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84-487: Built of red sandstone and laterite , the temple is a prime example of a provincial seat of worship during the empire's golden age. It is small by the standards of the major monuments in Angkor , the empire's capital, but shares their basic design and religious symbolism. In its 11th century heyday during the reign of King Udayādityavarman II, the temple was tended by its Brahmin patrons and supported with food and labor by

168-480: A thin section using a method like the Gazzi-Dickinson Method . This yields the relative percentages of quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains and the amount of clay matrix. The composition of a sandstone can provide important information on the genesis of the sediments when used with a triangular Q uartz, F eldspar, L ithic fragment ( QFL diagrams ). However, geologist have not been able to agree on

252-622: A civil war among them, arising in their own country, there will be a terrible and ferocious war." The "Anushasanaparava" of the Mahabharata affirms that the country of Majjhimadesa was invaded the Yavanas and the Kambojas who were later utterly defeated. The Yona invasion of Majjhimadesa ("middle country, midlands") was jointly carried out by the Yonas and the Kambojas. Majjhimadesa here means

336-415: A king named Jayavīravarman (who significantly is not mentioned in the inscription). Elsewhere, the text provides myriad details of everyday existence in the empire—the establishment of new settlements, the recovery of slaves who had fled a pillaged settlement, payments given for land, such as gold, lower garments, goats and water buffaloes. The text describes the creation of Sdok Kok Thom itself. The family

420-811: A millennial ethnic epic"; therefore they altered the meaning of yuon that being misleading implied as savages, foreigners . The Sinhalese term Yonaka referring to the Sri Lankan Moors , is thought to have been derived from the term Yona. The word Yona, or one of its derivatives, is still used by some languages to designate contemporary Greece, such as in Arabic ( يونان ), in Hebrew ( יוון ‎), in Turkish (" Yunanistan "), in Armenian ( Հունաստան Hounistan ), modern Aramaic ( ܝܘ̈ܢܝܐ Yawnoye ), or

504-508: A new name and placed in charge of construction projects. His career appears to have closed out the family's role in the royal inner circle; the family is never heard from again in inscriptions. Scholars have paid special attention to the inscription's account of the cult of the devarāja , a key part of the Khmer court's religious ritual. “Hiraṇyadāma(n), the best of brahmins, with superior intelligence like Brahmā , came, moved with compassion. To

588-589: A part of his capital city of Anuradhapura for the Yonas. Another Yona thera, Mahādhammarakkhita , is mentioned as having come from Alexandria on the Caucasus in the country of the Yonas, to be present at the building of the Ruwanwelisaya . Another example is that of the Milinda Panha (Chapter I), where "Yonaka" is used to refer to the great Indo-Greek king Menander (160–135 BC), and to

672-478: A sandstone goes through as the degree of kinetic processing of the sediments increases. Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many such schemes used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system. The philosophy behind combining Gilbert's and R. L. Folk's schemes

756-462: A set of boundaries separating regions of the QFL triangle. Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics of a sandstone. For example, a QFL chart can be marked with a provenance model that shows the likely tectonic origin of sandstones with various compositions of framework grains. Likewise, the stage of textural maturity chart illustrates the different stages that

840-445: A twofold classification: Cement is what binds the siliciclastic framework grains together. Cement is a secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone. These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals, such as calcite. Sandstone that becomes depleted of its cement binder through weathering gradually becomes friable and unstable. This process can be somewhat reversed by

924-415: Is Jayavarman II , who historians generally consider, partly on the authority of this inscription, to have founded the Khmer empire in c. 800. The text includes the oft-cited detail that he came from a country named Java which meanwhile by most scholars, such as Charles Higham , was seen as a foreign people living in the east whose name is derived probably from Sanskrit yavana (wise), perhaps referring to

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1008-415: Is a baray , or holy reservoir, measuring roughly 200 by 370 meters. The inscription (classified K. 235) is a 340-line composition, in both Sanskrit and ancient Khmer, carved on a gray sandstone stele 1.51 meters high that stood in the northeast corner of the temple's court. Dating to 8 February 1053, it recounts two and a half centuries of service that members of the temple's founding family provided to

