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128-668: Its foundation can be traced back to the semi-mythological figure of Hyeokgeose of Silla (Old Korean: *pulkunae, "light of the world"), of the Park clan . The country was first ruled intermittently by the Miryang Park clan for 232 years and the Wolseong Seok clan for 172 years and beginning with the reign of Michu Isageum the Gyeongju Kim clan for 586 years. Park, Seok and Kim have no contemporary attestations and went by

256-469: A "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually. The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy. The " Hwabaek " (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to

384-559: A Baekje priest who had been expelled from Baekje and had settled in Silla before becoming king. Though not much is known about Hyeokgeose, his many legacies and reminders survive to this day. One of them being his numerous descendants, the Park clans of Korea , who are numbered as the third largest group of people with a common last name. All the Park clans in Korea trace their ancestry back to

512-463: A Chinese character that means "live, dwell, reside, sit," is used to transcribe the Korean prenominal adjective inflection ㄴ -n ~ 은 -eun "~ that is (bright/red), ~ which is (bright/red)." 世 se , a Chinese character that means "a generation; spanning many generations, one generation after another, longstanding, hereditary; a world, all the people living in the world; an epoch, an era, a period, an age;

640-588: A Goguryeo relief force at the Battle of Mount Jupil . Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict. However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be Yang Manchun ) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under

768-695: A blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms. The Records of the Three Kingdoms , in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language. Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo. Book 28 of Samguk sagi stated that "many people of China fled [to] East of

896-402: A brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land ( jikjeon , 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or nog-eup , 녹읍, 祿邑). By

1024-591: A burgeoning metropolitan capital, which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Songhua River to the north. He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu , located in eastern Mongolia, with his Rouran allies. Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of

1152-643: A combination of Guryeo and the prefix Go ( Korean :  고 ; Hanja :  高 ; lit.  high, big). The name came from Goguryeo- hyeon , a subdivision that was established by the Xuantu Commandery . As Han influence over Korea declined, Goguryeo-hyeon became the center of the early Goguryeo union. From the mid-5th century, Goguryeo was shortened to the calque of Goryeo ( Korean :  고려 ; Hanja :  高麗 ; Korean pronunciation: [ko.ɾjʌ] ; Middle Korean : 고ᇢ롕〮, Kwòwlyéy ), which by itself had

1280-532: A formal alliance with Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery . When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei War in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However,

1408-568: A great crisis. Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak ( Korean :  태학 ; Hanja :  太學 ). Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and Baekje , Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in

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1536-631: A group label associated with Yemaek tribes is a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery. According to Book 37 of the Samguk sagi , Goguryeo originated north of ancient China , then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River. At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be

1664-702: A lifetime; a dynasty, a reign, a regime" is used to transcribe an ancient word related to the obsolescent Korean word 뉘 nuy ~ 누리 nuri "world" (which, according to the Samguk yusa , has been used in this context in the sense of "governance, rule"). The Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa describe the founding of Silla by Hyeokgeose. Refugees of Gojoseon lived in the valleys of present-day Gyeongsang Province , South Korea, in six villages called Yangsan ( 양산촌 ; 楊山村 ), Goheo ( 고허촌 ; 高墟村 ), Jinji ( 진지촌 ; 珍支村 ), Daesu ( 대수촌 ; 大樹村 ), Gari ( 가리촌; ; 加利村 ), and Goya ( 고야촌; ; 高耶村 ). In 69 BC,

1792-442: A major campaign against Goguryeo. In 645, Emperor Taizong , who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where Emperor Yang had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important Yodong/Liaodong Fortress (遼東城, in modern Liaoyang , Liaoning ). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to

1920-528: A prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called Jolbon Buyeo , usually thought to be located in the middle Amnok/Yalu and Hun River basin. In 75 BC, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu Commandery west of the Yalu. The first mention of Goguryeo as

2048-527: A small group of his followers from his native country. A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the Samguk sagi says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support in founding

2176-566: A strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River ( Seoul ) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the Hwarang . The early period ended with the death of Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" ( 성골 ; seonggol ) rank system. The royal title Maripgan ( 마립간 )

2304-460: Is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the Korean root or from a word related to Middle Korean marh meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)". The second element, gan ( Hangul : 간), is a likely cognate to han ( Hangul : 한) and the word for "big, great" keun, first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry

2432-456: Is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for

2560-485: Is in the 4th-century Gwanggaeto Stele . Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 Jumong , 鄒牟 Chumo , or 仲牟 Jungmo . The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of Habaek ( Korean :  하백 ; Hanja :  河伯 ), the god of the Amnok River or, according to an alternative interpretation,

