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123-538: Senegambia , officially the Senegambia Confederation or Confederation of Senegambia , was a loose confederation in the late 20th century between the West African countries of Senegal and its neighbour The Gambia , which is almost completely surrounded by Senegal. The confederation was founded on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the two countries signed on 12 December 1981. It

246-699: A culinary nut , are often served in similar ways in Western cuisines . World production of shelled peanuts in 2020 was 54 million tonnes , led by China with 34% of the total. The peanut is an annual herbaceous plant growing 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in) tall. As a legume, it belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae , also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the legume, bean, or pea family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules . The leaves are opposite and pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet); each leaflet

369-441: A federal state , the central authority is relatively weak. Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect; they are not laws acting directly upon the individual but have more the character of interstate agreements. Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity), not by

492-524: A single economic market , a common customs territory , (mainly) open internal borders , and a common currency among most member-states. However, unlike a federation, the EU does not have exclusive powers over foreign affairs, defence, taxation, along with the immigration and transit of non-EU nationals. Furthermore, most EU laws , which have been developed by consensus between relevant national government ministers and then scrutinised and approved or rejected by

615-409: A "kind of confederation" by, for example, Belgian Minister of State Mark Eyskens. Canada is an unusually decentralized federal state , not a confederate association of sovereign states, the usual meaning of confederation in modern terms. In Canada , the word confederation has an additional unrelated meaning. " Confederation " refers to the process of (or the event of) establishing or joining

738-571: A "peg". This peg grows into the soil, allowing the fruit to develop underground. These pods, technically called legumes, are 3 to 7 centimetres (1 to 3 in) long, normally containing one to four seeds . The shell of the peanut fruit consists primarily of a mesocarp with several large veins traversing its length. Parts of the peanut include: Peanuts contain polyphenols , polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats , phytosterols and dietary fiber in amounts similar to several tree nuts. Peanut skins contain resveratrol . The Arachis genus

861-695: A British expeditionary force to capture French trading posts in Senegal; after the expedition was successful, the region under British occupation was transformed into the crown colony of Senegambia. The unified region collapsed in 1779. With the British occupied by the American War of Independence in North America, the French recaptured Saint Louis and destroyed the largest British trading post in

984-643: A Europe dominated by monarchies and free trade), and it ensured peace between the different cultural entities of the area. After the Sonderbund War of 1847 , when some of the Catholic cantons of Switzerland attempted to set up a separate union ( Sonderbund in German) against the Protestant majority, a vote was held and the majority of the cantons approved the new Federal Constitution which changed

1107-425: A confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession . The political philosopher Emmerich de Vattel said: "Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each, in particular, ceasing to be a perfect state.... The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member". Under a confederation, compared to

1230-595: A different pod structure and larger seeds. From this primary center of origin , cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in Peru, Ecuador , Brazil, Paraguay , and Uruguay . Over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved; these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies (as listed in the peanut scientific classification table). Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their growth habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on

1353-453: A federation but be confederal (or the reverse), and may not show any qualities that 21st-century political scientists might classify as those of a confederation. Some have more the characteristics of a personal union , but appear here because of their self-styling as a "confederation": Peanut The peanut ( Arachis hypogaea ), also known as the groundnut , goober (US), goober pea , pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK),

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1476-621: A fungus, Alternaria arachidis . Some people (1.4–2% in Europe and the United States ) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms can be especially severe, ranging from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock , the latter of which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanuts can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, avoiding peanuts can be difficult. Reading ingredients and warnings on product packaging

1599-502: A group of sympathizers in the other, bringing danger to the democratic regimes of both countries. This fear was realized during the 1981 coup attempt to oust President Dawda Jawara of the Gambia. Though the coup attempt was not well organized and quickly fell apart, it resulted in a prolonged period of instability and violence in the Gambia, as the rebels released many criminals from prisons and armed them in hopes that they would support

1722-574: A lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies. Studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel showed that delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut allergies. Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but

1845-542: A large black market around the Senegal–Gambia border, which brought cheaper manufactured goods into Senegal. The black market also attracted an export drain into the Gambia. The Senegalese government began to institute a delayed payment system with its groundnut ( peanut ) farms. When farmers sold their harvest to the Senegalese government, they would get a voucher, known as a chit, which they could turn into cash after

1968-418: A little less than a third of their original moisture level over three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand. After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed , removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush. Peanuts must be dried properly and stored in dry conditions. If they are too high in moisture, or if storage conditions are poor, they may become infected by

2091-595: A marginal role in nationwide general elections. The system in Belgium is known as consociationalism . That makes Belgium fundamentally different from federal countries like Switzerland , Canada , Germany and Australia . National parties receive over 90% of voter support in those countries. The only geographical areas comparable with Belgium within Europe are Catalonia , the Basque Country (both part of Spain ), Northern Ireland and Scotland (both part of