1092-837: Is a distinction that can be recognized in the field . In turn, the distinction between an orthoquartzite and a metaquartzite is the onset of recrystallization of existing grains. The dividing line may be placed at the point where strained quartz grains begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a mortar texture that can be identified in thin sections under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces foam texture , characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then porphyroblastic texture , characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains ( porphyroblasts .) Sandstone has been used since prehistoric times for construction, decorative art works and tools. It has been widely employed around

1176-550: Is composed of quartz or feldspar , because they are the most resistant minerals to the weathering processes at the Earth's surface. Like uncemented sand , sandstone may be imparted any color by impurities within the minerals, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Because sandstone beds can form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain colors of sandstone have become strongly identified with certain regions, such as

1260-613: Is described by other donors in other inscriptions as a "vaniya-gama" (A community of merchants). The Yavanas are also known for their donation of a complete cave at the Nasik Caves (cave No.17), and for their donations with inscriptions at the Junnar caves . The Yavanas or Yonas are frequently found listed with the Kambojas , Sakas , Pahlavas and other northwestern tribes in numerous ancient Indian texts. The Mahabharata groups

1344-545: Is general consensus among scholars that the words chiseled out at Sdok Kok Thom are perhaps the most important written explanation that the Khmer empire provided of itself. The inscription's author or authors are not named. Many scholars conclude firmly that Sadasiva wrote it, at least his lineage; Sak-Humphry believes the text was likely drafted in consultation with the Brahman, but was meant to represent declarations of his king, Udayādityavarman II. Hinduism began to die out in

1428-523: Is likely formed during eogenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. Compaction takes place as the sand comes under increasing pressure from overlying sediments. Sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as mica grains) are deformed, and pore space is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under

1512-431: Is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. Mechanical compaction takes place primarily at depths less than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft). Chemical compaction continues to depths of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft), and most cementation takes place at depths of 2,000–5,000 meters (6,600–16,400 ft). Unroofing of buried sandstone is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces

1596-465: Is sufficiently enigmatic that scholars cannot agree on the cult's function. The term means obviously "king of the gods," in the sense that one god, generally Śiva, was recognized as higher than others in the Hindu pantheon and through his authority brought order to heaven. Court religious ritual, as described repeatedly in the inscription, focused on maintaining a linga, or holy shaft, in which Śiva's essence

1680-443: Is that it is better able to "portray the continuous nature of textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain composition". Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains. In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition, Dott also breaks up

1764-893: The Global Heritage Stone Resource . In some regions of Argentina, the orthoquartzite-stoned facade is one of the main features of the Mar del Plata style bungalows. Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits , and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit , were used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for " Ionians " ( Ancient Greek : Ἴωνες < Ἰάoνες < *Ἰάϝoνες ), who were probably

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1848-572: The Greek successors of Alexander the Great and the Nanda rulers of Magadha , and thus establishing his Mauryan Empire in northern India. Manusmriti lists the Yavanas with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas, Paradas etc. and regards them as degraded Kshatriyas (Hindu caste). Anushasanaparva of Mahabharata also views the Yavanas, Kambojas, Shakas etc. in the same light. Patanjali's Mahabhashya regards

1932-798: The Khmer People's National Liberation Front . In 2002, with the Cambodian conflict long settled and the refugees gone, the Japan Alliance for Humanitarian Demining Support, the Thailand Mine Action Center and the General Chatichai Choonhavan Foundation began cooperating on a program to remove landmines and other unexploded ordnance from the area. Local villagers were recruited and trained for this work, which ended in 2004 after

2016-667: The Vietnamese army's invasion of Cambodia in 1978 and the overthrow of the Khmer Rouge government, the forested area around the temple became the site of a large camp of Cambodian refugees, known as Nong Samet Camp or Rithysen. The camp was controlled by anti- communist guerrillas known as Khmer Serei , who were opposed to the Vietnamese presence in Cambodia. The camp eventually became an important source of support for

2100-614: The "Chaturvarna" or four class social system was absent in the lands of Kiratas in the East, and the Yavanas and Kambojas etc. in the West. Numerous Puranic literature groups the Yavanas with the Sakas , Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to the peculiar hair styles of these people which were different from those of the Hindus . Ganapatha on Pāṇini attests that it was a practice among

