The Shadhili Order ( Arabic : الطريقة الشاذلية ) is a tariqah or Sufi order. The Shadhili order was founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Shadhili in the 13th century and is followed by millions of people around the world. Many followers (Arabic murids , "seekers") of the Shadhili Order are known as Shadhilis, and a single follower is known as Shadhili.
155-562: It has historically been of importance and influence in the Maghreb and Egypt with many contributions to Islamic literature. Among the figures most known for their literary and intellectual contributions are ibn Ata Allah al-Iskandari , author of the Hikam , and Ahmad Zarruq , author of numerous commentaries and works, and Ahmad ibn Ajiba who also wrote numerous commentaries and works. In poetry expressing love of Muhammad , there have been
310-424: A steeplechase in a deliberate violation of college rules and subsequently told the college's authorities that students should be allowed to attend such events. Hoping to be merely rusticated , the punishment received by some less provocative students who had also visited the steeplechase, he was instead permanently expelled from the college. According to Ed Rice , speaking on Burton's university days, "He stirred
465-523: A Bektashi Sufi . Deliberately presented by Burton as a translation, the poem and his notes and commentary on it contain layers of Sufic meaning that seem to have been designed to project Sufi teaching in the West. "Do what thy manhood bids thee do/ from none but self expect applause;/ He noblest lives and noblest dies/ who makes and keeps his self-made laws" is The Kasidah' s most-quoted passage. As well as references to many themes from Classical Western myths,
620-729: A Muslim background living in Libya. In 2019, the proportion of Melillans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 65.0%, the Roman Catholic churches in Melilla belong to the Diocese of Málaga . Roman Catholicism is the largest religion in Ceuta , in 2019, the proportion of Ceutans that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 60.0%. The Roman Catholic churches in Ceuta belong to
775-430: A Muslim, he came close to being discovered one night when he lifted his robe to urinate rather than squatting as an Arab would. It was said that he was seen by an Arab and, to avoid exposure, killed him. Burton denied this, pointing out that killing the boy would almost certainly have led to his being discovered as an impostor. Burton became so tired of denying this accusation that he took to baiting his accusers, although he
930-479: A case for carrying the Quran, but which instead had three compartments for his watch, compass, money, penknife, pencils and numbered pieces of paper for taking notes. Burton travelled onwards with a group of nomads to Suez before sailing to Yambu and joining a caravan to Medina, where he arrived on 27 July. Departing Medina with a caravan on 31 August, Burton entered Mecca on 11 September, where he participated in
1085-687: A day", Burton was commissioned into the Bombay Army at the behest of his former classmates in college who were already serving as officers there. He had hoped to fight in the First Anglo-Afghan War , but the conflict was over by the time Burton arrived in India. He was posted to the 18th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry , which was stationed in Gujarat and under the command of General Charles James Napier . While in India, he became
1240-547: A doctor at the Radcliffe Infirmary . There, he met John Henry Newman , whose churchwarden was Greenhill. Despite his intelligence and ability, Burton was antagonised by his teachers and peers. During his first term, he allegedly challenged another student to a duel after the latter mocked Burton's moustache. Burton continued to gratify his love of languages by studying Arabic ; he also spent his time learning falconry and fencing . In April 1842, Burton attended
1395-486: A familiarity with the minutiae of Eastern manners and etiquette. Burton's trek to Mecca was dangerous, and his caravan was attacked by bandits (a common experience at the time). As he put it, although "... neither Koran or Sultan enjoin the death of Jew or Christian intruding within the columns that note the sanctuary limits, nothing could save a European detected by the populace, or one who after pilgrimage declared himself an unbeliever". The pilgrimage entitled him to
1550-455: A fatal gunshot wound from his hunting shotgun. Burton learned of Speke's death the following day while waiting for their debate to begin. A jury ruled Speke's death an accident. An obituary surmised that Speke, while climbing over the wall, had carelessly pulled the gun after himself with the muzzle pointing at his chest and shot himself. Alexander Maitland, Speke's only biographer, concurs. On 22 January 1861, Burton and Isabel Arundel married in
1705-475: A formal education at a preparatory school in Richmond Green , Surrey , run by Reverend Charles Delafosse. His family travelled between England, France and Italy. Burton showed a talent to learn languages and quickly learned French , Italian , Neapolitan and Latin , as well as several dialects. During his youth, he allegedly had a sexual relationship with a Roma girl and learned the rudiments of
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#17327656571471860-551: A lecture at the Royal Geographical Society , claiming Lake Victoria as the source of the Nile. According to Burton, Speke broke an agreement they had made to give their first public speech together. Apart from Burton's word, there is no proof that such an agreement existed, and most modern researchers doubt that it did. Tim Jeal, evaluating the written evidence, says the odds are "heavily against Speke having made
2015-705: A million Europeans , Tunisia was home to 255,000 Europeans , and Libya was home to 145,000 Europeans . In religion, most of the pieds-noirs in Maghreb are Catholic. Due to the exodus of the pieds-noirs in the 1960s, more North African Christians of Berber or Arab descent now live in France than in Greater Maghreb. Prior to independence, the European Catholic settlers had historic legacy and powerful presence in Maghreb countries. Recently,
2170-555: A natural barrier that severely limited contact between the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa . The Berber people have inhabited western North Africa since at least 10,000 BC. Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains (stretching from present-day Morocco to present-day Tunisia) and by the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties across
2325-469: A planned new translation of The Perfumed Garden to be called The Scented Garden , for which she had been offered six thousand guineas and which she regarded as his "magnum opus". She believed she was acting to protect her husband's reputation, and that she had been instructed to burn the manuscript of The Scented Garden by his spirit, but her actions were controversial. However, a substantial quantity of his written materials have survived, and are held by
2480-717: A pledge to his former leader". Speke undertook a second expedition, along with Captain James Grant and Sidi Mubarak Bombay , to prove that Lake Victoria was the true source of the Nile. Speke, in light of the issues he was having with Burton, had Grant sign a statement saying, among other things, "I renounce all my rights to publishing ... my own account [of the expedition] until approved of by Captain Speke or [the Royal Geographical Society]". On 16 September 1864, Burton and Speke were scheduled to debate
2635-627: A political union of the North African countries, which they call al-Maghrib al-Kabir (the grand Maghrib) or al-Maghrib al-Arabi (the Arab Maghrib). Some 9,000 years ago, Earth's tilt was 24.14 degrees, as compared with the current 23.45 degrees. Around 3,500 BC, these changes in the tilt of the Earth's orbit appear to have caused a rapid desertification of the Sahara region forming
2790-440: A proficient speaker of Hindustani , Gujarati , Punjabi , Sindhi , Saraiki , Marathi , Persian and Arabic. His studies of Hindu culture had progressed to such an extent that "my Hindu teacher officially allowed me to wear the janeo ". Him Chand, his gotra teacher and a Nagar Brahmin , was possibly an apostate. Burton had a documented interest and actively participated in the cultures and religions of India . This