2214-621: A modern country that traditionally refers to itself as a confederation because the official (and traditional) name of Switzerland in German ( the majority language of the Swiss ) is Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (literally "Swiss Comradeship by Oath"), an expression which was translated into the Latin Confoederatio Helvetica (Helvetic Confederation). It had been a confederacy since its inception in 1291 as

2337-457: A randomized, double-blind crossover study , 60 people with proven peanut allergy were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors concluded, "Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided." They also stated, "Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with peanut allergy." However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose

2460-559: A region in the central Andean highlands in present-day Colombia. The Hoa ruled the northern section of the confederation, while the Zipa ruled the southern portion. The Andean civilizations consisted of loose confederations, such as the Aymara kingdoms and the Diaguita , with the former being composed of distinct diarchies. In 2003, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was transformed into

2583-492: A republican form (confederated republics) are usually called states (like states of the American Confederacy , 1861–1865) or republics (like republics of Serbia and Montenegro within the former State Union of Serbia and Montenegro , 2003–2006). Those that have a monarchical form of government (confederated monarchies) are defined by various hierarchical ranks (like kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan within

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2706-504: A risk to peanut-allergic individuals if the oil that has previously been used for cooking foods containing peanuts is reused. Raw Valencia peanuts are 4% water, 48% fat , 25% protein , and 21% carbohydrates , including 9% dietary fiber (USDA nutrient data). Peanuts are rich in essential nutrients . In a reference amount of 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce), peanuts provide 2,385 kilojoules (570 kilocalories) of food energy , and are an excellent source (defined as more than 20% of

2829-483: A spread of 70 to 80 cm (28 to 31 in), with 80 to 90 cm (31 to 35 in) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) of the base of the plant. Cultivars of Virginia-type peanuts include 'NC 7', 'NC 9', 'NC 10C', 'NC-V 11', 'VA 93B', 'NC 12C', 'VA-C 92R', 'Gregory', 'VA 98R', 'Perry', 'Wilson, 'Hull', 'AT VC-2' and 'Shulamit'. Valencia group peanuts are coarse and have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. In

2952-483: A subsequent federal law, set forth negotiating conditions for a Canadian province (though not a territory ) to leave the Canadian federal state (addressed also by a related Quebec law ). Importantly, negotiation would first need triggering by referendum and executing by constitutional amendment using a current amending mechanism of Canada's constitution—meaning that, while not legal under the current constitution, it

3075-465: A three-month waiting period. Not wanting to wait for the Senegalese marketing system to pay them, more farmers began to smuggle their goods to Banjul , where the Gambian government paid in cash. An even greater issue for both countries was the ease with which violence could spread through the region. With shared ethnic communities on both sides of the border, a successful coup in one country could lead to

3198-570: A treaty or of a treaty amendment is required. Such a form may thus be described as a semi-intergovernmental confederation. However, some academic observers more usually discuss the EU in the terms of it being a federation. As the international law professor Joseph H. H. Weiler (of the Hague Academy and New York University ) wrote, "Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism". Jean-Michel Josselin and Alain Marciano see

3321-519: A weak common president , ministerial council and parliament . The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of its short existence, and they continued to operate under separate economic policies and to use separate currencies (the euro was and still is the only legal tender in Montenegro, and the dinar was and still is the legal tender in Serbia). On 21 May 2006,

3444-445: Is 1 to 7 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 2 + 3 ⁄ 4  in) long and 1 to 3 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 + 1 ⁄ 4  in) across. Like those of many other legumes, the leaves are nyctinastic ; that is, they have "sleep" movements, closing at night. The flowers are 1 to 1.5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 5 ⁄ 8  in) across, and yellowish orange with reddish veining. They are borne in axillary clusters on

3567-436: Is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds . It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large commercial producers, both as grain legume and as an oil crop. Atypically among legumes, peanut pods develop underground leading botanist Carl Linnaeus to name peanuts hypogaea , which means "under the earth". The peanut belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), commonly known as

3690-454: Is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers . Many companies have added twists on traditionally plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties, such as chocolate, birthday cake, and cinnamon raisin. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably

3813-402: Is a term to describe farm-fresh harvested peanuts that have not been dehydrated. They are available from grocery stores, food distributors, and farmers markets during the growing season. Raw peanuts are also uncooked but have been dried/dehydrated and must be rehydrated before boiling (usually in a bowl full of water overnight). Once rehydrated, the raw peanuts are ready to be boiled. Peanut oil

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3936-559: Is democratically feasible without resorting to extralegal means or international involvement. Its unique nature and the political sensitivities surrounding it cause there to be no common or legal classification for the European Union (EU). However, it bears some resemblance to both a confederation (or a "new" type of confederation) and a federation. The term supranational union has also been applied. The EU operates common economic policies with hundreds of common laws, which enable

