkins University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , with identical requirements for obtaining either. Research programs that offer the formal research ScD but not the PhD degree for a given field include several doctoral programs at Harvard University , Boston University , Capitol Technology University , and Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center . The University of Baltimore , School of Information Arts and Technologies offers an ScD degree in Information and Interaction Design,
8241-446: The State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic ), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971). The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on
8364-436: The Statute of Westminster into the law of South Africa . Commonwealth countries and the Empire were involved in every major theatre of the Second World War . The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was established for pilots from across the Empire and Dominions, created by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Troops from Australia, Britain, the British Raj and New Zealand made up
8487-466: The UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non- white and developing countries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries. The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth', in reference to what had been known as the 'White Dominions'. On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became
8610-577: The United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore. Whilst British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan . Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also: Commonwealth diaspora ). The term New Commonwealth gained usage in
8733-423: The United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens. Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were British subjects . Citizenship laws have evolved independently in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in
8856-709: The annex at Technology Campus in Salt Lake, (Address : JD-2, Sector-III, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-700106). Degrees being offered are: The University College of Science and Technology has 172 principal investigators and around 1,500 research students. On average, 250 PhDs are awarded every year and around 750 research papers were published in 2011. Fifteen national and international patents have been filed so far by science and technology departments of chemical engineering, polymer science, radio-physics and electronics, applied physics, physiology, biotechnology and biochemistry. The proportion of teaching activity and research at
8979-721: The award of Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree which is to be given to a M.Sc. after some years spent in original investigations. When Sir Asutosh Mookerjee became the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University in 1906, he used the Indian University Act of 1904-5 and converted the university from an examination body to a teaching university which will not only start post graduate degrees in humanities, English, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic, Persian, Mental & Moral Philosophy, History, Economics and Mathematics but also establish chairs in some of them with financial support from
9102-473: The beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs. Whilst some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though
9225-570: The country sought closer ties with the Anglophone world . Under the formula of the London Declaration , Charles III is the Head of the Commonwealth . However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth. Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother Elizabeth II as head after her death . The position
9348-419: The country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered. Prior to Togo's admission at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , Togolese Foreign Minister Robert Dussey said that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English and access new educational and cultural resources. He also remarked that
9471-415: The creation of new courses in science became important. The commission for the first time suggested the creation of the Faculty of Science and Technology in addition to the faculties of Arts, Law, Medicine and Civil Engineering previously offered by Calcutta University. Thus Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and Master of Science (M.Sc.) courses were introduced for first time in India. The commission also recommended
9594-534: The director of IISc ( Indian Institute of Science ). Prof. A.P.C Ray founded the Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceutical Work and he along with prof. Hemendra Kumar Sen established the department of Applied Chemistry in Sc. College in 1920. Prof. S.K. Mitra , the pioneer of Radio Science in India founded the department of Radio Physics and Electronics which Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy (then chief minister of Bengal) laid
9717-445: The distinguished graduates of this university "to carry on investigation" under the guidance of a professor. Both Palit and Ghosh wanted promotion and diffusion of scientific and technical education among their countrymen by indigenous agency and with the money now available through their endowments, Mookerjee could now launch his projected dream. Thus four days before the expiry of the fourth term of his Vice-Chancellorship, Mookerjee laid
9840-585: The end of the Suez Crisis. The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire was Mozambique in 1995 following its first democratic elections. Mozambique was a former Portuguese colony . Its entry preceded the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda became the second country to be admitted to the Commonwealth not to have any constitutional links to Britain. It
9963-445: The entire period for the special benefit of his department which was "proud to acknowledge him as its leader". During this difficult time, there had been "a steady output of original work rapidly increasing in volume and improving in quality which emanated not from one or two extraordinarily isolated or exceptionally gifted workers blessed with special advantages and facilities, but from a large body of able and devoted scholars". No doubt,
10086-891: The establishment of its University College of Science and Technology in March 1914. A galaxy of Indian scientists joined the Chairs set up with the income of the endowments of nearly thirty seven and half lakhs rupees donated by Sir Taraknath Palit and Sir Rashbehari Ghosh who were associated with the National Education Movement in Bengal since the Indian Universities Act of 1904-5 and the partition of Bengal in 1905. The first group of faculties included Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray , Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman , Ganesh Prasad , Sisir Kumar Mitra and
10209-655: The existence of very British Raj in India. Higher education in India was singled out as the root for all evils. So to curb this growing distress, Lord Curzon (then Viceroy of India) passed the Indian University Act in 1904 based on the recommendation of the Indian University Commission in 1902. While the various recommendations of the Commission to enable the Raj to control higher education in India were not strictly relevant here, some at least relating to