2688-895: Is now northeastern Korea as well as the Dongye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the Han Commanderies of Lelang and Xuantu on the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from them. Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to

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2816-489: Is pronounced Silla . According to the Samguk sagi , the name of 新羅 ( Silla ), consisting of the components sin ( 新 ), as in deogeobilsin ( 德業日新 ) and ra , as in mangnasabang ( 網羅四方 ) is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation. The modern Seoul is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods even in official documents, despite

2944-470: Is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu ( Korean :  비류국 ; Hanja :  沸流國 ) in 36 BC, Haeng-in ( Korean :  행인국 ; Hanja :  荇人國 ) in 33 BC, and Northern Okjeo in 28 BC. Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. In

3072-437: Is thought to have been founded first, followed by Goguryeo, and then Baekje. Archaeological evidence, however, paints a different picture, and it is suspected that Goguryeo is the oldest of the three kingdoms, with Silla developing either concurrently with Baekje or after it. According to the Samguk sagi , Hyeokgeose and his queen traveled the realm in 41 BC, helping the people improve their harvests. The people praised them as

3200-512: The Shinsen Shōjiroku , Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in Samguk sagi claims that a Japanese man named, Hogong helped build the kingdom of Silla. In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro ( 사로국 ; 斯盧國 ), initially founded by Yemaek refugees from Gojoseon . It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from

3328-493: The hanja for his honorific name , pronounced "Bulgeunae" ( 불그내; ; 弗矩内 ) in archaic Korean, meaning "bright world." 赫 hyeok , a Chinese character that means "bright, radiant, glowing" (from doubling the character for 赤 jeok "red"), is used to transcribe the Korean adjective stem 븕 bylg- > 붉 bulg- "red" (< ancient Korean word for "red; brightly colored; bright," related to Korean 블 byl > 불 bul "fire" and ᄇᆞᆰ bawlg- > 밝 balg- "bright, light"). 居 geo ,

3456-556: The Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King Sansang of Goguryeo , defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi, in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in

3584-713: The Nakdong River basin attacked the Silla-friendly Aragaya , the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八國), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in Yeomhae ,

3712-593: The Samhan . Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as Jinhan . Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan ( 진한 6부 ; 辰韓六部 ) from Gojoseon. According to Korean records, Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla in 57 BCE, around present-day Gyeongju . Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established

3840-899: The Tang dynasty during the Silla–Tang War . The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion ( 비금서당 ) as part of the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ) and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the Göktürks cavalries operated by the Tang army during the Silla-Tang War . In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ), were consisted of Silla, Goguryeo , Baekje , and Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending

3968-620: The Three Kingdoms of Korea . He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both. In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements. Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98, the longest reign in East Asian history. During the reign of Munja , Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over

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4096-635: The Tributary system of China . However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize

4224-574: The Yellow Sea , opening up direct trade and diplomatic access to the Chinese dynasties and accelerating Silla's adoption of Chinese culture . Thus, Silla could rely less on Goguryeo for elements of civilization and could get culture and technology directly from China . This increasing tilt of Silla to China would result in an alliance that would prove disastrous for Goguryeo in the late 7th century. The Sui dynasty 's reunification of China for

4352-497: The capital became complete in formation and compilation after Silla unified the Three Kingdoms . Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst

4480-558: The 5th century, and is the origin of the English name "Korea". The kingdom was originally called Guryeo ( Old Korean : 句麗, Yale : Kwulye , /ɡuɾ.jʌ̹/ ) or something similar to kaukuri ( /ko̞ːkɯ̟ᵝɾʲi/ )), Both words were derived from "忽" ( *kuru or *kolo ) which meant castle or fortress. The word was possibly a Wanderwort like the Middle Mongolian qoto-n . Several possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which

4608-489: The 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system . This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage. Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" ( seonggol , 성골, 聖骨) and "true bone" ( jingol , 진골, 眞骨). Up until

4736-573: The 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of Gogukwon in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol Xianbei people occupied northern China; during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan , ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking

4864-547: The Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the Fall of Goguryeo . Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called Sillaseon ( 신라선 ), which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across

4992-697: The Goguryeo-Baekje alliance. Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King Jinpyeong of Silla , numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people. During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo. Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from

5120-464: The Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, Queen Seondeok of Silla , requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for