4059-427: Is evident, are more likely to be contaminated. The USDA tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin; any containing aflatoxin levels of more than 15 parts per billion are destroyed. The peanut industry has manufacturing steps to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin. Peanuts tested to have high aflatoxin are used to make peanut oil where the mold can be removed. The plant leaves can also be affected by

4182-499: Is native to South America , east of the Andes , around Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Brazil . Cultivated peanuts ( A. hypogaea ) arose from a hybrid between two wild species of peanut, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis . The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, forming what is termed an amphidiploid or allotetraploid . Genetic analysis suggests

4305-439: Is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods processed in facilities that also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross-contamination with peanuts and peanut products (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice of which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware. The hygiene hypothesis of allergy states that

4428-488: Is now the largest producer in the world. Peanuts were introduced to the US during the colonial period and grown as a garden crop. According to Bernard Romans , groundnuts were introduced into colonial East Florida by Black people from Guinea , where the plant is also endemic. Starting in 1870 they were used as an animal feedstock until human consumption grew in the 1930s. George Washington Carver (1864-1943) championed

4551-430: Is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point . Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered more healthful than saturated oils and is resistant to rancidity . The several types of peanut oil include aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. Refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws in

4674-526: The Belarusian government . The confederation was created with the objective of co-ordinating common action on economic integration and foreign affairs. However, many of the treaty's provisions have not yet been implemented. Consequently, The Times , in 2020, described it as "a mostly unimplemented confederation". On July 6, 2024, at the end of the first summit of the Alliance of Sahel States (AES),

4797-520: The Casamance region's population, as the latter had economically benefited from the union. This caused tensions which helped militant separatists, most importantly the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MDFC), to grow in strength and thus partially contributed to the outbreak of the armed Casamance conflict . After Jammeh took power in 1994, the Gambia began to provide substantial support to

4920-487: The Daily Value , DV) of several B vitamins , vitamin E , several dietary minerals , such as manganese (95% DV), magnesium (52% DV) and phosphorus (48% DV), and dietary fiber . The fats are mainly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated (83% of total fats when combined). Some studies show that regular consumption of peanuts is associated with a lower specific risk of mortality from certain diseases. However,

5043-718: The EPP , the S&;D Group and Renew Europe , support a federal model for the European Union. The ECR Group argues for a reformed European Union along confederal lines. The Brothers of Italy party, led by Giorgia Meloni , campaigns for a confederal Europe. On her election as President of the ECR Party in September 2020 Meloni said, "Let us continue to fight together for a confederate Europe of free and sovereign states". In

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5166-661: The European Court of Justice in Luxembourg City as being a primary force behind the building of a federal legal order for the EU, with Josselin stating that a "complete shift from a confederation to a federation would have required to straight-forwardly replace the principality of the member states vis-à-vis the Union by that of the European citizens. As a consequence, both confederate and federate features coexist in

5289-558: The European Parliament , must be transposed into national law by national parliaments. Most collective decisions by member states are taken by weighted majorities and blocking minorities typical of upper houses in federations. On the other hand, the absolute unanimity typical of intergovernmentalism is required only in respect to the Common Foreign and Security Policy , as well as in situations when ratification of

5412-633: The Flemish (Belgians who speak Dutch or Dutch dialects) and the Walloons (Belgians who speak French or French dialects). For example, in the last several decades, over 95% of Belgians have voted for political parties that represent voters from only one community, the separatist N-VA being the party with the most voter support among the Flemish population. Parties that strongly advocate Belgian unity and appeal to voters of both communities usually play only

5535-650: The Hashemite Arab Union in 1958). Many scholars have claimed that the Kingdom of Belgium , a country with a complicated federal structure has adopted some characteristics of a confederation under the pressure of separatist movements, especially in Flanders . For example, C. E. Lagasse declared that Belgium was "near the political system of a Confederation" regarding the constitutional reform agreements between Belgian Regions and between Communities , and

5658-537: The Montenegrin independence referendum was held. The final official results indicated on 31 May that 55.5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The confederation effectively came to an end after Montenegro's formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006 and Serbia's formal declaration of independence on 5 June. Switzerland , officially known as the Swiss Confederation , is an example of

5781-559: The Old Swiss Confederacy , which was originally created as an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps , until it became a federation in 1848 but it retains the name of Confederacy for reasons of historical tradition. The confederacy facilitated management of common interests (such as freedom from external domination especially from the Habsburg Empire , the development of republican institutions in

5904-648: The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro , a confederation of the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia . The state was constituted as a loose political union , but formally functioned as a sovereign subject of international law, and member of the United Nations . As a confederation, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro had very few shared functions, such as defense, foreign affairs and