2945-704: A prolific and erudite author and wrote numerous books and academic articles on subjects such as human behaviour , travel , falconry , fencing , sexual practices and ethnography . Richard Burton was born in Torquay , Devon , on 19 March 1821; in his autobiography, he incorrectly claimed to have been born in the family home of Barham House in Elstree , Hertfordshire . Burton was baptised on 2 September 1821 at Elstree Church in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire. His father, Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton,
3100-654: A quiet Catholic ceremony, although he did not adopt the Catholic faith at this time. Shortly after this, the couple were forced to spend some time apart when he formally entered the Diplomatic Service as consul on the island of Fernando Po, now Bioko in Equatorial Guinea. This was not a prestigious appointment; because the climate was considered extremely unhealthy for Europeans, Isabel could not accompany him. Burton spent much of this time exploring
3255-534: A small number of Anglicans. A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted to Christianity in Algeria . The number of Moroccans who converted to Christianity (most of them secret worshipers) are estimated between 40,000 -150,000. The International Religious Freedom Report for 2007 estimates thousands of Tunisian Muslims have converted to Christianity. A 2015 study estimate some 1,500 believers in Christ from
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#17327656571473410-517: A tithe of the knowledge of Arabic you did." In May 1854, Burton travelled to Aden in preparation for an RGS-backed expedition, which included John Hanning Speke , to Somaliland . The expedition lasted from 29 October 1854 to 9 February 1855, with much of its time spent in Zeila , where Burton was a guest of the town's governor Sharmarke Ali Saleh . Burton, assuming the disguise of an Arab merchant "Hajji Mirza Abdullah", awaited word that
3565-489: A window at the rear of the tent, which can be accessed via a short fixed ladder. Next to the lady chapel in the church there is a memorial stained-glass window to Burton, also erected by Isabel; it depicts Burton as a medieval knight. Burton's personal effects and a collection of paintings, photographs and objects relating to him are in the Burton Collection at Orleans House Gallery , Twickenham . Among these
3720-582: Is Turks, who migrated with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire . Africans from south of the Sahara joined the population mix during centuries of trans-Saharan trade . Traders and slaves went to the Maghreb from the Sahel region. On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are small communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratine . In Algeria especially, a large European minority, known as
3875-598: Is a small quartz stone from Mesopotamia , inscribed in supposed Kufic script, which has thus far resisted decipherment by experts. Burton had long had an interest in sexuality and some erotic literature. However, the Obscene Publications Act of 1857 had resulted in many jail sentences for publishers, with prosecutions being brought by the Society for the Suppression of Vice . Burton referred to
4030-653: Is believed to have emerged in North Africa. Common subclades include E1b1b1a, E1b1b1b and E1b1b1*. E1b1b1b is distributed along a west-to-east cline with frequencies that can reach as high as 100 percent in Northwest Africa. E1b1b1a has been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa. Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b
4185-894: Is found mostly in Morocco and the Alawi-Darqawiyya of Ahmad al-Alawi originated in Algeria is now found the world over, particularly in Syria, Jordan, France, and among many English-speaking communities. British scholar Martin Lings wrote an extensive biography of Ahmad al-Alawi entitled A Moslem Saint of the Twentieth Century . The anniversary of al-Shadhili is held on 12th of Shawwal (the tenth month of lunar calendar) at Humaithara in Egypt. Shadhiliyya has numerous across
4340-711: Is most likely indigenous to North Africa and migrated from North Africa to the Near East during the Paleolithic . Haplogroup J-M267 is another very common haplogroup in the Maghreb, being the second most-frequent haplogroup in the Maghreb. It originated in the Middle East , and its highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East. A study found out that
4495-450: Is often full of details about the sexual lives of the inhabitants of areas he travelled through. Burton's interest in sexuality led him to make measurements of the lengths of the penises of male inhabitants of various regions, which he includes in his travel books. He also describes sexual techniques common in the regions he visited, often hinting that he had participated, hence breaking both sexual and racial taboos of his day. Many people at
4650-411: Is primarily inhabited by peoples of Arab and Berber mixed ancestral origin. Arabs inhabit Algeria (70% to 80% ), Libya (97% ), Morocco (67% ), and Tunisia (98% ). Berbers inhabit Algeria (20% ), Libya (10% ), Morocco (35% ), and Tunisia (1% ). Ethnic French, Spanish, West African, and Sephardic Jewish populations also inhabit the region. Centuries of Arabization and Arab migration to
4805-588: The Arab Maghreb ( Arabic : اَلْمَغْرِبُ الْعَرَبِيُّ , romanized : al-Maghrib al-ʿArabi , lit. 'the Arab west') and Northwest Africa , is the western part of the Arab world . The region comprises western and central North Africa , including Algeria , Libya , Mauritania , Morocco , and Tunisia . The Maghreb also includes the disputed territory of Western Sahara . As of 2018,
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4960-529: The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arabs in the 11th century played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara . It also heavily transformed the culture in the Maghreb into Arab culture , and spread Bedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant. These Bedouin tribes accelerated and deepened
5115-598: The Bombay Army as an officer in 1842, beginning an eighteen-year military career which including a brief stint in the Crimean War . He was subsequently engaged by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) to explore the East African coast, where Burton along with John Hanning Speke led an expedition to discover the source of the Nile and became the first European known to have seen Lake Tanganyika . He later served as
5270-537: The Diocese of Cádiz y Ceuta . The earliest documented Jewish presence in the Maghreb dates to the third century BCE, with Jews being settled in eastern Libya by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt. During the Roman Empire , Jewish communities expanded across the Maghreb, with archaeological evidence, including synagogues and inscriptions, indicating their presence in what are now Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco from
5425-686: The Fatimid Caliphate . The most enduring rule was that of the local Arab empires of the Aghlabids , Idrisids , Salihids , Sulaymanids , Umayyads of Cordoba , Hammudids , Nasrids , Saadians , Alawites and the Sennusids , as well as the Berber empires of the Ifranids , Almoravids , Almohads , Hammadids , Zirids , Marinids , Zayyanids , Hafsids and Wattasids , extending from
5580-791: The Gulf of Tunis ( Carthage , Utica, Tunisia ) along the North African littoral , between the Pillars of Hercules and the Libyan coast east of ancient Cyrenaica . They dominated the trade and intercourse of the Western Mediterranean for centuries. Rome 's defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars (264 to 146 BC) enabled Rome to establish the Province of Africa (146 BC) and to control many of these ports. Rome eventually took control of
5735-564: The Huntington Library in San Marino, California , including 21 boxes of his manuscripts, 24 boxes of correspondence, and other material. Isabel wrote a biography in praise of her husband. The couple are buried in a tomb in the shape of a Bedouin tent , designed by Isabel, in the cemetery of St Mary Magdalen Roman Catholic Church Mortlake in southwest London. The coffins of Sir Richard and Lady Burton can be seen through
5890-640: The Kabyles were pushed to the north. The Berbers took refuge in the mountains whereas the plains were Arabized. These Arabs had been set upon the Berbers by the Fatimids in punishment for their Zirid former Berber clients who defected and abandoned Shiism in the 11th century. Throughout this period, the Maghreb most often was divided into three states, roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and Tunisia . The Maghreb region
6045-468: The Romani language . The peregrinations of Burton's youth may have encouraged him to regard himself as an outsider for much of his life. As he later wrote, "Do what thy manhood bids thee do, from none but self expect applause". On 19 November 1840, he matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford . Before getting a room at the college, Burton lived for a short time in the house of William Alexander Greenhill ,