5248-502: The Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic emperor who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm. He instituted the era name of Yeongnak or Eternal Rejoicing , affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland. Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns. To the west, he destroyed neighboring Khitan tribes and invaded Later Yan , conquering

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5376-505: The Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. After Baekje exhausted themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Incensed by this betrayal, Seong launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border in

5504-657: The Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando . In the chaos following the fall of the Han dynasty , the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of Cao Wei in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into

5632-460: The Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of Maripgan (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk sagi , Naemul of Silla still appears as a title of Isageum (泥師今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the Gyeongju Kim period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of

5760-494: The Korean Peninsula, and achieved undisputed control of most of Manchuria and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula. Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge memorial stele erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day Ji'an on the border between China and North Korea. Jangsu (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to Pyongyang , a more suitable region to grow into

5888-839: The Korean peninsula, and the Mohe people in Manchuria , who would later become the Jurchens . Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu . During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the Korean Peninsula , including what is now Seoul , almost all of Manchuria, and parts of Inner Mongolia . There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in now Mongolia , based on discoveries of Goguryeo fortress ruins in Mongolia. Gwanggaeto

6016-550: The Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and Ye people to the North. Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of Namhae of Silla (4 CE–24 CE). According to the Samguk sagi , Seoktalhae was the prince of Yongseongguk (龍成國) or Dapana (多婆那國), located 1,000- ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became

6144-496: The Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula , the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. From that point on, until

6272-472: The Mongolian word solgoi "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of Goryeo (via * Hoɾyo > * Solo(n)- ). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, i.e. that Mongolian Solongos "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian soluγai > solγoi "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of

6400-580: The Mongols)"." Silla was also referred to as Gyerim ( 계림 ; 鷄林 ), literally "rooster forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a cockatrice ( 계룡 ; 雞龍 ; gyeryong ; lit.  rooster-dragon). During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called

6528-460: The Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki , considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy , in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo . Middle Korean 골〯 kwǒl [ko̞ɭ] and ᄀᆞ옳 kòwòlh [kʌ̀.òl] ("district") are likely descended from *kolo . The name Goguryeo ( Korean :  고구려 ; Hanja :  高句麗 ; Korean pronunciation: [ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹] ), which means "high castle", is

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6656-576: The Old Korean names of 居西干 Geoseogan (1st century BCE), 次次雄 Chachaung (1st century CE), 泥師今 Isageum (Old Korean: *nisokum) and 麻立干 Maripkan (5th-6th century) instead. It began as a chiefdom in the Jinhan confederacy, part of the Samhan , and after consolidating its power in the immediate area, conquered the Gaya confederacy. Eventually allying with Sui China and then Tang China , it conquered

6784-525: The Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner, and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula. In 371, Geunchogo of Baekje killed Gogukwon in the Battle of Chiyang and sacked Pyongyang , one of Goguryeo's largest cities. Sosurim , who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from

6912-722: The Sea due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han". Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery. The population of Xuantu Commandery was about 221,845 in 2 AD, and they lived in the commandery's three counties of Gaogouli, Shangyintai, and Xigaima. Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the Four Commanderies of Han during its expansion. Both Goguryeo and Baekje shared founding myths and originated from Buyeo . The earliest mention of Jumong

7040-590: The Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged Dabulguk , Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk. During the Naehae of Silla period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八國) in

7168-444: The Silla king is descended from Xiongnu. Nonetheless, this hypothesis in respect to the origins of Silla royalty are not accepted in mainstream academia, but rather stand as a minor opinion. Considering the situation of the era when the Monument of King Munmu was created, it is presumed to be propaganda created for friendship with China and northerners and the legitimacy of the dynasty. Nihon Shoki and Kojiki also mentions Silla as

7296-403: The Silla kingship was fixed in the house of Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage. Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system. The final century and a half of the Silla state

7424-414: The Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy. The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to

7552-407: The Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the Goguryeo–Tang War . Silla then fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as Balhae . Silla's middle period

7680-452: The South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry. The massive Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound. Cheomseongdae near Gyeongju is the oldest extant astronomical observatory in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It

7808-447: The Two Saints or Two Holy Ones ( 이성 ; 二聖 ). In 37 BC Hyeokgeose built Geumseong ( 금성 ; 金城 ) in the capital city (present-day Gyeongju ), and in 32 BC he built a royal palace inside. In 20 BC, the king of the Mahan confederacy demanded a tribute. Silla sent Hogong , who was a minister of Silla. The king was angry that Silla sent Hogong and not a tribute. Hogong criticized the king's impoliteness with fortitude. The king

