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91-490: In an incorporating union a new state is created, the former states being entirely dissolved into the new state (although some aspects may be preserved; see below ). Incorporating unions have been present throughout much of history, such as when: Nevertheless, a full incorporating union may preserve the laws and institutions of the former states, as happened in the creating of the United Kingdom. This may be simply

182-592: A Breton artistic revival but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period. Brittany lost 240,000 men during the First World War . The Second World War was also catastrophic for the region. It was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940 and freed after Operation Cobra in August 1944. However,

273-730: A deal with the French was struck for plebiscites to take place in the Central Italian Duchies. Later that same year, Victor Emmanuel II sent his forces to fight the papal army at Castelfidardo and drove the Pope into Vatican City . His success at these goals led him to be excommunicated from the Catholic Church until 1878 when it was lifted just before his death. Then, Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples, and Piedmont-Sardinia grew even larger. On 17 March 1861,

364-529: A different person. Brythonic (British Celtic) settlement increased during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries to seek refuge from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. It is from this event that Brittany derives its name. Scholars such as Léon Fleuriot have suggested a two-wave model of migration from Britain which saw the emergence of an independent Breton people and established

455-482: A full legislative union and a federation . In his 1839 Report , in discussing the proposed union of Upper and Lower Canada , he says: Two kinds of union have been proposed – federal and legislative. By the first, the separate legislature of each province would be preserved in its present form and retain almost all its present attributes of internal legislation, the federal legislature exercising no power save in those matters which may have been expressly ceded to it by

546-524: A government in office against the will of Parliament. As a result, while the wording of the Statuto Albertino stipulating that ministers were solely responsible to the crown remained unchanged, in practice they were now responsible to Parliament. Victor Emmanuel died in Rome in 1878, after meeting with the envoys of Pope Pius IX , who had reversed the excommunication, and received last rites . He

637-545: A guarantee of the continuance of the civil laws and the existing courts in Scotland (a continuing guarantee), which was significant for both parties. The Scottish, despite economic troubles during the Seven Ill Years preceding the union, still had remaining negotiating power. This marks a delineation of states that are able to ensure preservation of interests: there has to be some mutually beneficial reasoning behind

728-715: A large share of these structures, including the Carnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in the Locmariaquer megaliths , the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people. During the protohistorical period , Brittany was inhabited by five Celtic tribes: Those people had strong economic ties to the Insular Celts , especially for the tin trade . Several tribes also belonged to an "Armorican confederation " which, according to Julius Caesar , gathered

819-472: A matter of practice or to comply with a guarantee given in the terms of the union. These guarantees may be to ensure the success of a proposed union (or in the least to prevent continuing resistance), as occurred in the union of Brittany and France in 1532 ( Union of Brittany and France ) in which a guarantee was given for the continuance of laws and of the Estates of Brittany (a guarantee revoked in 1789 at

910-669: A military presence in Bourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed by Arvandus , the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army. After a long battle, the Armorican survivors escaped to Avallon in Burgundy , after which they are lost to history. According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520, though this may have been

1001-467: A political crisis and to get the attention of the citizens toward the unification's necessity is in the hands of the elites. Despite it being quite rare, in some cases it works (see Old Swiss Confederacy and the confederation of the United States ), while in most of the cases it turns to be a failure or leads to a forced unification (Italy, URSS) where the unified states are deeply unequal. From

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1092-404: A radical change of population, but by slow immigration and exchange of skills. Neolithic Brittany is characterised by important megalithic production and sites such as Quelfénnec , it is sometimes designated as the "core area" of megalithic culture. The oldest monuments, cairns , were followed by princely tombs and stone rows . The Morbihan département , on the southern coast, comprises

1183-577: A realist perspective, small states can unify in order to face strong states or to conquer weak ones. One of the reasons to seek unification to a stronger state besides a common threat can be a situation of negligence or ignorance on behalf of the weak state which is, to simplify it, desperate and almost derelict. According to a 1975 study by University of Rochester political scientist William Riker , unions were motivated by security threats. According to Ryan Griffiths, all instances of mutually wilful unification from 1816 onwards were between states that spoke