6200-496: The Spanish Catholic Reconquista . Other European contributions included French, Italian, and English crews and passengers taken captive by corsairs . In some cases, they were returned to families after being ransomed; in others, they were used as slaves or assimilated and adopted into tribes. Historically, the Maghreb was home to significant historic Jewish communities called Maghrebim , who predated
6355-522: The Sunni Maliki school. Small Ibadi communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabouts and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. This practice was also common among the Jews of the region. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of " Sidi "s, showing places named after the marabouts. This tradition has declined through
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6510-706: The Tawaf . He travelled to Mount Arafat and participated in the stoning of the Devil , all the while taking notes on the Kaaba , its Black Stone and the Zamzam Well . Departing Mecca, he journeyed to Jeddah and then back to Cairo, returning to Army duty in Bombay . In India, Burton wrote his Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah , writing that "at Mecca there is nothing theatrical, nothing that suggests
6665-696: The Umayyad capital of Damascus in the 7th century AD. The term was used to refer to the region extending from Alexandria in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. Etymologically, it means both "the western place/land" and "the place where the sun sets", in contrast to the Mashriq , the Fertile Crescent and eastern part of the Arab world. In Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Ma'rifat al-Aqālīm (c. 985 AD), medieval Arab geographer Al-Maqdisi used
6820-447: The directors of the East India Company (EIC) to take leave from the Bombay Army. The seven years he spent in India gave Burton a familiarity with the customs and behaviour of Muslims and prepared him to attempt a Hajj to Mecca and Medina . He planned it whilst travelling disguised among Muslims in Sindh , and had laboriously prepared it by studying and practising Muslim culture, including undergoing circumcision to further lower
6975-442: The " pied noirs ", immigrated to the region, settling under French colonial rule in the late 19th century. As of the last census in French-ruled Algeria, taken on 1 June 1960, there were 1,050,000 non-Muslim civilians (mostly Catholic , but including 130,000 Algerian Jews ) in Algeria, 10 per cent of the population. They established farms and businesses. The overwhelming majority of these, however, left Algeria during and following
7130-452: The 10th century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Kairouan , Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribi, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean world. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had
7285-408: The 12th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Although there were numerous conversions after the conquest, Muslims did not become a majority until some time late in the 9th century. During the 10th century, Islam became by far the dominant religion in the region. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active and continued their relations with the Christian Church of Rome. As late as
7440-403: The 14th to 16th centuries, the Maghreb experienced an influx of Jews fleeing from Spain and Portugal due to growing persecution and the Spanish Inquisition . Following the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and the forced mass conversions in Portugal in 1497, many Sephardic Jews settled in North Africa, establishing new communities and integrating with the existing Jewish populations. In
7595-454: The 20th century. A network of zaouias traditionally helped teach basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions. Communities of Christians, mostly Catholics and Protestant , persist in Algeria (100,000–380,000), Mauritania (10,000), Morocco (~380,000), Libya (170,000), and Tunisia (100,750). Most of the Roman Catholics in Greater Maghreb are of French, Spanish, and Italian descent, with ancestors who immigrated during
7750-411: The 7th-century introduction and conversion of the region to Islam. The earliest recorded Jewish settlement in the region dates back to the third century BCE under Ptolemaic rule in what is now Libya, although Jewish presence may have begun even earlier. Jewish communities continued to develop throughout the Roman period in present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, with evidence of their existence during
7905-452: The 8th to 13th centuries. The Ottoman Empire also controlled parts of the region for a period. Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region was ruled by European powers: France ( Algeria , Tunisia , Mauritania and most of Morocco ), Spain ( northern Morocco and Western Sahara), and Italy ( Libya ). Italy
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#17327656571478060-404: The Arab migrations to the Maghreb increased genetic similarities between Maghrebis and Middle Easterners. Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and has spread from the Arabian Peninsula, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. A study from 2021 has shown that the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in
8215-400: The Arabization process, since the Berber population was gradually assimilated by the newcomers and had to share with them pastures and seasonal migration paths. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized. As Arab nomads spread, the territories of the local Berber tribes were moved and shrank. The Zenata were pushed to the west and
8370-416: The Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia , who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%. According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians and 34.2% in Tunisians. The Maghreb Y chromosome pool (including both Arab and Berber populations) may be summarized for most of the populations as follows, where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J comprise generally more than 80% of
8525-420: The Atlantic Ocean. Historians and geographers disagreed, however, over the definition of the eastern boundary. Some authors place it at the sea of Kulzum (the Red Sea ) and thus include Egypt and Barqa ( Cyrenaica ) in the Maghreb. Ibn Khaldun does not accept this definition because, he says, the inhabitants of the Maghreb do not consider Egypt and Barqa as forming part of Maghrib. The latter commences only at
8680-462: The British consul in Fernando Pó , Santos , Damascus and Trieste . Burton was also a Fellow of the RGS and was awarded a knighthood in 1886. His best-known achievements include undertaking the Hajj to Mecca in disguise, translating One Thousand and One Nights and The Perfumed Garden , publishing the Kama Sutra in English and attempting to discover the source of the Nile. Although he abandoned his university studies, Burton became
8835-444: The British explorer and diplomat Richard Francis Burton , Isabel Burton describes a heterodox branch of Shadhilis that resided in Damascus in the 1860s and 1870s known as the Ghayr-Sharai. She claims that they protected Christians during the massacre of 1860 . Another branch of the Shadhilia which has groups in Egypt, Indonesia, Turkey and America is the Batawiyya founded by Ibrahim al-Batawi, for many years professor at al-Azhar. He
8990-503: The Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century of the common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity. Its bishops spoke and wrote in Punic , and Emperor Septimius Severus was noted by his local accent. Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. Carthage subsequently exercised informal primacy as an archdiocese , being
9145-422: The Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1863), while Burton's Zanzibar; City, Island, and Coast was eventually published in 1872. Burton then departed on a trip to the United States in April 1860, eventually making it to Salt Lake City on 25 August. There he studied Mormonism and met Brigham Young . Burton departed San Francisco on 15 November for the voyage back to England, where he published The City of
