Sinna was a Roman era civitas of the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis .
120-588: This ancient city is tentatively identified with ruins at Calaat-Es-Senan in modern Tunisia . The ancient town was also the seat of a Christian bishopric (in Latin Rite Sinnensis) suffragan of the Archdiocese of Carthage . The only bishop known of this diocese is Victor, who attended the Council of Constantinople in 553. Sinna survives today as a titular bishopric . Its current bishop
240-604: A Latin-speaking Christian Berber society to a Muslim and mostly Arabic-speaking society took over 400 years (the equivalent process in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent took 600 years) and resulted in the final disappearance of Christianity and Latin in the 12th or 13th century. The majority of the population were not Muslim until quite late in the 9th century; a vast majority were during the 10th. Also, some Tunisian Christians emigrated; some richer members of society did so after
360-587: A camel and financial support and assisted them in crossing from the eastern to the westwen bank of the Nile River . The harsh drought and subsequent economic crisis in Egypt at the time further motivated these tribes to relocate to the Maghreb, which had a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph instructed them to rule the Maghreb instead of the Zirid emir Al-Mu'izz and told them "I have given you
480-644: A camel and money and helping them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile. Other Arab nomads were encouraged to settle in the Maghreb by local Arab dynasties, such as the Idrisids , Aghlabids , Salihids and Fatimids , to fulfil the Arabization of the non-Arab populations. Commercial activities such as the Trans-Saharan trade boosted the expansion of Islam and spread of Arabic, and trade with
600-586: A decline in its cultivation. Nomadism increased during this time. According to Ibn Khaldun, the lands "ravaged" by Banu Hilal invaders had become desertified and turned into completely arid desert. The arrival of the Banu Hilal, followed by the Banu Sulaym in the 12th century, broke the balance between nomads and sedentary populations in favor of the nomads. For strategic reasons, the Almohads gave over
720-600: A governor, usually a near relative of the Caliph. Despite the prestige of the new masters, the country was still unruly, with continuous rioting and fighting between the townsfolk and wandering Arabs and Turks, the latter being subjects of the Muslim Armenian adventurer Karakush. Also, Tunisia was occupied by Ayyubids between 1182 and 1183 and again between 1184 and 1187. The greatest threat to Almohad rule in Tunisia
840-408: A large scale. The influx of Arab tribes during the 11th century into the Maghreb brought about significant demographic and economic changes. Over a protracted period, Arab nomads gradually displaced Berber farmers, seizing their best lands and subordinating them. Berbers fled to the mountains, while those who remained sought their protection and underwent gradual Arabization. As Arab nomads spread,
960-590: A more recent study from 2017 suggested that the Arab migrations to the Maghreb were mainly a demographic process that heavily implied gene flow and remodeled the genetic structure of the Maghreb, rather than a mere cultural replacement as claimed by older studies. Haplogroup J1-M267 accounts for around 30% of Maghrebis and is assumed to have spread out of the Arabia Peninsula into North Africa, second after E1b1b1b which accounts for 45% of Maghrebis. According to
1080-523: A pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit . Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet , which was altered in Roman times. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War , one of a series of wars with Rome , nearly crippled
1200-668: A population of 12.1 million. It contains the eastern end of the Atlas Mountains and the northern reaches of the Sahara desert; much of its remaining territory is arable land . Its 1,300 km (810 mi) of coastline includes the African conjunction of the western and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Basin . Tunisia is home to Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela . Located on the northeastern coast, Tunis
1320-542: A process of Arabization, in which they adopted Arab culture and language. The early wave of migration prior to the 11th century contributed to the Berber adoption of Arab culture . Furthermore, the Arabic language spread during this period and drove Latin into extinction in the cities. The Arabization took place around Arab major towns through the influence of Arabs in the cities and rural areas surrounding them. Additionally,
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#17327757502891440-831: A study from 2021, the highest frequency of the Middle Eastern component ever observed in North Africa so far was observed in the Arabs of Wesletia in Tunisia , who had a Middle Eastern component frequency of 71.8%. According to a study from 2004, Haplogroup J1 had a frequency of 35% in Algerians, 33% in Moroccans and 34.2% in Tunisians. Recent genome-wide analysis of North Africans found substantial shared ancestry with