2184-539: The 1980s that the Khmer Serei-controlled Nong Samet (or Rithysen) refugee camp by the temple was on the Cambodian side of the unmarked frontier. Many diplomats, however, viewed those statements, which local Thai villagers contested at the time, as a temporary expedience intended to allow Thailand to maintain that it was not involved in the Cambodian conflict and was not hosting armed Cambodian guerrillas on its soil. Today Thailand argues that

2268-475: The Bayon atop a real hill. The text also notes the relocation of the capital from Angkor to the site now known as Koh Ker under Jayavarman IV , and turmoil during the times of King Sūryavarman I . He is described as having dispatched soldiers against people who had desecrated shrines in the area of Sdok Kok Thom. Historians generally believe that Sūryavarman fought his way to power, eventually driving out of Angkor

2352-649: The Emperor Ashoka refers to the Greek populations under his rule. Rock Edicts V and XIII mention the Yonas (or the Greeks) along with the Kambojas and Gandharas as a subject people forming a frontier region of his empire and attest that he sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean, faultlessly naming them one by one. In the Gandhari original of Rock XIII , the Greek kings to

2436-598: The Great Chaitya of the Karla Caves built and dedicated by Western Satraps Nahapana in 120 CE, there are six inscriptions made by self-described Yavana donors, who donated six of the pillars, although their names are Buddhist names. They account for nearly half of the known dedicatory inscriptions on the pillars of the Chaitya. The city of Dhenukakata is thought to be Danahu near the city of Karli . It

2520-482: The Great 's invasion, the Greek settlements had existed in eastern parts of Achaemenid Empire , northwest of India, as neighbours to the Kambojas . The references to the Yonas in the early Buddhist texts may be related to the same. The Yavanas are mentioned by the grammarian Pāṇini , probably in reference to their writing. Some of the better-known examples are those of the Edicts of Ashoka (c. 250 BCE), in which

2604-784: The Greek kingdoms which neighboured or sometimes occupied the Punjab over a period of several centuries from the 4th century BCE to the first century CE, such as the Seleucid Empire , the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the Indo-Greek kingdom . The Yavanar are mentioned in detail in Sangam literature epics such as Paṭṭiṉappālai , describing their brisk trade with the Early Cholas in the Sangam period . After Alexander

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2688-707: The Greeks include: In general, the words "Yoṇa" or "Yoṇaka" were the current Greek Hellenistic forms, while the term "Yavana" was the Indian word to designate the Greeks or the Indo-Greeks . This usage was shared by many of the countries east of Greece, from the Mediterranean to Sindh : The usage of "Yona" and "Yavana, or variants such as "Yauna" and "Javana", appears repeatedly, and particularly in relation to

2772-586: The Khmer Empire starting in the 12th Century, giving way first to Mahayana Buddhism , then to the Theravada form of the faith that today predominates in Thailand and Cambodia. At an unknown time, Sdok Kok Thom became a place of Buddhist worship. The inscription's existence was reported to the outside world in 1884 by Étienne Aymonier . In later writing, Aymonier gave a detailed physical description of

2856-499: The Khmer court, mainly as chief chaplains to kings. In laying out this long role, the text provides a remarkable and often poetically worded look at the faith, royal lineage, history and social structure of the times. The Sanskrit text opens: "Homage to Śiva whose essence is highly proclaimed without words by the subtle Śiva, His form, who pervades (everything) from within and who activates the senses of living beings." The inscription provides an account of twelve Khmer kings who ruled over

2940-698: The Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (i.e. Hindukush ). The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina works Parishishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta 's alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc. which he may have utilised to aid defeat

3024-589: The Viets as Yuen (yvan). Both terminologies in Cham materials were written in Cham script and Old Cam , the first dated 1142 during the reign of Harivarman I , showing little linguistic evidence to prove that Cham Yuen and Indian Yavana are connected. Similarly for Kiernan's argument to Khmer Yuon , the Cham reference for the Viet should have been derived from "Yue" or "Viet". The Khmer word "Yuon" (yuôn) យួន /yuən/