9300-409: The Fassiyatash is selected from the heirs of al-Fassi and Shaykh Mahdhi ibn Abdallah al-Fassi is the present leader. The Darqawiyya , a Moroccan branch of the Shadhili order, was founded in the late 18th century by Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi. Selections from the letters of al-Darqawi were translated by the Shadhili Titus Burckhardt and more recently by the scholar Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley . One of
9455-450: The Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains. The pressure put on the Western Roman Empire by the Barbarian invasions (notably by the Vandals and Visigoths in Iberia) in the 5th century AD reduced Roman control and led to
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#17327656571479610-593: The Levant through Sheikh Muhammad al-Hashimi al-Tilmisani, the son of an Algerian qadi, who migrated to Damascus along with his spiritual guide Ibn Yallis. After the death of Ibn Yallis, Hashimi was authorized by Sheikh Ahmad al-'Alawi in the early 1920s and was made his deputy in Damascus. The most well known living spiritual guide of this branch of the Shadhili tariqa is Sheikh Nuh Ha Mim Keller , an American scholar, author, and translator, who resides in Amman, Jordan, and Sheikh Abd al-Aziz al-Khateeb from Damascus both were authorized by Sheikh Abd al Rahman Al Shaghouri, who
9765-421: The Levant. Due to the distribution of E-M81 (E1b1b1b1a), which has reached its highest documented levels in the world at 95–100% in some populations of the Maghreb, it has often been termed the "Berber marker" in the scientific literature. The second most common marker, Haplogroup J , especially J1 , which is typically Middle Eastern and originates in the Arabian peninsula, can reach frequencies of up to 35% in
9920-507: The Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the Maghreb in favor of the Arabs. Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were the moriscos and muladies , that is, the indigenous Spaniards (Moors) who were forcibly converted to Catholicism and later expelled, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, during
10075-443: The Maghreb region, such as the Idrisids , Aghlabids , Sulaymanids and more. While restricted due to the cost and dangers, the trade was highly profitable. Commodities traded included such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and slaves . Various Islamic variations, such as the Ibadis and the Shia , were adopted by some Berbers, often leading to scorning of Caliphal control in favour of their own interpretation of Islam. The invasion of
10230-557: The Maghreb up to the second half of the 20th century. In 2020, couscous was added to UNESCO 's Intangible Cultural Heritage list . Richard Francis Burton Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton , KCMG , FRGS , (19 March 1821 – 20 October 1890) was a British explorer, writer, scholar and military officer. He was famed for his travels and explorations in Asia, Africa and South America, as well as his extensive knowledge of languages and cultures, speaking up to 29 different languages. Born in Torquay , Devon , Burton joined
10385-451: The Maghreb. Medieval Muslim historians and geographers divided the Maghreb region into three areas: al-Maghrib al-Adna (the near Maghrib; also known as Ifriqiya ), which included the lands extending from Alexandria to Tarabulus (modern-day Tripoli ) in the west; al-Maghrib al-Awsat (the middle Maghrib), which extended from Tripoli to Bijaya ( Béjaïa ); and al-Maghrib al-Aqsa (the far Maghrib), which extended from Tahart ( Tiaret ) to
10540-427: The Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm (3.9 in) isohyet , or the southern range of the European Olive (Olea europea) and Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima) . The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while
10695-415: The Mediterranean Sea to the inhabitants of the regions of Southern Europe and Western Asia . These trade relations date back at least to the Phoenicians in the 1st millennium BC. (According to tradition, the Phoenicians founded their colony of Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) c. 800 BC ). Phoenicians and Carthaginians arrived for trade. The main Berber and Phoenician settlements centered in
10850-434: The Muslim conquest. The second major influence was the large-scale conversions to Islam from the end of the 9th century. Many Christians of a much reduced community departed in the mid-11th century, and remnants were evacuated in the 12th by the Norman rulers of Sicily. The Latin-African language lingered a while longer. There was a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow
11005-402: The Order is named after. The Maryamiyya Order was largely formed around Perennial philosophy and Neoplatonism , and heavily influenced by Advaita Vedanta and Guénon's Traditionalist School . Miguel Asín Palacios has suggested that the Shadhili order drew detailed connections between the teachings of ibn Abbad al-Rundi and John of the Cross , such as in the account of the Dark Night of
11160-545: The Portuguese national epic by Luís de Camões , in 1880 and, the next year, wrote a sympathetic biography of the poet and adventurer. The book The Jew, the Gipsy and el Islam was published posthumously in 1898 and was controversial for its criticism of Jews and for its assertion of the existence of Jewish human sacrifices . Burton's investigations into this had provoked hostility from the Jews of Damascus . The manuscript of
11315-573: The Protestant community of Berber or Arab descent has grown significantly as additional individuals convert to Christianity , especially to Evangelicalism . This has occurred in Algeria, especially in the Kabylie , Morocco, and in Tunisia. The Catholic population in Libya is estimated to number 100,000, The Catholics are the largest Christian denomination, followed by c. 60,000 Copts and
11470-554: The Saints and Across the Rocky Mountains to California . A prolonged public quarrel followed, damaging the reputations of both Burton and Speke. Some biographers have suggested that friends of Speke (particularly Laurence Oliphant ) had initially stirred up trouble between the two. Burton's sympathizers contend that Speke resented Burton's leadership role. Tim Jeal , who has accessed Speke's personal papers, suggests that it
11625-827: The Soul . José Nieto, on the other hand, argues that these mystical doctrines are quite general, and that while similarities exist between the works of John, ibn Abbad and other Shadhilis, these reflect independent development, not influence. Every tariqa must have a chain of transmission and authorization to be recognized as valid. Most of the chains start from Ali ibn Abi Talib and goes as 2 branches one through his son Hasan ibn Ali and another through Husayn ibn Ali. [REDACTED] Media related to Shadhili at Wikimedia Commons Maghreb The Maghreb ( / ˈ m ɑː ɡ r ə b / ; Arabic : ْاَلْمَغْرِب , romanized : al-Maghrib , lit. 'the west' [ælˈmaɣrɪb] ), also known as
11780-684: The Thousand Nights and a Night (commonly called The Arabian Nights in English after early translations of Antoine Galland 's French version) in ten volumes (1885), with seven further volumes being added later. The volumes were printed by the Kama Shastra Society in a subscribers-only edition of one thousand with a guarantee that there would never be a larger printing of the books in this form. The stories collected were often sexual in content and were considered pornography at
11935-805: The ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was weak at the time anyway. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in the Mediterranean trade. This facilitated contacts between the Maghrebi and European Jewish communities, particularly in trade in the pre-colonial period. The most important points of contact were Livorno in Italy with its harbour frequented by Tunisian merchants and Marseille in France with its counterpart,
12090-641: The anthropologist David Buchman. In his article "The Underground Friends of God and Their Adversaries: A Case Study and Survey of Sufism in Contemporary Yemen", Professor Buchman summarizes the results of his six-month period of fieldwork in Yemen. The article was originally published in the journal Yemen Update The Darqawi-Alawi branch of the Shadili Tariqa established itself in Damascus and
12245-422: The area as well as they wished. Burton was again taken ill on the return journey; Speke continued exploring without him, making a journey to the north and eventually locating the great Lake Victoria , or Victoria Nyanza, on 3 August. Lacking supplies and proper instruments, Speke was unable to survey the area properly, but was privately convinced that it was the long-sought source of the Nile. Burton's description of