1274-750: A result of the Mad War , the Duke Francis II could not have his daughter Anne married without the king of France's consent. Nonetheless, she married the Holy Roman Emperor in 1490, leading to a crisis with France. Charles VIII of France besieged Rennes and had the marriage cancelled. He eventually married Anne of Brittany . After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousin Louis XII . Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in 1514, and

1365-620: A result receive the promised Nice and Savoy, but Austria did keep Venetia , a major setback for the Piedmontese, in no small part because the treaty had been prepared without their knowledge. After several quarrels about the outcome of the war, Cavour resigned, and the king had to find other advisors. France indeed only gained Nice and Savoy after the Treaty of Turin was signed in March 1860, after Cavour had been reinstalled as Prime Minister, and

1456-510: A revolt in Genoa , defining the rebels as a "vile and infected race of canailles." In 1852, he appointed Count Camillo Benso of Cavour ("Count Cavour") as Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. This turned out to be a wise choice since Cavour was a political mastermind and a major player in the Italian unification in his own right. Victor Emmanuel II soon became the symbol of the " Risorgimento ",

1547-590: A standard which has never been widely accepted. On its side, Gallo has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA , and a couple of other scripts also exist. Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Palaeolithic . This population was scarce and very similar to

1638-693: A threat to the Republic. During the 19th century, the Breton language started to decline precipitously, mainly because of the Francization policy conducted under the Third Republic . On one hand, children were not allowed to speak Breton at school, and were punished by teachers if they did. Famously, signs in schools read: "It is forbidden to speak Breton and to spit on the floor" ("Il est interdit de parler Breton et de cracher par terre"). At

1729-410: A unitary state becomes a federated unit of another existing state, the former continuing its legal existence. The new federated state thus ceases to be a state in international law but retains its legal existence in domestic law, subsidiary to the federal authority. Prominent historical federal annexations include: The unification of Italy involved a mixture of unions. The kingdom consolidated around

1820-785: Is bordered by the English Channel to the north, Normandy to the northeast, eastern Pays de la Loire to the southeast, the Bay of Biscay to the south, and the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its land area is 34,023 km (13,136 sq mi) . Brittany is the site of some of the world's oldest standing architecture, home to the Cairn of Barnenez , the Tumulus Saint-Michel and others, which date to

1911-744: Is now Brittany. This was an indefinite region that extended along the English Channel coast from the Seine estuary, then along the Atlantic coast to the Loire estuary and, according to several sources, maybe to the Garonne estuary. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica , which means "close to the sea". Another name, Letauia (in English " Litavis "), was used until the 12th century. It possibly means "wide and flat" or "to expand" and it gave

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2002-551: Is universal agreement that Victor Emmanuel is an imbecile; he is a dishonest man who tells lies to everyone; at this rate, he will end up losing his crown and ruining both Italy and his dynasty." In 1870, after two failed attempts by Garibaldi, he also took advantage of the Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War to capture Rome after the French withdrew. He entered Rome on 20 September 1870 and set up

2093-605: Is why the Breton language is more closely related to recorded Cornish. The history behind such an establishment is unclear, but medieval Breton, Angevin and Welsh sources connect it to a figure known as Conan Meriadoc . Welsh literary sources assert that Conan came to Armorica on the orders of the Roman usurper Magnus Maximus , who sent some of his British troops to Gaul to enforce his claims and settled them in Armorica. This account

2184-650: The American War of Independence . These included many sailors such as Armand de Kersaint and soldiers such as Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie . The Duchy was legally abolished with the French Revolution that began in 1789 - and in 1790 the province of Brittany was divided into five departments : Côtes-du-Nord (later Côtes-d'Armor ), Finistère , Ille-et-Vilaine , Loire-Inférieure (later Loire-Atlantique ) and Morbihan . Brittany essentially lost all its special privileges that existed under

2275-886: The Curiosolitae , the Redones , the Osismii , the Unelli , the Caletes , the Lemovices and the Ambibarii. The Unelli, Caletes, and Lemovices were respectively located in Cotentin (Lower-Normandy), pays de Caux (Upper-Normandy), and Limousin (Aquitaine); the location of the Ambibarii is unknown. The Caletes are sometimes also considered Belgians, and Lemovices is probably a mistake for Lexovii (Lower-Normandy). During