3108-413: The West are associated unambiguously with the term "Yona": Antiochus is referred as "Amtiyoko nama Yonaraja" (lit. " The Greek king by the name of Antiochus "), beyond whom live the four other kings: "param ca tena Atiyokena cature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama Maka nama Alikasudaro nama" (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the name of Ptolemy , the name of Antigonos , the name of Magas ,

3192-524: The Yavanas and Sakas as Anirvasita (pure) Shudras . Gautama-Dharmasutra regards the Yavanas or Greeks as having sprung from Shudra females and Kshatriya males. The Assalayana Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya attests that in Yona and Kamboja nations, there were only two classes of people... Aryas and Dasas ...the masters and slaves, and that the Arya could become Dasa and vice versa. The Vishnu Purana also indicates that

3276-585: The Yavanas and the Kambojas to wear short-cropped hair ( Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah ). Vartika of Katayayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names. Brihatkathamanjari of Kshmendra informs us that king Vikramaditya had unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas etc. by annihilating these sinners completely. The Brahmanda Purana refers to

3360-659: The Yavanas with the Kambojas and the Chinas and calls them "Mlechchas" (Barbarians). In the Shanti Parva section, the Yavanas are grouped with the Kambojas, Kiratas , Sakas , and the Pahlavas etc. and are spoken of as living the life of Dasyus (dacoits). In another chapter of the same Parva, the Yaunas, Kambojas, Gandharas etc. are spoken of as equal to the "Svapakas" and the "Grddhras". Udyogaparva of Mahabharata says that

3444-659: The Yavanas, wicked and valiant, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard", Pataliputra). The thick mud-fortifications at Pataliputra being reached, all the provinces will be in disorder, without doubt. Ultimately, a great battle will follow, with tree-like engines (siege engines)." "The Yavanas will command, the Kings will disappear. (But ultimately) the Yavanas, intoxicated with fighting, will not stay in Madhadesa (the Middle Country); there will be undoubtedly

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3528-522: The Yonas with the Kambojas ( Yonakambojesu ) and conveys that brahmans and śramaṇas are found everywhere in his empire except in the lands of the Yonas and the Kambojas. The Mahavamsa or "Great Chronicle" of Sri Lanka refers to the thera Mahārakkhita being sent to preach to the Yona country, and also to the Yona thera Dhammarakkhita , who was sent to Aparanta ("the Western Ends"). It also mentions that Pandukabhaya of Anuradhapura set aside

3612-570: The Yonas, Kambojas , Sakas and Pahlavas . There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, the Pahlavas and others in the Bala Kanda of Valmiki 's Ramayana . Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury, Dr B. C. Law, Dr Satya Shrava and others see in these verses the clear glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of

3696-491: The application of tetraethyl orthosilicate (Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 4 ) which will deposit amorphous silicon dioxide between the sand grains. The reaction is as follows. Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil. The pore space in a rock has a direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the way the sand grains are packed together. Sandstones are typically classified by point-counting

3780-405: The arrival of Islam to the subcontinent, the term Yavana was used along with Turuka, Turuska, Tajik, and Arab more than Mussalaman or Muslim for invaders professing Islam as their religion. The Chams of Champa are thought referring Đại Việt as "Yavana". However this statement is largely vague. Cham sources refer Dai Viet as nagara Yuen ( Cham : nagara yvan, lit. "Viet state"), and

3864-578: The barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc. from north-west. The time frame for these struggles is 2nd century BCE downwards. The other Indian records prophecies the 180 BCE Yona attacks on Saket , Panchala , Mathura and Pataliputra , probably against the Shunga Empire, and possibly in defence of Buddhism: "After having conquered Saketa, the country of the Panchala and the Mathuras,

3948-492: The blood of the shattered enemy kings and spread on all sides its rising lustre, as if it were a red lotus come out of its chalice [or, applied to the sword: drawn out of its scabbard], which he had delightedly seized from the Fortune of war by holding her by the hair(or better, correcting lakṣmyāḥ in to lakṣmyā : which the Fortune of war, after he had seized her hair, had delightedly offered him).” The earliest king mentioned

4032-473: The common minerals most resistant to weathering processes at the Earth's surface, as seen in the Goldich dissolution series . Framework grains can be classified into several different categories based on their mineral composition: Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between the framework grains. The nature of the matrix within the interstitial pore space results in