12400-635: The area was in some turmoil at the time, with considerable tensions between the Christian, Jewish and Muslim populations. Burton did his best to keep the peace and resolve the situation, but this sometimes led him into trouble. On one occasion, he claims to have escaped an attack by hundreds of armed horsemen and camel riders sent by Mohammed Rashid Pasha, the Governor of Syria. He wrote, "I have never been so flattered in my life than to think it would take three hundred men to kill me." Burton eventually suffered
12555-482: The bile of the dons by speaking real—that is, Roman—Latin instead of the artificial type peculiar to England, and he spoke Greek Romaically, with the accent of Athens , as he had learned it from a Greek merchant at Marseilles , as well as the classical forms. Such a linguistic feat was a tribute to Burton's remarkable ear and memory, for he was only a teenager when he was in Italy and southern France." In his own words, "fit for nothing but to be shot at for six pence
12710-551: The book in 1883 and numerous editions of the Burton translation are in print to this day. His English translation from a French edition of the Arabic erotic guide The Perfumed Garden was printed as The Perfumed Garden of the Cheikh Nefzaoui: A Manual of Arabian Erotology (1886). After Burton's death, Isabel burnt many of his papers, including a manuscript of a subsequent translation, The Scented Garden , containing
12865-495: The book included an appendix discussing the topic in more detail, but by the decision of his widow, it was not included in the book when published. Burton died in Trieste early on the morning of 20 October 1890 of a heart attack. His wife Isabel persuaded a priest to perform the last rites, although Burton was not a Catholic, and this action later caused a rift between Isabel and some of Burton's friends. It has been suggested that
13020-638: The coast of West Africa, documenting his findings in Abeokuta and The Cameroons Mountains : An Exploration (1863), and A Mission to Gelele , King of Dahome (1864). He described some of his experiences, including a trip up the Congo River to the Yellala Falls and beyond, in his 1876 book Two trips to gorilla land and the cataracts of the Congo . The couple were reunited in 1865 when Burton
13175-616: The coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya — was expanded in modern times to include Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. During the era of al-Andalus on the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492), the Maghreb's inhabitants — the Muslim Maghrebis — were known by Europeans as the " Moors ". The Greeks referred to the region as the "Land of the Atlas", referring to its Atlas Mountains. Before
13330-409: The colonial era. Some are foreign missionaries or immigrant workers. There are also Christian communities of Berber or Arab descent in Greater Maghreb, made up of persons who converted mostly during the modern era, or under and after French colonialism . Prior to independence, Algeria was home to 1.4 million pieds-noirs (ethnic French who were mostly Catholic), and Morocco was home to half
13485-454: The death occurred very late on 19 October and that Burton was already dead by the time the last rites were administered. On his religious views, Burton called himself an atheist, stating he was raised in the Church of England , which he said was "officially (his) church". Isabel never recovered from the loss. After his death she burned many of her husband's papers, including journals and
13640-528: The early centuries CE. During the early Muslim era, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, despite facing intermittent persecution, notably under the Almohads . The influx of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, fleeing pogroms, forced conversions and expulsions in the 14th to 16th centuries, further augmented the Jewish presence in North Africa. Another significant group
13795-538: The early centuries CE. Under early Muslim rule, Jews flourished in major urban centers such as Kairouan, Fez, and Tunis, with the Jewish community in Kairouan particularly noted for its significant intellectual and cultural contributions. However, Jews also encountered periods of persecution, particularly under the Almohad Caliphate (12th–13th centuries), which imposed severe restrictions on non-Muslims. In
13950-576: The enmity of the Greek Christian and Jewish communities. Then, his involvement with the Sházlis , a Sufi Muslim order among whom was a group that Burton called "Secret Christians longing for baptism", which Isabel called "his ruin." He was recalled in August 1871, prompting him to send a telegram to Isabel: "I am recalled. Pay, pack, and follow at convenience." Burton was reassigned in 1872 to
14105-524: The entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains. Rome was greatly helped by the defection of Massinissa (later King of Numidia, r. 202 – 148 BC ) and of Carthage's eastern Numidian Massylii client-allies. Some of the most mountainous regions, such as the Moroccan Rif , remained outside Roman control. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians
14260-401: The entrance of the first [white] Christian, Harar will fall." With Burton's entry, the tradition was broken. The journey back was plagued by lack of supplies, and Burton wrote that he would have died of thirst had he not seen desert birds and realized they would be near water. He made it back to Berbera on 31 January 1855. Following this expedition, Burton prepared to set out in search of
14415-564: The establishment of modern nation states in the region during the 20th century, the Maghreb most commonly referred to a smaller area, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the south. It often also included the territory of eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century, the term "Maghreb" was used to refer to the western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia in particular. During
14570-666: The establishment of the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa in 430 A.D., with its capital at Carthage. A century later, the Byzantine emperor Justinian I sent (533) a force under General Belisarius that succeeded in destroying the Vandal Kingdom in 534. Byzantine rule lasted for 150 years. The Berbers contested the extent of Byzantine control. After the advent of Islam in Mediterranean Africa in
14725-851: The final chapter of the work, on pederasty . Burton all along intended for this translation to be published after his death, to provide an income for his widow. By the end of his life, Burton had mastered at least 26 languages – or 40, if distinct dialects are counted. 1. English 2. French 3. Occitan 4. Italian 5. Romani 6. Latin 7. Classical Greek 8. Saraiki 9. Hindustani 10. Sindhi 11. Marathi 12. Arabic 13. Persian (Farsi) 14. Pushtu 15. Sanskrit 16. Portuguese 17. Spanish 18. German 19. Icelandic 20. Swahili 21. Amharic 22. Fan 23. Yoruba 24. Asante 25. Hebrew 26. Aramaic 27. Many other West African & Indian dialects Burton's writings are unusually open and frank about his interest in sex and sexuality . His travel writing
14880-747: The first tariqas to be established in the West was the Alawiya branch of the Darqawiyya, which was named after Ahmad al-Alawi, popularly known as "Shaykh al-Alawi". The 'Attasiyah Order is a branch of the 'Alawi Order, founded by Umar bin Abdur Rahman bin Aqil al-Attas. It is centered in Yemen but also has centers in Pakistan, India, and Myanmar . The 'Alawiya order in Yemen has recently been studied by
15035-571: The globe. A few prominent branches are listed below. The Fassiyatush was established by Imam Fassi, a Moroccan by origin who was born in Mecca . Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya is widely practised in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Mauritius and Indonesia. The descendants of al-Fassi who are sheikhs of the Fassiyatush and reside in Mecca and Jeddah visit these countries frequently. The international leader of
15190-482: The harbour for Algeria and Morocco. The Maghreb region produced spices and leather, from shoes to handbags. As many of the Maghrebi Jews were craftsmen and merchants, they had contact with their European customers. Today, among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000. The Maghreb is divided into a Mediterranean climate region in
15345-476: The heterogenous Maghrebi ethnic melting pot. A study from 2017 suggested that these Arab migrations were a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies. Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with the Middle East , and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe . The recent gene flow caused by