2366-594: The First Italian War of Independence (1848–1849) under his father, King Charles Albert, fighting in the front line at the battles of Pastrengo , Santa Lucia, Goito and Custoza . He became King of Sardinia in 1849 when his father abdicated the throne, after being defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Novara . Victor Emmanuel was immediately able to obtain a rather favourable armistice at Vignale by

2457-482: The French Revolution ). The assurance that institutions are preserved in a union of states can also occur as states realize that, whilst a power imbalance exists (such as between the economic conditions of Scotland and England prior to the Acts of Union 1707 ), it is not so great that it precludes the ability of concessions to be made. The Treaty of Union for creating the unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 contained

2548-774: The Gallic Wars , the Veneti were defeated in the Battle of Morbihan off the coast of Brittany. At the conclusion of the Gallic Wars, the region became part of the Roman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate ( Rennes ), Vorgium ( Carhaix ), Darioritum ( Vannes ) and Condevincum or Condevicnum ( Nantes ). Together with Fanum Martis ( Corseul ), they were

2639-512: The KLT ( Kerne -Leon- Tregor ) and the dialect of Vannes . KLT speakers pronounce it [brɛjs] and would write it Breiz , while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it [brɛχ] and would write it Breih . The official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh ,

2730-699: The Kingdom of Prussia annexed numerous petty states in 1866. In addition to regional movements, supranational and continental unions that promote progressive integration between its members started appearing in the second half of the 20th century, first by the European Union (EU). Other examples of such unions include the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum , and

2821-599: The Kingdom of Sardinia , with which several states voluntarily united to form the Kingdom of Italy . Others polities, such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States , were conquered and annexed. Formally, the union in each territory was sanctioned by a popular referendum where people were formally asked if they agreed to have as their new ruler Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia and his legitimate heirs. The unification of Germany began in earnest when

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2912-544: The Marche and Umbria after the victorious battle of Castelfidardo (1860) over the Papal forces. The king subsequently met with Garibaldi at Teano , receiving from him the control of southern Italy. Another series of plebiscites in the occupied lands resulted in the proclamation of Victor Emmanuel as the first King of Italy by the new Parliament of unified Italy , on 17 March 1861. He did not renumber himself after assuming

3003-747: The Pacific Islands Forum . The political position of the United Kingdom is often discussed, as well as former states like Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006), the Soviet Union (1922–1991) and the United Arab Republic (1958–1961). Lord Durham was widely regarded as one of the most important thinkers in the history of the British Empire 's constitutional evolution. He articulated the difference between

3094-707: The Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain, and more specifically the Roman province of Britain . This word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανική (Prettanikḗ) or Βρεττανίαι (Brettaníai), used by Pytheas , an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Isles around 320 BC. The Greek word itself comes from the common Brythonic ethnonym reconstructed as *Pritanī , itself from Proto-Celtic *kʷritanoi (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kʷer- 'to cut, make'). In Roman times, Armorica included what

3185-654: The Welsh name for Brittany: Llydaw . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , many Cornish Britons settled in western Armorica to escape the Saxons and the region started to be called Britannia , although this name only replaced Armorica in the sixth century or perhaps by the end of the fifth. Breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two main dialects:

3276-553: The last glacial period , the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded. At that time, Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers. Agriculture was introduced during the 5th millennium BC by migrants from the south and east. However, the Neolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to

3367-477: The 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age. The region was located on the seaways near Spain, England and the Netherlands and it greatly benefited from the creation of a French colonial empire . Local seaports like Brest and Saint-Brieuc quickly expanded, and Lorient , first spelled "L'Orient", was founded in the 17th century. Saint-Malo then was known for its corsairs , Brest

3458-457: The 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. In 2017, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes (934,165 inhabitants), Rennes (733,320 inhabitants), and Brest (321,364 inhabitants). Brittany is the traditional homeland of the Breton people and is one of the six Celtic nations , retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history . A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within

3549-769: The 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878. Borrowing from the old Latin title Pater Patriae of the Roman emperors , the Italians gave him the epithet of Father of the Fatherland ( Italian : Padre della Patria ). Born in Turin as the eldest son of Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano , and Maria Theresa of Austria , he fought in the First Italian War of Independence (1848–1849) before being made King of Sardinia following his father's abdication. He appointed Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour , as his Prime Minister, and he consolidated his position by suppressing