4116-522: The composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina . The epic numerously applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful. Balakanda of Ramayana also groups the Yavanas with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas etc. and refers to them as the military allies of sage Vishistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra The Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana locates

4200-415: The course of the two and a half centuries. It recounts monarchs' spiritual and martial virtues and basic events of their reigns. “As a teacher zealously impels his disciples or a father his children, so did he, for the sake of his duty, zealously impel his subjects, rightfully securing them protection and nourishment,” says the inscription of Udayādityavarman II. “In battle he held a sword which became red with

4284-467: The court's eastern side is a gopura , or gate, reflecting the temple's orientation to the east. In various places in the temple, there is extensive carving on stone, including floral decoration, Nāga serpents and a figure that appears to be the reclining Hindu god Viṣṇu . A moat, likely representing the Hindu Sea of Creation, lies beyond each of the courtyard's four sides. An avenue leads east from

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4368-456: The depositional environment, older sand is buried by younger sediments, and it undergoes diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the sand. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in the sands, with only slight compaction. The red hematite that gives red bed sandstones their color

4452-407: The depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the sandstone, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Framework grains are sand-sized (0.0625-to-2-millimeter (0.00246 to 0.07874 in) diameter) detrital fragments that make up the bulk of a sandstone. Most framework grains are composed of quartz or feldspar , which are

4536-446: The different types of framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains. When sandstone is subjected to the great heat and pressure associated with regional metamorphism , the individual quartz grains recrystallize, along with the former cementing material, to form the metamorphic rock called quartzite . Most or all of the original texture and sedimentary structures of

4620-452: The double flute called aulos . Also visible are carnyx -like horns . They are all celebrating at the entrance of the stupa. These men would be foreigners from north-west India visiting the stupa , possibly Mallas , Indo-Scythians or Indo-Greeks. Three inscriptions are known from Yavana donors at Sanchi, the clearest of which reads " Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam " ("Gift of the Yona of Setapatha"), Setapatha being an uncertain city. In

4704-414: The earthly elite. For that reason, their value as factual records is often thrown into question. But many parts of this one are confirmed by other texts, and some of the places it describes have been reliably located. Moreover, many of its numbers and descriptions, particularly concerning land and its ownership, read as if they have the full accuracy and authority of modern courthouse documents. Overall, there

4788-641: The first Greeks to be known in India. Both terms appear in ancient Sanskrit literature. Yavana appears, for instance, in the Mahabharata , while Yona appears in texts such as the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa . The Yona are mentioned in the Ashoka inscriptions, along with the Kambojas , as two societies where there are only nobles and slaves. Examples of direct association of these terms with

4872-414: The gopura. A laterite wall standing approximately 2.5 meters high and measuring 126 meters from east to west and 120 meters south to north provides additional enclosure to the entire complex. The midpoint of the eastern side of this wall has an elaborate gopura, standing on a laterite base. About 200 meters to the east of this gopura, along a laterite-paved avenue with free-standing stone posts on either side,

4956-433: The greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points

5040-454: The guard of "five hundred Greeks" that constantly accompanies him. The Vanaparava of Mahabharata contains prophecies that " Mleccha kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc. shall rule the earth un-righteously in Kaliyuga ...". This reference apparently alludes to chaotic political scenario following the collapse of the Maurya and Shunga Empires in northern India and its subsequent occupation by foreign hordes such as of

5124-442: The hardness of individual grains, uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to make grindstones , for sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone . A type of pure quartz sandstone, orthoquartzite, with more of 90–95 percent of quartz, has been proposed for nomination to

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5208-405: The horses born in Yavana country. The Mahaniddesa speaks of Yona and Parama Yona, probably referring to Arachosia as the Yona and Bactria as the Parama Yona. The terms "Yona", "Yonaka" or "Yavana" literally referred to the Greeks , however "mlechas" was also used probably due to their barbaric behaviour as invaders. Indian languages did not base a distinction on religion early on but after