15500-562: The historical and intellectual superiority of the white race, citing his involvement in the Anthropological Society of London , an organisation which supported scientific racism . Speke appears to have been kinder and less intrusive to the Africans they encountered, and reportedly fell in love with an African woman on a later expedition. The two men travelled home separately. Speke returned to London first and presented
15655-572: The instigator of a mutiny among the unit, damaging his reputation and disgracing Beatson. In 1856, the Royal Geographical Society funded another expedition for Burton and Speke, "and exploration of the then utterly unknown Lake regions of Central Africa ." They would travel from Zanzibar to Ujiji along a caravan route established in 1825 by an Arab ivory and slave merchant. The Great Journey commenced on 5 June 1857 with their departure from Zanzibar, where they had stayed at
15810-890: The journey is given in Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa (1860). Speke gave his own account in The Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1863). Burton and Speke made it back to Zanzibar on 4 March 1859, and left on 22 March for Aden. Speke immediately boarded the HMS ; Furious for London, where he gave lectures, and was awarded a second expedition by the Society. Burton arrived London on 21 May, discovering "My companion now stood forth in his new colours, an angry rival." Speke additionally published What Led to
15965-496: The majority of J1 (Eu10) chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to the recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE. The J-M267 chromosome pool in the Maghreb is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but to a much greater extent from recent expansions of Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula , during which both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs added to
16120-407: The most important center of Christianity in the whole of Roman Africa , corresponding to most of today's Mediterranean coast and inland of Northern Africa . The region produced figures such as Christian church writer Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian martyrs or leading figures such as Perpetua, and Felicity (martyrs, c. 200 CE); St. Cyprian of Carthage (+ 258); St. Monica ; her son
16275-672: The north, and the arid Sahara in the south. The Maghreb's variations in elevation, rainfall, temperature, and soils give rise to distinct communities of plants and animals. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identifies several distinct ecoregions in the Maghreb. The portions of the Maghreb between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea , along with coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub . These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions of Mediterranean Basin . The southern extent of
16430-864: The notable contributions of Muhammad al-Jazuli , author of the Dala'il al-Khayrat , and al-Busiri , author of the famous poem, the Al-Burda or "The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation". Many of the head lecturers of al-Azhar University in Cairo have also been followers of this tariqa. Of the various branches of the Shadhili are the Fassiyatush of Imam Fassi , found largely in India , Sri Lanka , and Pakistan . The Darqawiyya of Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi
16585-569: The opera, but all is simple and impressive... tending, I believe, after its fashion, to good." Although Burton was not the first non-Muslim European to undertake the Hajj, with Ludovico di Varthema doing it in 1503 and Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1815, his attempt is the most famous and the best documented of the period. He adopted various disguises, including that of a Pashtun , to account for any oddities in speech, but he still had to demonstrate an understanding of intricate Islamic traditions, and
16740-402: The period from 639 to 700 AD, Arabs took control of the entire Maghreb region. The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early Umayyad times in the 7th century, and from then the Arab migration to the Maghreb began. Islamic Berber kingdoms such as the Almohads expansion and the spread of Islam contributed to the development of trans-Saharan trade . In addition, several Arab dynasties formed in
16895-404: The philosopher St. Augustine , Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St. Julia of Carthage (5th century). Donatist Christianity mainly spread among the indigenous Berber population, and from the late fifth and early sixth century, the region included several Christian Berber kingdoms. Islam arrived in 647 and challenged the domination of Christianity. The first permanent foothold of Islam
17050-586: The poem contains many laments that are accented with fleeting imagery such as repeated comparisons to "the tinkling of the Camel bell" that becomes inaudible as the animal vanishes in the darkness of the desert. Other works of note include a collection of Hindu tales, Vikram and the Vampire (1870); and his uncompleted history of swordsmanship , The Book of the Sword (1884). He also translated The Lusiads ,
17205-477: The port city of Trieste in Austria-Hungary . A "broken man", Burton was never particularly content with this post, but it required little work, was far less dangerous than Damascus (as well as less exciting), and allowed him the freedom to write and travel. In 1863, Burton co-founded the Anthropological Society of London with Dr. James Hunt . In Burton's own words, the main aim of the society (through
17360-439: The province of Tripoli and includes the districts of which the country of the Berbers was composed in former times. Later Maghribi writers repeated the definition of Ibn Khaldun, with a few variations in details. The term Maghrib is used in opposition to Mashriq in a sense near to that which it had in medieval times, but it also denotes simply Morocco when the full al-Maghrib al-Aqsa is abbreviated. Certain politicians seek
17515-605: The publication of the periodical Anthropologia ) was "to supply travellers with an organ that would rescue their observations from the outer darkness of manuscript and print their curious information on social and sexual matters". On 13 February 1886, Burton was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) by Queen Victoria . He wrote a number of travel books in this period that were not particularly well received. His best-known contributions to literature were those considered risqué or even pornographic at
17670-533: The region had a population of over 100 million people. The Maghreb is usually defined as encompassing much of the northern part of Africa, including a large portion of the Sahara Desert , but excluding Egypt and the Sudan , which are considered to be located in the Mashriq — the eastern part of the Arab world. The traditional definition of the Maghreb — which restricted its scope to the Atlas Mountains and
17825-488: The region. Its highest density is found in the Arabian Peninsula . Haplogroup R1 , a Eurasian marker, has also been observed in the Maghreb, though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arabic speakers and Berber-speakers. Haplogroup E is thought to have emerged in prehistoric North Africa or East Africa, and would have later dispersed into West Asia. The major subclades of haplogroup E found amongst Berbers belong to E-Z827 , which
17980-528: The reign of Pope Benedict VII (974–983), a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. From the 10th century, Christianity declined in the region. By the end of the 11th century, only two bishops were left in Carthage and Hippo Regius . Pope Gregory VII (1073–85) consecrated a new bishop for Hippo. Christianity seems to have suffered several shocks that led to its demise. First, many upper-class, urban-dwelling, Latin-speaking Christians left for Europe after
18135-672: The residence of Atkins Hamerton , the British consul, their caravan consisting of Baluchi mercenaries led by Ramji, 36 porters, eventually a total of 132 persons, all led by the caravan leader Said bin Salim. From the beginning, Burton and Speke were hindered by disease, malaria, fevers and other maladies, at times both having to be carried in a hammock. Pack animals died, and natives deserted, taking supplies with them. Yet, on 7 November 1857, they made it to Kazeh , and departed for Ujiji on 14 December. Speke wanted to head north, sure they would find