6027-551: The United Kingdom ) and parts of Italy , where a massive voter turnout for regional (and often separatist) political parties has become the rule in the last decades, and nationwide parties advocating national unity draw around half or sometimes less of the votes. The Benelux is a politico-economic union of the states of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg bound through treaties and based on consensus between

6150-494: The Wabanaki Confederacy , Western Confederacy , Tsenacommacah , Seven Nations of Canada , Pontiac's Confederacy , Pennacook Confederacy , Illinois Confederation , Tecumseh's Confederacy , Muscogee Confederacy , Great Sioux Nation , Blackfoot Confederacy , Warm Springs Confederacy , Manahoac Confederacy , Iron Confederacy and Council of Three Fires . The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, historically known as

6273-654: The West African Monetary Union could be transferred to the Senegambia Confederation, so that both Senegal and the Gambia were automatically members. The Gambians rejected this, instead demanding that their country join the West African Monetary Union as an independent member. As a result of these differences, the monetary and customs union were never achieved. Around 1987, President Abdou Diouf greatly upset

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6396-434: The mold fungus Aspergillus flavus . Many strains of this fungus release toxic and highly carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins . If peanut plants are subjected to severe drought during pod formation, or if pods are not properly stored, they may become contaminated with the mold Aspergillus flavus which may produce carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins . Lower-quality peanuts, particularly where mold

6519-466: The study designs do not allow cause and effect to be inferred. According to the US Food and Drug Administration , "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts (such as peanuts) as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease." Dry-roasting peanuts is a common form of preparation. Dry peanuts can be roasted in

6642-425: The "lock and key" border situation has posed unique problems for international relations, especially in trade and control of regions surrounding the Senegal–Gambia border. Since the end of colonization, the Senegalese government had maintained trade barriers that provided preferential treatment for French goods imported into the country, while the Gambia had virtually no trade barriers. The opposing trade policies fueled

6765-517: The 2010s, thanks to timber illegally harvested in and smuggled from Casamance. Though Senegal and the Gambia maintained their own national governments, a confederate cabinet was also formed. Per the 1981 agreement, a Senegalese would always serve as the President and a Gambian as the vice-president of Senegambia. Both countries agreed to coordinate their defense and foreign policies. A confederal parliament and permanent secretariat were also organized;

6888-602: The Atlantic triangular trade , with merchants from Europe bringing manufactured goods to trade for gold , ivory and slaves . During various periods of conflict between the British and the French in the 18th century, the trading posts of both nations in Senegambia quickly became military targets. During the Seven Years' War , American merchant Thomas Cumming convinced Southern Secretary William Pitt to dispatch

7011-609: The Canadian federal state. In modern terminology, Canada is a federation, not a confederation. However, to contemporaries of the Constitution Act, 1867 , confederation did not have the same connotation of a weakly-centralized federation. Canadian Confederation generally refers to the Constitution Act, 1867 , which formed the Dominion of Canada from three of the colonies of British North America , and to

7134-480: The Confederal Army was organized from 1983/84 as integrated force of the confederation. It was composed of two-thirds Senegalese and one-third Gambian soldiers, and supposed to deploy anywhere within the confederation. In the Gambia, the Confederal Army quickly assumed a position of prestige. As living costs were much higher in Senegal than the Gambia, the pay grade in the Senegalese military was higher than in

7257-497: The Confederal Army which consisted of two-thirds Senegalese and one-third Gambian soldiers. As the Gambian government was reluctant to heavily invest in its military to match Senegal's security spending, the Confederal Army remained Senegalese-dominated and Gambians junior partners. Key positions in the Gambia such as the airport, harbor, and even the protection of Jawara himself thus remained the responsibility of Senegalese soldiers. Ironically, this caused opposition parties to claim that

7380-485: The EU as a federal system". Thomas Risse and Tanja A. Börzel claim that the "EU only lacks two significant features of a federation. First, the Member States remain the "masters" of the treaties, i.e., they have the exclusive power to amend or change the constitutive treaties of the EU. Second, the EU lacks a real "tax and spend" capacity, in other words, there is no fiscal federalism". Valéry Giscard d'Estaing ,

7503-599: The French and English started in the late 16th century when merchants from both nations started to establish trading centres in the region. Although there was some overlap in their areas of influence, French trade centred on the Senegal River and the Cap-Vert region and English trade on the Gambia River . As European trading activities in the region intensified, Senegambia quickly became a major African center of

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7626-528: The Gambia maintained separate cabinets, though shared power in a confederate government, with a Senegalese serving as president and a Gambian serving as vice-president. In the short term, the Senegambia Confederation was a pragmatic union based on a mutual security interest. As noted, the Senegalese government feared national instability caused by uprisings in either the Gambia or the Casamance region. The attempted coup resulted in both countries' leaders promoting

7749-540: The Gambia never matched the resources or manpower invested by Senegal into the Confederal Army; the latter thus always remained dominated by Senegalese. Confederation List of forms of government A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league ) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty , confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defence, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with