5292-414: The king Jayavarman II he carefully revealed a magic which had not been obtained by other people,” the text reads. The king was instructed in four holy treatises. “After carefully extracting the quintessence of the treatises by his experience and understanding of the mysteries, this brahmin contrived the magic rites bearing the name of Devarāja, for increasing the prosperity of the world.” But the description

5376-498: The kingdom of Champa . The Khmer portion of the text goes on to say: “A Brahman named Hiraṇyadāman, skilled in magic and science," was invited by the king "to perform a ceremony that would make it impossible for this country of the Kambuja to pay any allegiance to Java and that there should be, in this country, one sole sovereign.” The inscription documents nine generations of the temple's priestly family, starting with Śivakaivalya, Jayavarman II's chaplain. The advisors are praised in

5460-476: The language of the Yavanas with the Milakkhabhasa i.e. impure language . Roman traders in Tamilakkam were also considered Yavanas. Some of the friezes of Sanchi also show devotees in Greek attire. The men are depicted with short curly hair, often held together with a headband of the type commonly seen on ancient Greek coinage . The clothing too is Greek, complete with tunics , capes and sandals. The musical instruments are also quite characteristic, such as

5544-502: The middle of Greater India which then included Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of Central Asia. On the 110 BCE Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha in Central India, the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas , who had sent an ambassador to the court of the Shunga emperor Bhagabhadra, was also qualified as "Yona". The Mahavamsa also attests Yona settlement in Anuradhapura in ancient Sri Lanka , probably contributing to trade between East and West. Buddhist texts like Sumangala Vilasini class

5628-493: The much lower temperatures and pressures associated with diagenesis of sedimentary rock, but diagenesis has cemented the rock so thoroughly that microscopic examination is necessary to distinguish it from metamorphic quartzite. The term orthoquartzite is used to distinguish such sedimentary rock from metaquartzite produced by metamorphism. By extension, the term orthoquartzite has occasionally been more generally applied to any quartz-cemented quartz arenite . Orthoquartzite (in

5712-454: The name Alexander "). Other Buddhist texts such as the Dipavamsa and the 1861 Sasana Vamsa reveal that after the Third Buddhist council , the elder monk ( thero ) Maharakkhita was sent to the "Yona country" and he preached Buddhism among the Yonas and the Kambojas, and that at the same time the Yona elder monk ( thero ) Dharmaraksita was sent to the country of Aparantaka in Western India also. Ashoka's Rock Edict XIII also pairs

5796-464: The narrow sense) is often 99% SiO 2 with only very minor amounts of iron oxide and trace resistant minerals such as zircon , rutile and magnetite . Although few fossils are normally present, the original texture and sedimentary structures are preserved. The typical distinction between a true orthoquartzite and an ordinary quartz sandstone is that an orthoquartzite is so highly cemented that it will fracture across grains, not around them. This

5880-407: The people of surrounding rice-farming villages. Scholars disagree as to the meaning of the name, which refers in Old Khmer to the temple's setting. Translations include 'great reed lake', 'large reservoir with herons', and 'abundant reeds in a large swamp'. The architectural design of this temple is linked with the great Srijanasa Thailand empire which ruled for about 700 years. At the center of

5964-456: The precise location of their common border, culminating in a World Court case that in 1962 awarded Preah Vihear , another border-region temple of the Angkorian age, to Cambodia. In January 2003, the Thai government disclosed a new development concerning the border issue, a letter from the Cambodian government stating that it considers Sdok Kok Thom to be in Cambodian territory. Some Cambodians have pointed to statements by various Thai officials in

6048-638: The product of physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Weathering and erosion are most rapid in areas of high relief, such as volcanic arcs , areas of continental rifting , and orogenic belts . Eroded sand is transported by rivers or by the wind from its source areas to depositional environments where tectonics has created accommodation space for sediments to accumulate. Forearc basins tend to accumulate sand rich in lithic grains and plagioclase . Intracontinental basins and grabens along continental margins are also common environments for deposition of sand. As sediments continue to accumulate in

6132-712: The red rock deserts of Arches National Park and other areas of the American Southwest . Rock formations composed of sandstone usually allow the percolation of water and other fluids and are porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers and petroleum reservoirs . Quartz-bearing sandstone can be changed into quartzite through metamorphism , usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts . Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to either organic , like chalk and coal , or chemical , like gypsum and jasper ). The silicate sand grains from which they form are