1560-579: Is Arūnas Poniškaitis of Vilnius . This Ancient Rome –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This African location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Tunisia Tunisia , officially the Republic of Tunisia , is the northernmost country in Africa . It is a part of the Maghreb region of North Africa , bordered by Algeria to
1680-486: Is Nomad and indeed the people were semi-nomadic until the reign of Masinissa of the Massyli tribe. At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 12th century BC ( Bizerte , Utica ). The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century BC by Phoenicians. Legend says that Dido from Tyre, now in modern-day Lebanon, founded
1800-594: Is celebrated annually as Tunisian Independence Day. A year later, Tunisia was declared a republic, with Bourguiba as the first President . From independence in 1956 until the 2011 revolution, the government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), formerly Neo Destour and the Socialist Destourian Party , were effectively one. Following a report by Amnesty International , The Guardian called Tunisia "one of
1920-512: Is sometimes also associated with the Carthage goddess Tanith (or Tunit), and the ancient city of Tynes. The French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages have left the name untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с ( Tunís ) and Spanish Túnez . In this case,
2040-419: Is the capital and largest city of the country, which is itself named after Tunis. The official language of Tunisia is Modern Standard Arabic . The vast majority of Tunisia's population is Arab and Muslim . Vernacular Tunisian Arabic is the most spoken, and French also serves as an administrative and educational language in some contexts, but it has no official status. Beginning in early antiquity, Tunisia
2160-734: Is up for debate. In 1945 after escaping French surveillance, Tunisian nationalist Habib Bourguiba arrived in Cairo . While there, he was able to make contact with the Arab League . Later in 1946, after traveling to other Middle Eastern countries, he made his way to the United States to speak to both the United Nations at their headquarters at Lake Success and U.S. State Department officials in Washington D.C. , pleading
2280-509: The Aghlabids , Idrisids , Sulaymanids , Salihids , Fatimids , Saadians and 'Alawites . The Arab migrations to the Maghreb had a profound impact on the demographics and culture of the Maghreb. It resulted in significant Arab demographic growth, forced displacement and Arabization of the Berber and Punic populations and spread of the Arabic language and Arab culture throughout
2400-591: The Algerian Desert . Maghrebi Arabic , spoken by the vast majority of Maghrebis, traces its roots back to the Bedouin Arabic varieties that were introduced to the Maghreb in the 11th century by Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, who effectively Arabized substantial parts of the region. The Arab migrations led to the emergence of Bedouin dialects in the Maghreb, commonly known as Hilalian dialects . These dialects are spoken in various regions, including
2520-675: The Arabian Peninsula , with later groups arriving from the Levant and Iraq . The influx of Arabs to the Maghreb began in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb , when Arab armies conquered the region as part of the early Muslim conquests . This initial wave of Arab migration was followed by subsequent periods of migration and settlement, notably during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates and later Arab dynasties. However,
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#17327757502892640-1060: The Atlantic plains in Morocco, the High Plains and Sahara regions in Algeria, the Sahel in Tunisia, and the regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya. The Bedouin dialects can be classified into four primary varieties: Sulaymi dialects (Libya and southern Tunisia), Eastern Hilalian dialects (central Tunisia and eastern Algeria), Central Hilalian dialects (south and central Algeria), Ma'qili dialects (western Algeria and Morocco) and Hassaniya dialects (Mauritania, Western Sahara and southern Morocco; also classified as Maqil ). In Morocco, Bedouin Arabic dialects are spoken in plains and in recently founded cities such as Casablanca . Thus,
2760-589: The Atlantic plains of the western Maghreb to the Arab nomads. A study from 2002 revealed that the second most-frequent Haplogroup in the Maghreb was Haplogroup J1-M267 (Eu10), which originated in the Middle East (the highest frequency of 30%–62.5% has been observed in Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East). The study found out that the majority of Eu10 chromosomes in the Maghreb are due to
2880-562: The European Union and has attained the status of a major non-NATO ally of the United States . The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis ; a central urban hub and the capital of modern-day Tunisia. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia , evolved from French Tunisie , in turn generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ , transcribed tns , which means "to lay down" or "encampment". It
3000-767: The Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. In retribution against the Zirids, the Fatimids dispatched large Bedouin Arab tribes, mainly the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym , to defeat the Zirids and settle in the Maghreb. These tribes followed a nomadic lifestyle and were originally from the Hejaz and Najd . To encourage the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to migrate to the Maghreb, the Fatimid caliph provided each tribesman with