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7936-505: The Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244. It is said that Dongcheon , with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the Okjeo state in the east. Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; according to the Samguk sagi , Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies. In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital Hwando and again began to raid

8064-432: The Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the Three Kingdoms of Korea , they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the Korean Peninsula under Unified Silla ) and the Silla–Tang Wars , which expelled Tang forces in

8192-418: The alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around Liaoxi (western Liaoning and parts of Inner Mongolia ) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the Book of Han . The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery. Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held

8320-433: The ancestor of Gyeongju Kim , was adopted by Talhae of Silla. The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok , and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla

8448-403: The architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control. Thereafter

8576-449: The biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the Shoku Nihon Koki . During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Sideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's Seocheon County . Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the Cheonghaejin Garrison. A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju,

8704-403: The capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park . Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named Hahoe and Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and

8832-429: The city-state stage, the six chieftains representing a loose group of Gojoseon refugees. The story implies the ascendency of the Bak clan over the native peoples, and may indicate horse and sun worship. The founding date is widely questioned today, as the Samguk sagi was written from the viewpoint of Silla , claiming Silla's superiority and antiquity over Goguryeo and Baekje . Silla in this traditional thinking

8960-418: The command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese, failing to capture Ansi Fortress after

9088-524: The concubine of Geumwa . Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave Eastern Buyeo . The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from Buyeo and the Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to Jolbon , where he married Soseono , daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with

9216-505: The defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money. Ansi City (in modern Haicheng , Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the Liaodong Peninsula of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed

9344-459: The entire Liaodong Peninsula ; to the north and east, he annexed much of Buyeo and conquered the Sushen , who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus ; and to the south, he defeated and subjugated Baekje , contributed to the dissolution of Gaya , and vassalized Silla after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of

9472-665: The etymology of the Mongolian word Solongos "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of Solongos have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning " weasel "; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym Solon ; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from Jurchen * Solgo(r) ~ Solho which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 suɾiskol > 솔골 solkol " Goguryeo "; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from

9600-848: The first king of Silla , Bak Hyeokgeose. Another legacy was the kingdom that he established. The fact that he founded the Silla kingdom remained under high respects and great consideration by Gyeongju Gim (Kim) ( 김 ; 金 ) clan and Wolseong Seok ( 석 ; 昔 ) clan throughout Silla's history. Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) ( Korean :  고구려 ; Hanja :  高句麗 ; RR :  Goguryeo ; lit.  high castle; Korean pronunciation: [ko̞.ɡu.ɾjʌ̹] ; Old Korean : Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo ( Korean :  고려 ; Hanja :  高麗 ; RR :  Goryeo ; lit.  high and beautiful; Korean pronunciation: [ko.ɾjʌ] ; Middle Korean : 고ᇢ롕〮, kwòwlyéy ),

9728-545: The first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and Pyeongwon of Goguryeo began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops. Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under

9856-414: The following year but was captured and killed. The war, along the middle of the Korean peninsula , had very important consequences. It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean Peninsula and gave Silla an important resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. Conversely, it denied Goguryeo the use of the area, which weakened the kingdom. It also gave Silla direct access to

9984-514: The formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul ( 셔블 ), meaning "royal capital city," which changed to Syeoul ( 셔울 ) soon after, and finally resulted in Seoul ( 서울 ) in the Modern Korean language. The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for

10112-636: The foundation for a kingdom that would unify much of the Korean Peninsula in 668. Hyeokgeose maintained control over his kingdom and was one of the few Park rulers to hold complete power over Silla. He died at age 73, and was buried in Sareung, north of Dameomsa (south of Namcheon ). Hyeokgeose was succeeded by his eldest son Namhae . According to the Samguk yusa, Namhae had violently usurped Hyeokgeose' throne and killed him. Modern historians also believe that Hyeokgeose's successor Namhae may have actually been

10240-501: The founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued. In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with Goguryeo . Facing pressure from Baekje in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with Goguryeo . However, after King Gwanggaeto's unification campaign , Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to Pyongyang in 427, Nulji of Silla

10368-529: The fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period, Kim Al-chi ,

10496-440: The frequency of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo as well as Yamato Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or Sodang units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force. A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were Hwarang (equivalent to

10624-471: The future. Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion. His successor and the father of Gwanggaeto the Great , Gogukyang , invaded Later Yan , the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386. Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of