6216-758: The removal of 76 mines and other pieces of ordnance. Over the years, the temple had fallen into a grave state of disrepair, due to the passage of time and plundering by art thieves . In the 1990s, the Thai government's Fine Arts Department began an extensive restoration of the temple (see photos at and ). Workers have cleared brush and trees and excavated soil on the temple grounds down to its original level. Fallen stones have been cataloged and returned to what experts believe to be their original positions; masons have fashioned replacements for missing or severely damaged stones. Moats have been dug out and refilled with water. In modern times, Thailand and Cambodia have often disputed

6300-400: The same adulatory tone as is employed for the kings. The text gives a detailed account of how the family systematically expanded its holdings of land and other property over the course of its long relationship with the royal household. The final chaplain named in the text, Sadasiva, is recorded as leaving the holy orders and marrying a sister of the primary queen of Suryavarman. The man was given

6384-417: The sandstone are erased by the metamorphism. The grains are so tightly interlocked that when the rock is broken, it fractures through the grains to form an irregular or conchoidal fracture. Geologists had recognized by 1941 that some rocks show the macroscopic characteristics of quartzite, even though they have not undergone metamorphism at high pressure and temperature. These rocks have been subject only to

6468-485: The temple is a sandstone tower, which served as the main sanctuary, probably sheltering a linga , symbol of Shiva. The tower's door is on the east, approached by steps; the other three sides have false doors. A few meters to the northeast and southeast are two sandstone structures known as libraries, with large side windows and laterite bases. Enclosing the tower and libraries is a rectangular courtyard measuring roughly 42 by 36 meters and having galleries on all four sides. On

6552-491: The temple is unmistakably on its territory. The Thai government has built a number of roads in its vicinity. Thai authorities have continued to administer the temple site and spend large amounts of money on its restoration. Sandstone Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate grains, cemented together by another mineral. Sandstones comprise about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks . Most sandstone

6636-463: The temple. In the 1920s, the inscription stele was moved to the Thai capital Bangkok , where it entered the collection of the national museum . On the night of November 9, 1960, it was severely damaged when a fire swept through the museum, but museum staff were later able to reconstitute much of it. In any case, rubbings had been made of the text prior to the fire, so the words were not lost. Following

6720-626: The world in constructing temples, churches, homes and other buildings, and in civil engineering . Although its resistance to weathering varies, sandstone is easy to work. That makes it a common building and paving material, including in asphalt concrete . However, some types that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst sandstone used in North West England , have had poor long-term weather resistance, necessitating repair and replacement in older buildings. Because of

6804-475: Was believed to reside. The inscription is also key to understanding important events in Khmer history, such as the late 9th Century relocation of the capital from the area around the present-day village of Roluos. “Again, the skillful Vāmaśiva was the preceptor of Śrī Yaśovardhana, bearing as king the name Śrī Yaśovarman ,” the Sanskrit text states. “Invited by the king, he erected a liṅga Mount Yaśodhara, which

6888-445: Was gifted the land by Udayādityavarman II, it says. The final member of the line, now in his role as construction chief, "erected a stone temple with valabhi [spire], dug a reservoir, built dikes and laid out fields and gardens." The precise boundaries of its land and the size, duty schedules and male-female breakdown of local work teams that maintained the temple are listed. Khmer inscriptions were created in part to glorify heaven and

6972-402: Was like the king of mountains ( Meru ) in beauty.” French scholars initially believed that Śrī Yaśodharagiri was the mountain-like Bayon temple. But it is now established that the Bayon was built almost three centuries later than the event described in the inscription and that the linga was in fact placed in the newly constructed Phnom Bakheng temple, which stands about two kilometers south of

7056-455: Was thought to be an ethnic slur for Vietnamese , derived from the Indian word for Greek, "Yavana", however, it is actually the transcription of the word "Viet" or "Yueh" rather than "Yavana", because the Khmer word Yuon spelled with the diphthong uo, not v in "Yavana". According to Kiernan, "the Pol Pot regime , following French orientalists, mythologized its conflict with Hanoi as part of

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