3640-431: The 9th century. The unification of Brittany was carried out by Nominoe , king between 845 and 851 and considered as the Breton Pater Patriae . Among the immigrant Britons, there were some clergymen who helped the evangelisation of the region, which was still pagan, particularly in rural areas. His son Erispoe secured the independence of the new kingdom of Brittany and won the Battle of Jengland against Charles

3731-428: The Austrian imperial army commander, Radetzky . The treaty, however, was not ratified by the Piedmontese lower parliamentary house , the Chamber of Deputies, and Victor Emmanuel retaliated by firing his Prime Minister, Claudio Gabriele de Launay, replacing him with Massimo D'Azeglio . After new elections, the peace with Austria was accepted by the new Chamber of Deputies. In 1849, Victor Emmanuel also fiercely suppressed

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3822-411: The Bald . The Bretons won another war in 867, and the kingdom reached then its maximum extent: It received parts of Normandy , Maine and Anjou and the Channel Islands . Brittany was heavily attacked by the Vikings at the beginning of the 10th century. The kingdom lost its eastern territories, including Normandy and Anjou , and the county of Nantes was given to Fulk I of Anjou in 909. Nantes

3913-452: The Breton speaking area. Victor Emmanuel II of Italy Victor Emmanuel II ( Italian : Vittorio Emanuele II ; full name: Vittorio Emanuele Maria Alberto Eugenio Ferdinando Tommaso di Savoia ; 14 March 1820 – 9 January 1878) was King of Sardinia (also known as Piedmont-Sardinia) from 23 March 1849 until 17 March 1861, when he assumed the title of King of Italy and became the first king of an independent, united Italy since

4004-637: The Duchy. Three years later, the area became a centre of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during the Chouannerie . During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris. This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised. Nantes specialised in shipbuilding and food processing (sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish...), Fougères in glass and shoe production, and metallurgy

4095-404: The Dukes were usually independent, but they often contracted alliances with England or France depending on who was threatening them at that point. Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century because the English kings had started to claim the French throne. The Breton War of Succession , a local episode of the Hundred Years' War , saw the House of Blois , backed by

4186-433: The French Republic, or independence from it. The reunification of Brittany is supported by half of the inhabitants of Brittany and of Loire-Atlantique, and is considered a prerequisite to further autonomy. The word Brittany , along with its French , Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne , Breizh and Bertaèyn , derive from the Latin Britannia , which means "land of the Britons ". This word had been used by

4277-409: The French side during the deciding stages of the war (including the battles of Patay , Formigny and Castillon and the Treaty of Arras ). Brittany importantly lost the Mad War against France in 1488, mostly because of its internal divisions that were exacerbated by the corruption at the court of Francis II, Duke of Brittany . Indeed, some rebel Breton lords were fighting on the French side. As

4368-505: The French were to help Piedmont in its war against Austria, which still reigned over the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia in northern Italy, France would be awarded Nice and Savoy . The Italo-French campaign against Austria in 1859 started successfully. However, sickened by the casualties of the war and worried about the mobilisation of Prussian troops, Napoleon III secretly made a treaty with Franz Joseph of Austria at Villafranca whereby Piedmont would only gain Lombardy . France did not as

4459-478: The French, fighting with the House of Montfort , backed by the English. The Montforts won in 1364 and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany. English diplomatic failures led to the Breton cavalry commanders Arthur, Comte de Richemont (later to become Arthur III, Duke of Brittany ) and his nephew Peter II, Duke of Brittany playing key roles on

4550-410: The Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows "like rain". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia. The late 5th century Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called "King of the Britons" by Jordanes . Some suggest that he

4641-433: The Italian unification movement of the 1850s and early 60s. He was especially popular in the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia because of his respect for the new constitution and his liberal reforms. Following Victor Emmanuel's advice, Cavour joined Britain and France in the Crimean War against Russia. Cavour was reluctant to go to war due to the power of Russia at the time and the expense of doing so. Victor Emmanuel, however,

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4732-566: The Kingdom of Italy was officially established and Victor Emmanuel II became its king. Victor Emmanuel supported Giuseppe Garibaldi 's Expedition of the Thousand (1860–1861), which resulted in the rapid fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. However, the king halted Garibaldi when he appeared ready to attack Rome, still under the Papal States , as it was under French protection. In 1860, through local plebiscites, Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna decided to side with Piedmont-Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel then marched victoriously in