7872-581: The Gambia region. The unified region ended officially in 1783 in the aftermath of the British defeat by and independence of the United States. The Treaty of Versailles (signed along with the Treaty of Paris that officially ended the American War of Independence) created a balance between France and Britain: Saint Louis , l'île de Gorée and the Senegal River region were restored to France, and

7995-579: The Gambia still had no military. Gambian President Jawara, though initially supportive of the confederation, was much less enthusiastic about creating a Gambian army. The Senegalese government probably had to pressure him into organizing his own military, as it did not want to assume sole responsibility for the security of the Gambia. The Gambia finally created a military, in form of the Gambia National Army and Gambian National Gendarmerie , in 1983. In turn, parts of these new units became part of

8118-412: The Gambia was left to the British. In the 1860s and 1870s, both nations began to consider a land-trading proposal to unify the region, with the French trading another West African holding for the Gambia, but the exchange was never completed. Although the areas were ruled by separate, competing powers, they did not determine an official border between the French and British Senegambian colonies until 1889. At

8241-428: The Gambia, secessionists in the Casamance region (the region of Senegal south of the Gambian border), or other dissident groups to destabilize the Senegalese government. Specific threats came from Kwame Nkrumah 's Ghana , Moussa Traoré 's Mali , Ahmed Sékou Touré 's Guinea , João Bernardo Vieira 's Guinea-Bissau , and Muammar al-Gaddafi 's Libya . While the Senegalese government speculated about some dangers, in

8364-423: The Gambian government had to rely for the first time solely on its own military which was already internally divided and suffered from considerable unrest over favoritism and other issues. These problems resulted in repeated mutinies of Gambian soldiers and ultimately led to a coup d'état during which Yahya Jammeh overthrew Jawara. In Senegal, the confederation's end resulted in worsening the living conditions of

8487-590: The Gambian government still felt the need to improve its position, and thus began to support a union with Senegal. This prospect also found renewed interest in Senegal. Léopold Sédar Senghor , first President of Senegal, was one of " les trois pères " ("the three fathers") of Negritude —a literary and ideologically socialist movement of pan-Africanism, encouraging Africans throughout the Diaspora to embrace their shared culture. Senghor's belief in Negritude informed

8610-490: The Gambian military. The Confederal Army's pay grade was adjusted to fit the Senegalese standards, meaning that Gambian troops in the Confederal Army were paid better than in the national Gambian military. The Confederal Army also had higher training standards than the Gambian military. As a result, positions in the Confederal Army were highly coveted among Gambians; selection officers exploited this to their own favor, leading to favoritism and corruption. Regardless of these issues,

8733-512: The Gambians when he declared in a speech that the Gambia had been an "accident of history". Eventually, disputes erupted over the rotation of the confederal presidency. In August 1989, Senegal unilaterally pulled out its troops from the Gambia when it was threatened by Mauritania. The Gambia felt its interests were not being protected, and initiated legal measures to dissolve the union. The end came on 23 August 1989, when President Diouf decided it

8856-1054: The Iroquois League or the League of Five (later Six) Nations, is the country of Native Americans (in what is now the United States) and First Nations (in what is now Canada) that consists of six nations: the Mohawk , the Oneida , the Onondaga , the Cayuga , the Seneca and the Tuscarora . The Six Nations have a representative government known as the Grand Council which is the oldest governmental institution still maintaining its original form in North America. Each clan from

8979-482: The MDFC insurgency. The collapse of the confederation meant that the area's black market and large-scale smuggling continued; by 1990, estimates show that 20% of the Gambian groundnut market was from smuggled Senegalese crops. Smuggling became one of the major sources of income for the MDFC rebels. In 2020, Gambia was among the five largest global exporters of rosewood, despite declaring its own stocks close to extinction in

9102-427: The US states of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to the demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in shells. Virginia group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm (18 to 22 in), and

9225-438: The US. A common cooking and salad oil, peanut oil is 46% monounsaturated fats (primarily oleic acid ), 32% polyunsaturated fats (primarily linoleic acid ), and 17% saturated fats (primarily palmitic acid ). Extractable from whole peanuts using a simple water and centrifugation method, the oil is being considered by NASA 's Advanced Life Support program for future long-duration human space missions . Peanut butter

9348-545: The United States, large commercial production is primarily in the South Plains of West Texas and in eastern New Mexico near and south of Portales , but they are grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best-flavored and preferred type for boiled peanuts . They are comparatively tall, reaching a height of 125 cm (49 in) and a spread of 75 cm (30 in). Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from

9471-629: The center of origin where the climate is moister. Many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche , depicted peanuts in their art. Cultivation was well-established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived. There, the conquistadors found the tlālcacahuatl (the plant's Nahuatl name, hence the name in Spanish cacahuate ) offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan . Its cultivation