3120-535: The Fihrids , descendants of Uqba ibn Nafi , who occupied a privileged position in Ifriqiyan (modern-day Tunisia) and Andalusi society. There were other powerful Arab settlers who briefly appeared in the sources, especially those of Qurayshi ancestry. Arab settlers mostly settled in cities, such as Kairouan , until the migration of the nomadic Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century. During this time,
3240-590: The French conquered Tunisia . In 1956, Tunisia gained independence as the Tunisian Republic under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba with the help of activists such as Chedly Kallala, Farhat Hached , and Salah Ben Youssef . Today, Tunisia's culture and identity are rooted in this centuries-long intersection of different cultures and ethnicities. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution , which
3360-479: The Iberian Peninsula , expelling about 275,000 to 300,000 of them. Accustomed to urban life, they settled in urban cities in the Maghreb, including Fez , Rabat and Tangier in Morocco, Tlemcen and Constantine in Algeria, and Kairouan , Tunis and Bizerte in Tunisia. They brought with them the urban dialects of Andalusi Arabic , which they introduced to the existing Bedouin Arabic dialects of
3480-724: The Kharijites that took over the region following the fall of the Muhallabids . During the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate , there was a great influx of Khurasani Arabs from Iraq to the Maghreb. These were mostly North Arabian tribes, among them was the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim . This shifted the tribal balance of Ifriqiya in favor of the North Arabian Adnanite tribes who became the majority, to
3600-1343: The Middle East , and to a lesser extent sub-Saharan Africa and Europe . This recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations increased genetic similarities between North Africans and Middle Easterners. These Arab tribes settled in the Maghreb and emerged into several contemporary sub-tribes. The most notable Arab tribes of Morocco include Abda , Ahl Rachida , Azwafit , Banu Ma'qil , Banu Tamim , Beni Ahsen , Beni 'Amir , Beni Guil , Beni Ḥassān , Banu Hilal , Beni Khirane , Beni Mathar , Beni Moussa , Banu Sulaym , Beni Zemmour , Chaouia , Doukkala , Hyayna , Khlout , Mzab , Oulad Delim , Oulad Tidrarin , Oulad Zyan , Rahamna , Sless , Zaër , Zyayda . There are several tribes of Bedouin origin throughout Tunisia, such as Banu Hudhayl and Shammar , however they are not very nomadic nowadays and they mostly live in towns. The major Arab tribes in Libya are Qadhadhfa , Magarha , Warfalla , Firjan , Saʿada and Murabtin , Masamir , Zuwayya , Awlad Busayf , Awlad Sulayman and Abaydat . The most well known Arab tribes of Algeria are Chaamba , Dhouaouda , Doui-Menia , Ghenanma , Beni Hassan , Ouled Djerir , Awlad Sidi Shaykh , Banu Tamim , Banu Hilal , Banu Sulaym , Thaaliba , Ouled Nail , Beni Amer , Hamyan and many more. Bedouin tribes in Algeria primarily live in
3720-575: The Ottoman Porte appointed directly for Tunis a governor called the Pasha supported by janissary forces. Before long, however, Tunisia became in effect an autonomous province, under the local bey . Under its Turkish governors, the beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. This evolution of status was from time to time challenged without success by Algiers. During this era,
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3840-565: The Punic population of the Maghreb underwent Arabization, facilitated by the linguistic similarities between their Punic language and Arabic, as both belonged to the Semitic language family and were closely related. The migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century had a much greater influence on the process of Arabization than the migrations beforehand. It played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as
3960-599: The Rashidun Caliphate , when Abdallah ibn Sa'd led the invasion with 20,000 soldiers from Medina in the Arabian Peninsula , swiftly taking over Tripolitania and then defeating a much larger Byzantine army at the Battle of Sufetula in the same year, forcing the new Byzantine Exarch of Africa to pay tribute. By the late 7th century, the surge in Arab migration eventually succeeded in overcoming both Berber and Byzantine resistance. This gradual process led to
4080-618: The Roman Republic until 146 BC when it was defeated by the Romans who occupied Tunisia for most of the next 800 years. The Romans introduced Christianity and left architectural legacies like the Amphitheatre of El Jem . In the 7th century AD, Arab Muslims conquered all of Tunisia (finally succeeding in 697 after several attempts starting in 647) and settled with their tribes and families , bringing Islam and Arab culture to
4200-622: The Salihids and Fatimids , were influential in encouraging Arabization by attracting Arab migrants and by promoting Arab culture. In addition, disturbances and political unrest in the Mashriq compelled the Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb in search of security and stability. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb increased during periods of unrest and disorder. By the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), there were numerous Arab tribes in