4823-408: The Papal forces. This led to his excommunication from the Catholic Church until 1878, just before his death in the same year. He subsequently met Garibaldi at Teano , receiving from him the control of southern Italy and becoming the first King of Italy on 17 March 1861. In 1866, the Third Italian War of Independence allowed Italy to annex Veneto . In 1870, Victor Emmanuel also took advantage of

4914-406: The Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War to conquer the Papal States after the French withdrew. He entered Rome on 20 September 1870 and set up the new capital there on 2 July 1871. He died in Rome in 1878, and was buried in the Pantheon . The Italian national Victor Emmanuel II Monument in Rome, containing the Altare della Patria , was built in his honour. Victor Emmanuel

5005-446: The Roman gods. Only a small number of statues depicting Roman gods were found in Brittany, and most of the time they combine Celtic elements. During the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times by Franks , Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many farming estates were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, like Nantes , Rennes and Vannes . This area

5096-401: The areas around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May 1945, several days after the German capitulation. The two port towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, like Brest and Saint-Malo , and other towns, such as Nantes and Rennes , had also suffered. In 1956, Brittany was legally reconstituted as the Region of Brittany , although the region excluded

5187-465: The capitals of the local civitates . They all had a grid plan and a forum , and sometimes a temple, a basilica , thermae or an aqueduct , like Carhaix . The Romans also built three major roads through the region. However, most of the population remained rural. The free peasants lived in small huts, whereas the landowners and their employees lived in proper villae rusticae . The Gallic deities continued to be worshiped, and were often assimilated to

5278-422: The constituent provinces. A legislative union would imply a complete incorporation of the provinces included in it under one legislature, exercising universal and sole legislative authority over all of them in exactly the same manner as the Parliament legislates alone for the whole of the British Isles. However, unification is not merely voluntary. To meet this requirement, we need to have a balance of power between

5369-408: The details remain confused, these colonies consisted of related and intermarried dynasties which repeatedly unified (as by the 7th-century Saint Judicaël ) before splintering again according to Celtic inheritance practices. At the beginning of the medieval era, Brittany was divided among three kingdoms, Domnonea , Cornouaille and Broërec . These realms eventually merged into a single state during

5460-428: The dominance of the Brythonic Breton language in Armorica. Their petty kingdoms are now known by the names of the counties that succeeded them— Domnonée ( Devon ), Cornouaille ( Cornwall ), Léon ( Caerleon ); but these names in Breton and Latin are in most cases identical to their British homelands. (In Breton and French, however, Gwened or Vannetais continued the name of the indigenous Veneti .) Although

5551-425: The ducal capital of Nantes and the surrounding area . Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as the Amoco Cadiz oil spill or the Erika oil spill and water pollution from intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect

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5642-402: The early 5th millennium BC. Today, the historical province of Brittany is split among five French departments: Finistère in the west, Côtes-d'Armor in the north, Ille-et-Vilaine in the northeast, Morbihan in the south and Loire-Atlantique in the southeast. Loire-Atlantique now belongs to the Pays de la Loire region while the other four departments make up the Brittany region . At

5733-418: The formal or informal preservation of interests. In the Union creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, no such guarantee was given for the laws and courts of the Kingdom of Ireland , though they were continued as a matter of practice. The informal recognition of such interests represents the different circumstances of the two Unions, the small base of institutional power in Ireland at

5824-418: The fresh start that the Italian people wanted and suggested that Piedmont-Sardinia had taken over the Italian Peninsula, rather than unifying it. Despite this mishap, the remainder of Victor Emmanuel II's reign was consumed by wrapping up loose ends and dealing with economic and cultural issues. His role in day-to-day governing gradually dwindled, as it became increasingly apparent that a king could no longer keep

5915-400: The issue of the Italian unification to other European powers. This allowed Victor Emmanuel to ally himself with Napoleon III , Emperor of France. France had supported Sardinia in the Second Italian War of Independence , resulting in liberating Lombardy from Austrian rule. Victor Emmanuel supported the Expedition of the Thousand (1860–1861) led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , which resulted in

6006-399: The latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century. Two significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: the Revolt of the papier timbré (1675) and the Pontcallec conspiracy (1719). Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax. Many Bretons crossed the Atlantic to support