10332-728: The following: In these countries there are some related doctoral degrees with very similar names, these are the: All of these doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD or ScD of the American system. Until German Reunification , universities in East Germany also awarded the Dr Sc. However, the East German Dr Sc was not equivalent to the PhD since it was adopted to replace the German Habilitation and therefore
10455-542: The formal establishment of the University College of Science and Technology in March 1914. The establishment of Chairs in chemistry, physics, mathematics, zoology and Botany was the start of outstanding research and teaching by dedicated Indian scientists. Sir Asutosh Mookerjee who became the first president of the first session of the Indian Science Congress at Calcutta, where nearly a hundred scientists met on 26 January 1914, took great care to identify
10578-539: The former Yugoslavia , (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, North Macedonia), title doktor nauka or doktor znanosti (literally "doctor of science") is used in a much broader sense than DSc, simply referring to a field of academic study – from art history ( doktor znanosti/nauka povijesti umjetnosti ), philosophy ( doktor znanosti/nauka filozofije ), and literary studies ( doktor znanosti/nauka književnosti ) to hard sciences such as molecular biology ( doktor znanosti/nauka molekularne biologije ). It
10701-549: The former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles , be fully sovereign states , recognise King Charles III as head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership. These requirements had undergone review, and
10824-579: The founding stone of the University College of Science and Technology on 27 March 1914 hoping fervently that "although the College of Science and Technology is an integral part of the University of Calcutta, it will be regarded not as a provincial but as an all-India college of Science and Technology to which students will flock from every corner of the Indian Empire, attracted by the excellence of
10947-535: The founding stone of, on 21 April 1949. Notable scholars associated with Science college include one Nobel Laureate in Physics, two National Award winning "Film Directors", at least twenty-five Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Laureates , six Royal Society of London Fellows and several British Knighthood title holders and Padma Awardees. Science college campus houses few of country's oldest applied science departments like applied physics, applied chemistry and Institute of Radio-Physics and Electronics. The college
11070-424: The frontiers of knowledge, the work by the Indian scientists at the University College of Science and Technology not only helped in increasing the wealth of the country but also succeeded in drawing attention of the scientific world. The dedication and devotion with which the Indian scientists at the University College of Science and Technology began their work to explain the many unknown phenomena can only remind us of
11193-458: The funds provided by the university was not fully adequate, Mookerjee approached the Government of India for financial support, which was rejected by Henry Sharp who was the joint secretary in department of education. The opposition of Sharp mainly emanated from his dislike of Calcutta University which he considered will become a non-political body with strong prejudice against the white men and
11316-461: The government by 1912. But for seven years, Mookerjee struggled hard to establish postgraduate teaching and research in Science and Technology despite his best intentions. The paucity of funds and accommodations were deplorable which meant that even if there were men, there was no accommodation laboratories, workshops, museums, equipment, etc. In Presidency College a small room measuring 35'6" by 25'6"
11439-451: The helm in several Indian research organisations. The Technology Faculty of this university is supported by TEQIP Phase 3 project of MHRD and has been working as the mentoring institute for Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology, Sarang , Odisha and Jorhat Engineering College , Assam. The university also received fund of INR 5 Crore from Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) for Infrastructure development. After successful completion
11562-479: The highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace". However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition,
11685-596: The instruction imparted and of the facilities provided for research." The influence of the teachings of Raja Rammohan Roy on the importance of education broadly based on science and technology impressed a group of newly graduated scientists S.N. Bose , Jnan Chandra Ghosh , M.N. Saha , N.R. Sen , P.C. Mahalanobis , S.K. Mitra and Jnanendranath Mukherjee . Sir Asutosh Mukherjee believed in young talents, selected promising young men and appointed them straightaway as lecturers in post graduate classes of newly formed Sc. College and provided them research facilities also. He
11808-502: The legendary 1915 M.Sc. batch comprising Satyendranath Bose , Meghnad Saha , Jnan Chandra Ghosh , Jnanendra Nath Mukherjee among others. The holders of the Chairs often worked under great financial constraints and with whatever apparatus was locally available in Calcutta. Yet their scientific research was soon to put Calcutta University on the map of world recognition. The science that developed at Calcutta University in colonial India
11931-470: The map of world recognition. A galaxy of Indian scientists joined the departments set up with the income of endowments donated by Palit and Ghosh and began their work in science with whatever apparatus available in India and soon made their mark in their chosen fields. Palit Chairs in Physics and Chemistry and Ghosh Chairs in Applied Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Botany were soon filled up after
12054-419: The paucity of funds needed for the development of such an institute at the post-graduation level. Till the end of 19th century Calcutta University remained mainly an examination body fed by a number of affiliated colleges which actually did teaching and which were dispersed from Shimla and Mussorie to Indore and Jaipur , and from Jaffna and Batticaloa to Sylhet and Chittagong . In these colleges there
12177-612: The power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration. Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration , the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member. In addition to this new rule,
12300-563: The relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and the need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified
12423-494: The reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air." In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents. 33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023,
12546-752: The required publication number. In order to qualify for DSc, one is required to have attained a PhD. The higher education institutes in Uzbekistan also grant DSc degrees. As an example, the National University of Uzbekistan and the Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences offer DSc in various fields. In Germany, Austria, and the German-speaking region of Switzerland , the most common doctoral degrees in Natural Sciences are
12669-454: The right talent for the right post from different parts of India in science as in humanities and was able to attribute to the "University College of Science and Technology" as a true national character. No nation could live solely upon the achievements of its past or upon its borrowing from others, and at the same time hoped to retain its place among the great people of the Earth. Besides advancing