9594-403: The central government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of intergovernmentalism , defined as any form of interaction around states that takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government. The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between

9717-609: The chairman of the body of experts commissioned to elaborate a constitutional charter for the European Union, was confronted with strong opposition from the United Kingdom towards including the words "federal" or "federation" in the unratified European Constitution and the word was replaced with either "Community" or "Union". A majority of the Political Groups in the European Parliament , including

9840-641: The colony of Upper Canada ), Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick . Later participants were Manitoba , British Columbia , Prince Edward Island , Alberta and Saskatchewan (the latter two created in 1905 as federated provinces from parts of the directly federally administered Northwest Territories , first transferred to the Dominion in 1869 and now possessing devolved governments as itself, Yukon and Nunavut ), and finally Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador ) in 1949. A Canadian judicial constitutional interpretation, Reference Re Secession of Quebec , and

9963-543: The color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the plants are similar to Valencia types, except the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels. Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.9–7. Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate properly, peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen-containing fertilizer , and they improve soil fertility . Therefore, they are valuable in crop rotations . Also,

10086-411: The confederation was threatening the Gambia's national sovereignty and economy. The greatest tensions grew in regards to economic issues. According to Arnold Hughes, the Gambians had two primary concerns: one was a reluctance to fully integrate economically, and the other worried that the Senegalese would opt for a unitary Senegambian state rather than a confederation. In general, the economic policies of

10209-539: The context of the history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas , a confederacy may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple nations (or "tribes", "bands", or "villages"), which maintained their separate leadership. One of the most well-known is the Haudenosaunee (or Iroquois), but there were many others during different eras and locations across North America , such as

10332-471: The cultivar of peanut, harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies A. h. fastigiata types, and 120 to 150 days after planting for subspecies A. h. hypogaea types. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types yield more and are usually preferred where the growing seasons are sufficiently long. Peanut plants continue to produce flowers when pods are developing; therefore, some pods are immature even when they are ready for harvest. To maximize yield,

10455-692: The director of the Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques (CRISP) Vincent de Coorebyter called Belgium "undoubtedly a federation...[with] some aspects of a confederation" in Le Soir . Also in Le Soir , Michel Quévit of the Catholic University of Louvain wrote that the "Belgian political system is already in dynamics of a Confederation". Nevertheless, the Belgian regions and

10578-498: The duration of the confederation. The mounting tensions gradually undermined the confederation. Discussions about implementing a customs and monetary union continued to stall to the frustration of Senegal's government. In early 1986, an economic crisis and foreign exchange shortages seemed to push the Gambians to finally consider adopting the West African CFA franc , used by Senegal. The latter offered that its membership in

10701-744: The evidence is not regarded as conclusive. Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products. Some school districts in the US and elsewhere have banned peanuts or products containing peanuts. However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A 2015 study in Canada found no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools prohibiting peanuts compared to schools allowing them. Refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies. However, crude (unrefined) peanut oils have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic reactions. In

10824-532: The final communiqué announced the creation of a confederation of the three countries of the AES, namely Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. it was in February 2024 that the military powers of the three countries announced the creation of the AES after their withdrawal from ECOWAS. Historical confederations (especially those predating the 20th century) may not fit the current definition of a confederation, may be proclaimed as

10947-526: The five nations sends chiefs to act as representatives and make decisions for the whole confederation. It has been operating since its foundation in 1142 despite limited international recognition today. Several of the Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia , such as the Muisca and Tairona were composed of loose confederations. The Muisca form of government consisted of two different rulers that governed

11070-485: The former began meeting for one month annually from 1984. The Senegambia Permanent Secretariat was responsible for implementing the various agreements of the two countries. In 1985, the Senegambian government consisted of the following individuals: Senegambia Confederation relied on three militaries: The Confederal Army, the Senegalese military, and the Gambian military. While the latter two remained national forces,

11193-403: The ground and have longer crop cycles. The oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old, possibly a wild species that was in cultivation, or A. hypogaea in the early phase of domestication. They were found in Peru, where dry climatic conditions are favorable for the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at

11316-513: The hybridization may have occurred only once and gave rise to A. monticola , a wild form of peanut that occurs in a few limited locations in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today, and by artificial selection to A. hypogaea . The process of domestication through artificial selection made A. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier, more compact, and have

11439-406: The integration process, support came primarily from the two governments and their social elites; neither the Senegalese nor the Gambian people at large were particularly interested in integration. In addition, the Gambian government (and the Gambian people) began to fear losing their own power and identity through Senegalese engulfment. One early problem was the integration of the security forces, as

11562-438: The judicial landscape". Rutgers political science professor R. Daniel Kelemen said: "Those uncomfortable using the 'F' word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view