6097-489: The natural heritage. Brittany as a political entity disappeared in 1790, when it was divided into five départements . The Breton départements more or less correspond to the nine Catholic dioceses that appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages. They were often called "pays" or "bro" ("country" in French and Breton ) and they also served as fiscal and military districts. Brittany is also divided between Lower Brittany ("Basse Bretagne" and "Breizh Izel"), corresponding to

6188-413: The new capital there on 2 July 1871, after a temporary move to Florence in 1864. The new Royal residence was the Quirinal Palace . The rest of Victor Emmanuel II's reign was much quieter. After the Kingdom of Italy was established he decided to continue on as King Victor Emmanuel II instead of Victor Emmanuel I of Italy. This was a terrible move as far as public relations went as it was not indicative of

6279-510: The new royal title, however. Turin became the capital of the new state. Only Lazio , Veneto , and Trentino remained to be conquered. In 1866 Victor Emmanuel allied himself with Prussia in the Third Italian War of Independence . Although not victorious in the Italian theatre, he managed to receive Veneto after the Austrian defeat in Germany. The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Clarendon, visited Florence in December 1867 and reported to London after talking to various Italian politicians: "There

6370-423: The other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe. Their only original feature was a distinct culture, called "Colombanian". One of the oldest hearths in the world has been found in Plouhinec, Finistère . Homo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago. They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed local industries , similar to the Châtelperronian or to the Magdalenian . After

6461-418: The rapid fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. However, Victor Emmanuel halted Garibaldi when he appeared ready to attack Rome , still under the Papal States , as it was under French protection. In 1860, Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna decided to side with Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel then marched victoriously in the Marche and Umbria after the victorious Battle of Castelfidardo over

6552-637: The republican left. In 1855, he sent an expeditionary corps to side with French and British forces during the Crimean War ; the deployment of Italian troops to the Crimea, and the gallantry shown by them in the Battle of the Chernaya (16 August 1855) and in the siege of Sevastopol led the Kingdom of Sardinia to be among the participants at the peace conference at the end of the war, where it could address

6643-416: The same languages. Brittany Brittany ( / ˈ b r ɪ t ən i / BRIT -ən-ee ; French: Bretagne , pronounced [bʁətaɲ] ; Breton : Breizh , pronounced [bʁɛjs, bʁɛx] ; Gallo : Bertaèyn or Bertègn , pronounced [bəʁtaɛɲ] ) is a peninsula , historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France , covering

6734-607: The same time, the Celtic Revival led to the foundation of the Breton Regionalist Union (URB) and later to independence movements linked to Irish, Welsh, and Scottish and Cornish independence parties in the UK, and to pan-Celticism . However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. The Seiz Breur movement, created in 1923, permitted

6825-721: The same year as Alan II) and thus Brittany ceased to be a kingdom and became a duchy. Several Breton lords helped William the Conqueror to invade England and the Bretons formed over a third of the landing force in 1066. They received large estates there (e.g. William's double-second cousin Alan Rufus and the latter's brother Brian of Brittany ). The Bretons helped to liberate the Cornish, replacing Anglo-Saxon land owners. Some of these lords were powerful rivals. Medieval Brittany

6916-688: The time (those who were the beneficiaries of the Protestant Ascendancy ) had faced a revolution in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and as a result there was an institutional drive toward unification, limiting the Irish negotiating power. However, informal guarantees were given to preclude the possibility of further Irish unrest in the period following the French Revolution of 1789 and the 1798 rebellion. These types of informal arrangements are more susceptible to changes; for example, Tyrol

7007-458: The two or more states, which can create an equal monetary, economic, social and cultural environment. We need also to take in account that those states eligible to unify must agree to a transition from anarchy, where there is no sovereignty above the state level, to hierarchy. States can decide to enter a voluntary union as a solution for existing problems and to face possible threats, such as environmental threats for instance. The task of triggering

7098-548: The union between the two crowns was formally carried out by Francis I in 1532. He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from the gabelle , a tax on salt that was very unpopular in France. Under the Ancien Régime , Brittany and France were governed as separate countries but under the same crown, so Breton aristocrats in the French royal court were classed as Princes étrangers (foreign princes). From