10752-509: The great nobles of Goguryeo, and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a coup d'état . He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as King Bojang while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji ( 대막리지 ; 大莫離支 ; a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of prime minister and generalissimo ). At

10880-477: The heads of the six chiefdoms gathered to discuss forming a kingdom and selecting a king. In the forest, at a well called Najeong at Yangsan, a strange light shone from the sky (some accounts describe the simultaneous rising of the sun and moon, as well as a volcanic eruption), and a white horse descended. Chief Sobeolgong of Goheo discovered a large egg there. A boy came out of the egg, and when bathed, his body radiated light and birds and beasts danced. The egg

11008-535: The kingdom of "Saro (pronounced [si.raʔ] at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla. In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having Xiongnu ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as Jin Midi in Chinese sources. According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe

11136-409: The kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan. Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, however, it began a steady decline. Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Anwon , during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won

11264-402: The late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of

11392-713: The meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of Khan . In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty . In 660, under Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the Baekje–Tang War . In 668, under King Munmu of Silla (King Muyeol's successor) and General Kim Yu-sin ,

11520-505: The meaning of "high and beautiful". The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo can be traced to geographic monographs in the Book of Han and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the Xuantu Commandery , established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of Gojoseon in 113 BC. The American historian Christopher Beckwith offers

11648-521: The name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the Silk Road . Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including ibn Khurdadhbih , al-Masudi , Dimashiki , Al-Nuwayri , and al-Maqrizi , left records about Silla. Hyeokgeose of Silla Hyeokgeose (69 BC – 4 AD, r. 57 BC–4 AD), also known by his personal full name as Bak (Park, Pak) Hyeokgeose ( 朴赫居世 ),

11776-544: The new statelet, Goguryeo. After Yuri , son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was Baekje . Jumong's given surname was "Hae" ( Korean :  해 ; Hanja :  解 ), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk yusa , Jumong changed his surname to "Go" ( Korean :  고 ; Hanja :  高 ) in conscious reflection of his divine parentage. Jumong

11904-477: The north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court. The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established

12032-513: The office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757. In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan. The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of Hyegong of Silla in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of Muyeol of Silla ,

12160-606: The original 305,000 soldiers of Sui's nine division armies, it is said that only 2,700 escaped to Sui China. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang , while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he

12288-596: The other two Korean kingdoms. Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono ( 천보노 ) that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang ( 장창당 ) to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as Goguryeo and Baekje , as well as

12416-456: The other two kingdoms, Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668. Thereafter, Unified Silla occupied most of the Korean Peninsula , while the northern part re-emerged as Balhae , a successor-state of Goguryeo . After nearly 1,000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the brief Later Three Kingdoms of Silla, Later Baekje , and Taebong , handing over power to Goryeo in 935. Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla

12544-507: The others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals. Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with Sui China and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi which led to the Battle of Linyuguan , but was beaten back by Sui forces. This caused Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui. Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo

12672-709: The outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported Taoism at the expense of Buddhism , and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla. However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against Silla Korea and Tang China . Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by

12800-535: The people of Silla, appearing as Shiragi in Japanese and as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus , respectively. Koreans are still known as Солонгос ( Solongos ) in Mongolian, which is according to popular folk etymology is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for " rainbow " ( солонго solongo ). In a paper published in 2023 regarding

12928-546: The place where the Japanese god, Susanoo first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori" ( 曽尸茂梨 ). Up until the liberation of Korea in 1945, Meiji era Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him, thus finding justification and legitimizing the Japanese occupation of Korea through the use of Nissen dōsoron . According to

13056-450: The region to feed its population and thus, following historical pastoralist tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically. Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of what

13184-462: The reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of

13312-472: The ruler title of "marquis" over said nominal Gaogouli/Goguryeo county . The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives. In the Old Book of Tang (945), it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century Samguk sagi and the 13th-century Samguk yusa ,

13440-448: The sky, and eight days later, his body was scattered on the ground. And the queen also follows the king and dies. The people of the country tried to bury them, but a large snake appeared and disturbed them. Accordingly, the head and limbs were buried separately to create five tombs (五陵), and the name of the tomb was called Sareung. It is called Sareung (蛇陵) because snake (蛇) protect the tomb. Hyeokgeose ruled for around 60 years, and set

13568-482: The south in 551. In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in military conflict with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northwest were the Eastern Türks which was a nominal ally of Goguryeo. In 551 AD, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer

13696-406: The southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula . It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than

13824-570: The strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy. To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the Mahan confederacy . To the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy . In northern Korea, Goguryeo , founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power. Naemul of Silla (356–402) of