12792-526: The same person is monarch of each realm. At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became the European Union , and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth
12915-410: The same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it. The London Declaration is often seen as marking
13038-404: The scientists at the University College of Science and Technology sowed the seeds of many a promising project which were to bear fruits in the post-independence years. The University College of Science and Technology was indeed an oasis of scientific research in India since 1914. Sir C.V. Raman , A Palit Professor of Sc. College made this revolutionary discovery on the "Scattering of Light" which
13161-440: The status of Russian Doktor Nauk (literally 'Doctor of Sciences') is considered a higher scientific degree. The equivalent to PhD is "Candidat Nauk" In Argentina the formal title Doctor of Science would be attributed to different fields of the hard or soft sciences. To get into an Argentine PhD program the applicant must have experience in research and at least an Engineering, Licentiate or master's degree: In Brazil only
13284-764: The statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Although the Union of South Africa was not amongst the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — the Status of the Union Act, 1934 , and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by the Parliament of South Africa to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate
13407-535: The time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a "union" . When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis ". These ideas faded away with
13530-841: The university is “50:50”. The university has signed high number of MoU with different institutes across the globe. The university is currently linked with over 50 institutions of higher learning across the globe and the UK-India Education Research Initiative awarded £30,000 to CU's department of radio physics and the University of Sheffield for collaborative research on photonics and biomedical applications. The track record of Calcutta University science graduates at all-India competitive exams such as UGC-CSIR NET ( Centre for Science and Industrial Research National Eligibility Test) and Jest ( Joint Entrance Screening Test ) for admission to premier research institutes in India has also been commendable. And CU alumni are at
13653-557: The university received another fund of INR 50 Crore from RUSA 2.0 for project (INR 35 Crore) and Manpower & Entrepreneurship Development for project (INR 15 Crore) . Different department of the university have received many funds from India and abroad for conducting research, manpower development etc. The university has many collaborations with industrial bodies for conducting joint research. Based on research publication output in SCOPUS International Data for
13776-442: The zeal and enthusiasm with which William Jones and his choice band of thirty elite Englishmen in 1783-84 had begun their investigations into "the history and antiquities, arts, sciences and literature of Asia." Despite the fact that the University College of Science and Technology was a department of Calcutta University set up as a part of the colonial educational despatch of 1854. there had been no substantial financial support from
13899-474: Was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–1975), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–1990), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–1999), and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008). Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean , grant the right to vote to resident Commonwealth citizens. Some countries, including
14022-586: Was a Belgian trust territory that had been a district of German East Africa until World War I . In 2022, Togo , a former French mandate territory, and Gabon , a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule. Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup , with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for
14145-442: Was available to be used as a laboratory room, preparation room and as well as a practical room for biology and physiology classes, whereas a large number of B.A. students did not get the opportunity of having a regular course of practical training. In these circumstances, Calcutta University was pleasantly surprised to receive the princely gifts of Sir Taraknath Palit , an eminent barrister and advocate of national education during
14268-611: Was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat . Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission". CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish
14391-535: Was equivalent to this higher-level qualification. After reunification the Habilitation was reintroduced at universities in Eastern Germany. The procedure of habilitation is normally required to receive officially the "venia docendi", which entitles the candidate to lecture at universities ( Privatdozent , for men, or Privatdozentin , for women). The academic degree after the successful habilitation
14514-427: Was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime Minister Anthony Eden , considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone whilst also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth. The United Kingdom also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it would become a major economic common market. At
14637-601: Was hardly any provision for teaching of science courses with the exception of three colleges each in Civil Engineering and Medicine, all the 85 colleges in British India by 1882 were teaching courses in liberal arts leading to matriculation, F.A., B.A., Honours and M.A. Career in India was never virtually open to talents, through the principle had been asserted time and again in the Charter Act of 1883 and
14760-464: Was not a colonial science, as it was hardly supported by any large scale imperial funds and was solely meant for "The promotion and diffusion of scientific and technical education for the cultivation and advancement of science, both pure and applied among Indians". One reason why Calcutta University could not develop a research programme in science earlier than 1914 was partly because of a great handicap inherent in its constitution and partly because of
14883-475: Was originally known as " special membership ", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership 's recommendation. There are currently no members in arrears. The most recent member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011. Nauru had alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation. In 2019, the Commonwealth members had
15006-592: Was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace , liberty , human rights , equality , and free trade . These criteria were unenforceable for two decades, until, in 1991,
15129-529: Was the first and perhaps the last to establish a centre of academic studies at the university stage with distinct atmosphere of learning and scholarships and appointed some of the best men available in the country as University Professor or Lecturers. The establishment of the Calcutta University College of Science and Technology signals the beginning of outstanding research in some branches of science and applied science, which put India on
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