7189-456: The western half, where Breton is traditionally spoken, and Upper Brittany ("Haute Bretagne" and "Breizh Uhel"), corresponding to the eastern half, where Gallo is traditionally spoken. The historical Breton dioceses were: During the French Revolution , four dioceses were suppressed and the five remaining ones were modified to have the same administrative borders as the départements . Brittany has several historical capital cities. When it

7280-601: The western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul . It became an independent kingdom and then a duchy before being united with the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province governed as a separate nation under the crown. Brittany is the traditional homeland of the Breton people and is one of the six Celtic nations , retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history . Brittany has also been referred to as Little Britain (as opposed to Great Britain , with which it shares an etymology). It

7371-635: Was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges "by way of Ocean", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. Both historians describe Riothamus's losing battle against King Euric of the Visigoths at Déols around the year 470. In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius , Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish

7462-519: Was a major base for the French Navy and Nantes flourished with the Atlantic slave trade . On its side, the inland provided hemp ropes and canvas and linen sheets. However, Colbertism , which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces. Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led

7553-624: Was also affected by the Bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) during this period, which were groups of peasant insurgents. The Bagaudae achieved some temporary and scattered successes under the leadership of peasants as well as former members of local ruling elites. Toward the end of the 4th century, the Britons of Domnonée (modern Devon and Cornwall ) on the South-Western peninsula of Great Britain began to emigrate to Armorica , which

7644-681: Was an independent duchy, the Estates of Brittany , which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns: Dinan , Ploërmel , Redon , Rennes , Vitré , Guérande , and, most of all, Vannes , where they met 19 times, and Nantes , 17 times. The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates. The dukes mostly lived in Nantes , Vannes , Redon , Rennes , Fougères , Dol-de-Bretagne , Dinan and Guérande . All these towns except Vannes and Guérande are located in Upper Brittany , thus not in

7735-536: Was born as the eldest son of Carlo Alberto Prince of Carignano, and Maria Theresa of Austria . His father succeeded a distant cousin as King of Sardinia in 1831. He lived for some years of his youth in Florence and showed an early interest in politics, the military, and sports. In 1842, he married his cousin, Adelaide of Austria . He was styled as the Duke of Savoy prior to becoming King of Sardinia. He took part in

7826-529: Was convinced of the rewards to be gained from the alliance created with Britain and, more importantly, France. After successfully seeking British support and ingratiating himself with France and Napoleon III at the Congress of Paris in 1856 at the end of the war, Count Cavour arranged a secret meeting with the French emperor. In 1858, they met at Plombières-les-Bains (in Lorraine ), where they agreed that if

7917-466: Was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton unity. For example, Brittany replaced Latin with French as its official language in the 13th century, 300 years before France did so, and the Breton language did not have formal status. The foreign policy of the Duchy changed many times;

8008-765: Was guaranteed that its Freischütz companies would not be posted to fight outside Tyrol without their consent, a guarantee later revoked by the Austrian state. However, this case can be contrasted with the continued existence of the Scottish Parliament and a separate body of Scottish law distinct from English law . In an incorporating annexation a state or states is united to and dissolved in an existing state, whose legal existence continues. Annexation may be voluntary or, more frequently, by conquest. Incorporating annexations have occurred at various points in history, such as when: Federal annexation occurs when

8099-481: Was practised in small towns such as Châteaubriant and Lochrist , known for its labour movements . The region remained deeply Catholic, and during the Second Empire , the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in 1871, there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated at Camp Conlie during the Franco-Prussian War because of fears that they were

8190-496: Was seized by the Vikings in 914. At this time Brittany was also called Lydwiccum. Nantes was eventually liberated by Alan II of Brittany in 937 with the support of his godbrother King Æthelstan of England. Alan II totally expelled the Vikings from Brittany and recreated a strong Breton state. For aiding in removing the problem, Alan paid homage to Louis IV of France (who was Æthelstan's nephew and had returned from England in

8281-650: Was supported by the Counts of Anjou, who claimed descent from a Roman soldier expelled from Lower Brittany by Conan on Magnus's orders. The army recruited for Flavius Aetius to combat Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans, Visigoths, Franks, Alans and Armoricans, amongst others. The Alans were placed front and centre, opposite the Huns. The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked

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