13952-551: The sun god Haebak ( Korean :  해밝 ). The Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa ( Korean :  유화 ; Hanja :  柳花 ). Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River ( Korean :  우발수 ; Hanja :  優渤水 ) due to her pregnancy, where she met and became

14080-405: The throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person ( Sangdaedeung ) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of Buddhism as state religion. Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when

14208-470: The time of Taejodae in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern Manchuria and northern Korea , which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from

14336-418: Was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of modern-day Northeast China ( Manchuria ). At its peak of power, Goguryeo encompassed most of the Korean Peninsula and large parts of Manchuria , along with parts of eastern Mongolia , Inner Mongolia , and modern-day Russia . Along with Baekje and Silla , Goguryeo

14464-422: Was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's nine division armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the supplies for a lengthy siege. Sui troops retreated, but General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui into an ambush outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu , Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which split the Sui army and cut off their escape route. Of

14592-472: Was angry at him and tried to kill him, but nearby subordinates stopped the king, and he was permitted to return to Silla. In 19 BC, Hyeokgeose also sent an emissary upon the death of the Mahan king. In 5 BC, East Okjeo (a small state to the north, later conquered by Goguryeo ) sent an emissary, and Hyeokgeose presented him with 20 horses. According to Samguk yusa, in the 61st year(4 CE), one day he went up to

14720-503: Was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–647). It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as hyangga , developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in Classical Chinese , which includes the hanshi poetry of Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn , as well as the travelogue of Buddhist monk Hyecho . Muslim traders brought

14848-570: Was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed themselves de facto rulers of their areas of control. Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from

14976-470: Was forced to ally with Baekje. By the time of Beopheung of Silla (514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own Korean era name . Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the Gaya–Silla Wars , annexing Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the Nakdong River basin. Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established

15104-485: Was gourd-shaped, which has been posited as the origin of the Bak (Park, Pak) name, as it aligns with the Korean word for gourd (박, bak ). Sobeolgong raised him, and the six chieftains revered him. The chieftains made him king when he became 13 years old. The state was named Seorabeol. Upon becoming king, he married Lady Aryeong , who is said to have been born from the ribs of a dragon . This legend reflects developments in

15232-492: Was handed over to King Suro of Gimhae , who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀鄒干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and

15360-550: Was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao River , a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies. However, Goguryeo

15488-435: Was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support. Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty. In the winter of 642, King Yeongnyu was apprehensive about Yeon Gaesomun , one of

15616-585: Was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court. The tail end of this period, called the Later Three Kingdoms period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of Later Baekje and Taebong , which were really composed of military forces capitalizing on their respective region's historical background, and Silla's submission to Goryeo . From at least

15744-461: Was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in China and Japan . The Samguk sagi , a 12th-century text from Goryeo , indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by Jumong , a prince from Buyeo , who was enthroned as Dongmyeong . Goguryeo

15872-465: Was one of the great powers in East Asia until its defeat by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife following the death of Yeon Gaesomun . After its fall, its territory was divided between the Tang dynasty , Later Silla and Balhae . The name "Goryeo" (alternatively spelled "Koryŏ"), a shortened form of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), was adopted as the official name in

16000-433: Was originally of Koreanic origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike, and some researchers insist that

16128-490: Was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including 斯盧 ( 사로 ; Saro ), 斯羅 ( 사라 ; Sara ), 徐那 (伐) ( 서나[벌] ; Seona[beol] ), 徐耶 (伐) ( 서야[벌] ; Seoya[beol] ), 徐羅 (伐) ( 서라[벌] ; Seora[beol] ), and 徐伐 ( 서벌 ; Seobeol ). In 504, Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into 新羅 ( 신라 ), which in Modern Korean

16256-462: Was the founding monarch of Silla , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . He was the progenitor of all Bak ( Park ) clans in Korea . His title Geoseo-khan ( 거서간 ; 居西干 ) or Geoseul-han ( 거슬한 ; 居瑟邯 ), means "Emperor" or "king" in the language of the Jinhan confederacy , the group of chiefdoms in the southeast of the Korean Peninsula . "Hyeokgeose" was not a personal name , but

16384-430: Was used at a later stage as an administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol [hʌ̹ɭ] , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol [mit͡ɕʰuhʌ̹ɭ] , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol [ko̞ɭ] . Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling. The iteration of 徐羅伐 Syerapel as 徐羅城 *SyeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with

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