18290-607: The risk of being discovered. Burton's undertaking of the Hajj in 1853 was his realisation of "the plans and hopes of many and many a year... to study thoroughly the inner life of the Moslem." He donned the guise of a Persian mirza , and then a Sunni sheikh , doctor, magician and dervish , accompanied by an enslaved Indian boy named Nūr. In April, he travelled through Alexandria before reaching Cairo by May, where Burton stayed during Ramadan in June. He further equipped himself with
18445-620: The road to Harar was safe. On 29 December, Burton met with Gerard Adan in the village of Sagharrah, and openly proclaimed himself as a British officer with a letter for the Emir of Harar. On 3 January 1855, Burton made it to Harar, and was graciously met by the Emir. He stayed in the city for ten days, officially a guest of the Emir but in reality his prisoner. Burton also investigated local landmarks in Harar; according to him, "A tradition exists that with
18600-677: The rule of the Berber kingdom of Numidia , the region was somewhat unified as an independent political entity. This period was followed by one of the Roman Empire 's rule or influence. The Germanic Vandals invaded after that, followed by the equally brief re-establishment of a weak Roman rule by the Byzantine Empire . The Islamic caliphates came to power under the Umayyad Caliphate , the Abbasid Caliphate and
18755-418: The seven years in India as time wasted." Yet he had "already passed the official examinations in six languages and was studying two more and was eminently qualified." His religious experiences were varied, including attending Catholic services , becoming a Naga Brahmin, converting to Sikhism and Islam , and undergoing chilla for Qadiriyya Sufism . Regarding Burton's Muslim beliefs, Rice stated that "he
18910-409: The society and those who shared its views as Mrs Grundy . A way around this was the private circulation of books amongst the members of a society. For this reason Burton, together with Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot , created the Kama Shastra Society to print and circulate books that would be illegal to publish in public. One of the most celebrated of all his books is his translation of The Book of
19065-520: The source of the Nile , accompanied by Speke and a number of Africans porters and expedition guides. The Indian Navy schooner HCS Mahi transported them to Berbera on 7 April 1855. While the expedition was camped near Berbera , they were attacked by a group of Somali warriors from the Isaaq clan. The British estimated the number of attackers at 200. In the ensuing fight, Speke was wounded in eleven places before he managed to escape, while Burton
19220-547: The source of the Nile at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science . On the day before the debate, Burton and Speke sat near each other in the lecture hall. According to Burton's wife, Speke stood up, said "I can't stand this any longer," and abruptly left the hall. That afternoon Speke went hunting on the nearby estate of a relative. He was discovered lying near a stone wall, felled by
19375-432: The source of the Nile at what he later named Victoria Nyanza , but Burton persisted in heading west. The expedition arrived at Lake Tanganyika on 13 February 1858. Burton was awestruck by the sight of the magnificent lake, but Speke, who had been temporarily blinded, was unable to see the body of water. By this point much of their surveying equipment was lost, ruined or stolen, and they were unable to complete surveys of
19530-419: The staple foods, as opposed to Eastern Arab, where bread, crushed wheat or white rice are the staple foods. In terms of food, some similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world. Among other cultural and artistic traditions, jewellery of the Berber cultures worn by Amazigh women and made of silver, beads and other applications was a common trait of Berber identities in large areas of
19685-526: The strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) . The countries of the Maghreb share many cultural similarities and traditions. Among these is a culinary tradition that Habib Bourguiba defined as Western Arab, where bread or couscous are
19840-520: The term Arab regions ( Arabic : أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ ) to refer to the lands of Arabia , Iraq , Upper Mesopotamia , Egypt and the Maghreb. This constituted the earliest documented differentiation between the terms Maghreb and Gharb (Muslim lands west of the Abbasid capital, Baghdad ). The former referred to the present-day Maghreb whereas the latter incorporated the Levant and Egypt in addition to
19995-410: The tests; despite Burton's success in living like an Arab, Playfair recommended to the committee that Burton be failed. Badger later told Burton that "After looking [Burton's test] over, I sent them back to [Playfair] with a note eulogising your attainments and... remarking on the absurdity of the Bombay Committee being made to judge your proficiency inasmuch as I did not believe that any of them possessed
20150-444: The time considered the Kama Shastra Society and the books it published scandalous. Biographers disagree on whether or not Burton ever experienced homosexual sex (he never directly acknowledges it in his writing). Rumours began in his army days when Charles James Napier requested that Burton go undercover to investigate a male brothel reputed to be frequented by British soldiers. It has been suggested that Burton's detailed report on
20305-400: The time of publication. In particular, the Terminal Essay in volume 10 of the Nights contained a 14,000-word essay entitled " Pederasty " (Volume 10, section IV, D), at the time a synonym for homosexuality (as it still is, in modern French). This was and remained for many years the longest and most explicit discussion of homosexuality in any language. Burton speculated that male homosexuality
20460-558: The time, which were published under the auspices of the Kama Shastra society. These books include The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana (1883) (popularly known as the Kama Sutra ), The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1885) (popularly known as The Arabian Nights ), The Perfumed Garden of the Shaykh Nefzawi (1886) and The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night (seventeen volumes 1886–98). Published in this period but composed on his return journey from Mecca, The Kasidah has been cited as evidence of Burton's status as
20615-453: The title of Hajji and to wear the green turban . While back in India, Burton sat for the examination as an Arab linguist for the EIC. The examiner was Robert Lambert Playfair , who mistrusted Burton. As academic George Percy Badger knew Arabic well, Playfair asked Badger to oversee the exam. Having been told that Burton could be vindictive, and wishing to avoid any animosity should he fail, Badger declined. Eventually, Playfair conducted
20770-446: The total chromosomes: The original religions of the peoples of the Maghreb seem to have been based in and related to fertility cults of a strong matriarchal pantheon . This theory is based on the social and linguistic structures of the Amazigh cultures that antedated all Egyptian and eastern Asian, northern Mediterranean, and European influences. Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in
20925-433: The vast majority of the genetic markers of the populations of the Maghreb. Haplogroup E1b1b is the most frequent among Maghrebi groups, especially the downstream lineage of E1b1b1b1a , which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. Haplogroup J1 is the second most frequent among Maghrebi groups and is more indicative of Middle East origins, and has its highest distribution among populations in Arabia and
21080-399: The war for independence. In comparison to the population of France, the Maghrebi population was one-eighth of France's population in 1800, one-quarter in 1900, and equal in 2000. The Maghreb is home to 1% of the global population as of 2010. The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be modulated chiefly by geography. The Y-DNA Haplogroups E1b1b and J make up
21235-403: The workings of the brothel led some to believe he had been a customer. There is no documentary evidence that such a report was written or submitted, nor that Napier ordered such research by Burton, and it has been argued that this is one of Burton's embellishments. A story that haunted Burton up to his death (recounted in some of his obituaries) was that, during his journey to Mecca disguised as
21390-434: Was a confrere of Sheikh Abdu-l-Halim Mahmud, Shaikh al-Azhar, who was very influential in the revival of Sufism in Egypt. Sheikh Ibrahim's student, Nooruddeen Durkee , has established the Battawi order in the United States. Nooruddeen Durkee has translated and transliterated the Qur'an and has compiled two definitive books on the Shadhali, including The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons . The Maryamiyya Order