11685-430: The late 1980s it had border skirmishes with Mauritania. After the coup attempt in the Gambia, its government realized that its security forces were not adequate to stop or prevent political upheaval. Security of the region was becoming more and more difficult to maintain. The Gambia had previously lacked a proper army, instead solely relying on a police force, and subsequently began to set up its own military. Despite this,

11808-533: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. Peanut butter was developed in the 1890s in the US. It became well known after the Beech-Nut company began selling peanut butter at the St. Louis World's Fair of 1904. There are many peanut cultivars grown around the world. The market classes grown in the United States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. Peanut production in the US is divided into three major areas:

11931-522: The legume, bean, or pea family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules , which improve soil fertility , making them valuable in crop rotations . Despite not meeting the botanical definition of a nut as "a  fruit whose ovary wall becomes hard at maturity," peanuts are usually categorized as nuts for culinary purposes and in common English. Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such as walnuts and almonds , and, as

12054-474: The linguistic communities do not have the autonomy to leave the Belgian state. As such, federal aspects still dominate. Also, for fiscal policy and public finances, the federal state dominates the other levels of government. The increasingly-confederal aspects of the Belgian Federal State appear to be a political reflection of the profound cultural, sociological and economic differences between

12177-500: The main stem and the side branches. Most pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three- to five-seeded and smooth, with no constriction of the shell between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g. This type is used heavily for selling roasted and salted in-shell peanuts and peanut butter. Varieties include 'Valencia A' and 'Valencia C'. These are alike except for

12300-581: The majority. Historically, those features limit the union's effectiveness. Hence, political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as in the American, Swiss and German cases of regional integration . In terms of internal structure, every confederal state is composed of two or more constituent states, referred to as confederated states . Regarding their political systems , confederated states can have republican or monarchical forms of government. Those that have

12423-403: The member states and the general government and their distribution of powers varies. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations . Other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems . These elements of such confederations, the international organization and federalist perspective, has been combined as supranational unions . Since the member states of

12546-470: The peanut as part of his efforts for agricultural extension in the American South, where soils were depleted after repeated plantings of cotton. He invented and promulgated hundreds of peanut-based products, including cosmetics, paints, plastics, gasoline and nitroglycerin. The US Department of Agriculture initiated a program to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of peanuts in

12669-404: The political system to one of a federation . In 1999, Russia and Belarus signed a treaty to form a confederation, which came into force on 26 January 2000. Although it was given the name Union State , and has some characteristics of a federation, it remains a confederation of two sovereign states. Its existence has been seen as an indication of Russia's political and economic support for

12792-588: The possibility of unification between Senegal and the Gambia, and fostered the belief that unification would happen as an organic process. In fact, Senegal and the Gambia had already commissioned a United Nations report to study the possible plans and benefits of unification between the two countries in the 1960s. In December 1981, Senegal and the Gambia signed an agreement to form a confederation which officially came into existence on 1 February 1982. The two countries agreed to unite their militaries, security forces, economies and monetary systems. Politically, Senegal and

12915-525: The representatives of the member states. They partially share a common foreign policy, especially in regards to their navies through the BeNeSam . The Dutch defence minister (2010–2012) Hans Hillen even said on Belgian radio that it is not impossible that the three armed forces of the member-states could be integrated into "Benelux Armed Forces" one day. Because of this the Benelux is sometimes labeled as

13038-507: The rest of Senegal with its southern provinces. The Gambia opposed the customs union, and initially the monetary union as well. It saw the trans-Gambian highway and bridge project as a threat to its sovereignty and feared the loss of revenue generated by Gambian trade with Senegal's southern provinces as well as ferry services of the Gambia River. Ultimately, Senegal and the Gambia continued to compete economically instead of cooperating for

13161-570: The shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter. The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa and the southwestern and southeastern United States. Until 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in the US state of Georgia were Spanish types, but

13284-566: The shell or shelled in a home oven if spread out one layer deep in a pan and baked at a temperature of 177 °C (351 °F) for 15 to 20 min (shelled) and 20 to 25 min (in shell). Boiled peanuts are a popular snack in India, China, West Africa, and the southern United States. In the US South, boiled peanuts are often prepared in briny water and sold in streetside stands. A distinction can be drawn between raw and green peanuts. A green peanut

13407-869: The southeastern US region has seen a shift to producing Runner group peanuts. This shift is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics, and higher yields when compared to Spanish types, leading to food manufacturers' preference for the use in peanut butter and salted nuts. Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner-type. Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie Runner', 'Early Runner', 'Virginia Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner', 'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'), 'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North Carolina Runner 56-15', 'Florunner', 'Virugard', 'Georgia Green', 'Tamrun 96', 'Flavor Runner 458', 'Tamrun OL01', 'Tamrun OL02' 'AT-120', 'Andru-93', 'Southern Runner', 'AT1-1', 'Georgia Brown', 'GK-7', and 'AT-108'. The large-seeded Virginia group peanuts are grown in

13530-591: The southeastern US region which includes Alabama, Georgia, and Florida; the southwestern US region which includes New Mexico , Oklahoma , and Texas; and the third region in the general eastern US which includes Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. In Georgia, Naomi Chapman Woodroof is responsible for developing the breeding program of peanuts resulting in a harvest almost five times greater. Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular characteristics, such as differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance. Most peanuts marketed in

13653-423: The stems above ground and last for just one day. The ovary is located at the base of what appears to be the flower stem but is a highly elongated floral cup . Peanut fruits develop underground, an unusual feature known as geocarpy . After fertilization , a short stalk at the base of the ovary—often termed a gynophore , but which appears to be part of the ovary—elongates to form a thread-like structure known as

13776-533: The subsequent incorporation of other colonies and territories. Beginning on 1 July 1867, it was initially a self-governing dominion of the British Empire with a federal structure , whose government was led by Sir John A. Macdonald . The initial colonies involved were the Province of Canada (becoming Quebec from Canada East, formerly the colony of Lower Canada ; and Ontario from Canada West, formerly

13899-476: The time, France agreed to accept the current border between the two countries and remove its border trading posts. This decision resulted in the future Senegal (which gained its independence from France in 1960) and the Gambia (which gained independence from Britain in 1965) sharing a large problem: how to successfully maintain two separate countries in a region with shared yet diverse cultural values, and one nation virtually surrounded by another. For each country,

14022-914: The timing of harvest is important. If it is too early, too many pods will be unripe; if too late, the pods will snap off at the stalk and remain in the soil. For harvesting, the entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil. The pods are covered with a network of raised veins and are constricted between seeds. The main yield-limiting factors in semi-arid regions are drought and high-temperature stress. The stages of reproductive development before flowering, at flowering, and at early pod development are particularly sensitive to these constraints. Apart from nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium , other nutrient deficiencies causing significant yield losses are calcium , iron and boron . Biotic stresses mainly include pests, diseases, and weeds. Among insects pests, pod borers, aphids, and mites are of importance. The most important diseases are leaf spots, rusts, and

14145-414: The toxin-producing fungus Aspergillus. Harvesting occurs in two stages. In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground, shakes it, then inverts it, leaving the plant upside down to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to

14268-685: The trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, more disease -resistant cultivars. Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts. In the US, the Spanish group is primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish', 'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette', 'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', "White Kernel Varieties', 'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', 'OLin', 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899–14', 'Spanco', 'Wilco I', 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'. Since 1940,

14391-438: The two states did not match well; whereas Senegal had traditionally favored a centralized, almost mercantilistic economy, the Gambia relied on free trade and low tariffs. In January 1984, Senegal proposed a customs and monetary union; it hoped that the confederation could be transformed into an economically united state, as they wanted to shut down the Gambian reexport trade and build a trans-Gambian highway and bridge to connect

14514-410: The unification ideas which had been developing in the region. However, there were early issues in regards to the Senegambia Confederation. The new union proved to be "largely ceremonial" in many regards, and neither member state was satisfied with its conditions. Hughes and Lewis, in their Senegambia analysis, list many problems with unions which often lead to failure, which this union shared. Throughout

14637-436: The uprising. Per an existing defense agreement, Jawara requested Senegal to help him in defeating the coup. The Senegalese government responded vigorously, sending hundreds or even thousands of soldiers and put down the insurrection. This strong reaction was probably motivated by Senegal's own security concerns; its pro-Western stance caused tensions with other African states, and it was feared that neighbouring countries might use

14760-625: The yield of the peanut crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases, pests, and weeds. For example, in Texas , peanuts in a three-year rotation with corn yield 50% more than nonrotated peanuts. Adequate levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields. Peanuts need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop well. They can be grown with as little as 350 mm (14 in) of water, but for best yields need at least 500 mm (20 in). Depending on growing conditions and

14883-403: Was best that the confederation be placed aside after the talks about a customs union remain fruitless. The eight-year Senegambia Confederation was one of the longest-lived African unions of the period. In the Gambia, the end of the confederation had little impact on the national economy, but considerably changed the local political and security situation. With the removal of the Senegalese troops,

15006-430: Was intended to promote cooperation between the two countries, but was dissolved by Senegal on 30 September 1989 after The Gambia refused to move closer toward union. The Senegambia Confederation should not be confused with the historic Senegambia region , generally shortened to the Senegambia . As a political unit, Senegambia was created by duelling French and English colonial forces in the region. Competition between

15129-517: Was introduced in Europe in the 19th century through Spain, particularly Valencia , where it is still produced, albeit marginally. European traders later spread the peanut worldwide, and cultivation is now widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. In West Africa , it substantially replaced a crop plant from the same family, the Bambara groundnut , whose seed pods also develop underground. In Asia, it became an agricultural mainstay, and this region

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