21545-687: Was an Anglo-Irish officer in the British Army 's 36th (Herefordshire) Regiment of Foot . Joseph, through his mother's family, the Campbells of Tuam , was a first cousin of Henry Pearce Driscoll and Eliza Graves . Burton's mother, Martha Baker, was the daughter and co-heiress of Richard Baker, a wealthy Hertfordshire squire whom Burton was named after. He had two siblings, Maria Katherine Elizabeth Burton (who married Lieutenant-General Sir Henry William Stisted ) and Edward Joseph Netterville Burton. Burton's family travelled extensively during his childhood and employed various tutors to educate him. In 1825, they moved to Tours in France. In 1829, Burton began
21700-663: Was appointed as the British consul in Damascus , an ideal post for someone with Burton's knowledge of the region and customs. According to Ed Rice , "England wanted to know what was going on in the Levant ," another chapter in The Great Game . Yet, the Turkish governor Mohammed Rashid 'Ali Pasha feared anti-Turkish activities, and was opposed to Burton's assignment. In Damascus, Burton made friends with Abdelkader al-Jazairi , while Isabel befriended Jane Digby , calling her "my most intimate friend." Burton also met Charles F. Tyrwhitt-Drake and Edward Henry Palmer , collaborating with Drake in writing Unexplored Syria (1872). However,
21855-415: Was circumcised, and made a Muslim, and lived like a Muslim and prayed and practiced like one." Furthermore, Burton, "was entitled to call himself a hāfiz , one who can recite the Qur'ān from memory." Motivated by his love for adventure, Burton gained the approval of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) for an exploration of the Middle East , and, now at the rank of captain, received permission from
22010-566: Was culpable for this disaster. While he was largely cleared of any blame, his career prospects were damaged. He described the attack in First Footsteps in East Africa (1856). After recovering from his wounds in London , Burton travelled to Constantinople during the Crimean War , seeking an officer's commission . He received one from Major-General William Ferguson Beatson as the chief of staff for Beatson's Horse , an irregular Ottoman cavalry unit stationed in Gallipoli . Burton returned to England after an incident which implicated him as
22165-492: Was expelled from North Africa by the Allies in World War II . Decolonization of the region continued in the decades thereafter, with violent conflicts such as the Algerian War , the Ifni War and the Western Sahara War . Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia established the Arab Maghreb Union in 1989 to promote cooperation and economic integration in a common market . The union implicitly included Western Sahara under Morocco's membership. However, this progress
22320-408: Was founded by Swiss-German metaphysician Frithjof Schuon , author of The Transcendent Unity of Religions , among other influential books, as an outgrowth of the Alawiyya order. In 1946, the disciples of a group he led in Switzerland declared him to be an "independent master", spurring him to create his own order. In 1965, he began having visions of Maryam (as the Virgin Mary is known in Islam), who
22475-440: Was himself a student of Sheikh Muhammad al-Hashimi al-Tilmisani. Sheikh Muhammad Said al-Jamal ar-Rifa'i , another student of Sheikh Muhammad al-Hashimi al-Tilmisani and who died in 2015, had worked from the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem and was a mufti of the Hanbali Madhab. He wrote many books on Sufism, tafsir, and healing and his students established the University of Spiritual Healing and Sufism. In her biography of her husband,
22630-415: Was impaled with a javelin, the point entering one cheek and exiting the other, leaving a permanent scar; he was forced to escape with the weapon still transfixing his head. Burton subsequently wrote that the Somalis were a "fierce and turbulent race". However, the failure of this expedition was viewed harshly by the British authorities, and a two-year investigation was set up to determine to what extent Burton
22785-538: Was more likely the other way around, Burton being jealous and resentful of Speke's determination and success. "As the years went by, [Burton] would neglect no opportunity to deride and undermine Speke's geographical theories and achievements". Speke had earlier proven his mettle by trekking through the mountains of Tibet , but Burton regarded him as inferior as he did not speak any Arabic or African languages. Despite his fascination with non-European cultures, some have portrayed Burton as an unabashed imperialist convinced of
22940-401: Was not promoted further, either in army life or in the diplomatic service. As an obituary described: "...he was ill fitted to run in official harness, and he had a Byronic love of shocking people, of telling tales against himself that had no foundation in fact." Ouida reported: "Men at the FO [Foreign Office] ... used to hint dark horrors about Burton, and certainly justly or unjustly he
23095-654: Was occasionally briefly unified, as under the Almohad Caliphate , Fatimids and briefly under the Zirids . The Hammadids also managed to conquer land in all countries in the Maghreb region. After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France , Spain , and later Italy . Today, more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, as of 1999 there were 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (defined as having at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco, or Tunisia). A 2003 estimate suggests six million French residents were ethnic Maghrebi. The Maghreb
23250-460: Was one of the many peculiar habits that set him apart from other British officers in India. While in the Bombay Army, he kept a large menagerie of tame monkeys in the hopes of learning their language , accumulating sixty "words". He also earned the nickname "Ruffian Dick" for his "demonic ferocity as a fighter and because he had fought in single combat more enemies than perhaps any other man of his time". According to Rice, "Burton now regarded
23405-470: Was prevalent in an area of the southern latitudes named by him the " Sotadic zone ". Perhaps Burton's best-known book is his translation of The Kama Sutra . It is untrue that he was the translator, since the original manuscript was in ancient Sanskrit , which he could not read. However, he collaborated with Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot on the work and provided translations from other manuscripts of later translations. The Kama Shastra Society first printed
23560-621: Was said to enjoy the notoriety and even once laughingly claimed to have done it. A doctor once asked him: "How do you feel when you have killed a man?", Burton retorted: "Quite jolly, what about you?". When asked by a priest about the same incident Burton is said to have replied: "Sir, I'm proud to say I have committed every sin in the Decalogue ." Stanley Lane-Poole , a Burton detractor, reported that Burton "confessed rather shamefacedly that he had never killed anybody at any time." These allegations coupled with Burton's often irascible nature were said to have harmed his career and may explain why he
23715-424: Was short-lived, and the union is now largely dormant. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged, reinforced by the unresolved border dispute between the two countries. These two conflicts have hindered progress on the union's joint goals. The toponym maghrib ( Arabic : مغرب ) is an Arabic term that the first Muslim Arab settlers gave to the recently conquered area situated west of
23870-429: Was the founding in 667 of the city of Kairouan , in present-day Tunisia . Carthage fell to Muslims in 698 and the remainder of the region fell by 709. Islamization proceeded slowly. From the end of the 7th century, over a period of more than 400 years, the region's peoples converted to Islam. Many left during this time for Italy, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until
24025-431: Was transferred to Santos in Brazil. Once there, Burton travelled through Brazil's central highlands, canoeing down the São Francisco River from its source to the falls of Paulo Afonso . He documented his experiences in The Highlands of Brazil (1869). In 1868 and 1869, he made two visits to the war zone of the Paraguayan War , which he described in his Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay (1870). In 1868, he
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