4320-899: The Second World War , the protectorate of Tunisia was controlled by the collaborationist Vichy government in Metropolitan France. The antisemitic Statute on Jews enacted by the Vichy government was also implemented in Vichy-controlled Northwest Africa and other overseas French territories. Thus, the persecution and murder of the Jews from 1940 to 1943 was part of the Holocaust in France. From November 1942 until May 1943, Vichy-controlled Tunisia
4440-524: The Tunisian constitution . The anniversary of Ben Ali's succession, 7 November, was celebrated as a national holiday. He was consistently re-elected with enormous majorities every five years (well over 80 percent of the vote), the last being 25 October 2009, until he fled the country amid popular unrest in January 2011. Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption and plundering the country's money. Economic liberalisation provided further opportunities for financial mismanagement, while corrupt members of
4560-453: The earliest Muslim conquests in the 7th to 8th centuries, about 150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb. Arabians arrived in the Maghreb in large numbers after an expedition by the Banu Muzaina tribe to the Maghreb under the leadership of Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi in the 7th or 8th century. The Arab Muslim conquerors left a significantly more lasting influence on the culture of the Maghreb compared to earlier and later conquerors, and by
4680-469: The 11th century, the Berbers had undergone significant Islamization and Arabization . The Umayyad conquest brought in 50,000 Arab troops who had originally served in Egypt. These troops and their descendants became a hereditary ruling class, with very few elites being outsiders. These soldiers were rewarded with land grants, creating an Arab aristocracy with substantial territory, cultivated mostly by slaves from sub-Saharan Africa . An example of these were
4800-421: The 17th century with the help of these Arab tribes, who they mobilized against the powerful Berber principality of Dila'iyyah . Under the Marinid dynasty (1244–1465), the Arabs grew in importance in Morocco. Due to the lack of Zenata supporters, they welcomed the support of Arab nomads who already began to penetrate into the country under the Almohads. The Zenata were heavily assimilated into Arab culture and
4920-552: The 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital . The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a protectorate in 1881. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt and an international financial commission took control over its economy. In 1881, using
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5040-401: The 2nd century, olive oil rivaled cereals as an export item. In addition to the cultivations and the capture and transporting of exotic wild animals from the western mountains, the principal production and exports included textiles, marble, wine, timber, livestock, pottery such as African Red Slip , and wool. There was even a huge production of mosaics and ceramics, exported mainly to Italy, in
5160-467: The 7th century with the goals of conquering Byzantine territories in the Maghreb and spreading Islam to the local populations, as well as protecting Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene" according to historian Will Durant . The later Arabs that arrived in the 11th century were driven by factors such as instability and political unrest in the Mashriq , compelling them to settle in the Maghreb in search of security and stability. Arab immigration from
5280-408: The Aghlabid army was largely derived from the Arab tribes that settled in Ifriqiya during the late 7th and 8th centuries. The soldiers were likely paid at specific intervals, with cavalry earning twice as much as infantry due to the higher expenses associated with their horses and equipment. These troops were called the jund , descendants of Arab tribesmen who had participated in the Muslim conquest of
5400-422: The Arabic oral poem of Sirat Bani Hilal . Sources estimate that approximately 1 million Arab nomads migrated to the Maghreb during the 11th century. Historian Mármol Carvajal estimated that over a million Hilalians migrated to the Maghreb between 1051 and 1110, and estimated that the Hilalian population at his time in 1573 was 4,000,000 individuals, excluding other Arab tribes and other Arabs already present in
5520-414: The French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina. According to Le Monde , Ben Ali's son-in-law was being primed to eventually take over the country. Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International , Freedom House , and Protection International, documented that basic human and political rights were not respected. The regime obstructed in any way possible
5640-440: The Hilalians continued their advance west. The influx of Arab tribes to Cyrenaica caused the region to became the most Arab place in the Arab world after the interior of Arabia . According to Ibn Khaldun , the Arab tribes were accompanied by their families and stock. They settled in the Maghreb after engaged in numerous battles with the Berbers, such as the Battle of Haydaran . The Zirids abandoned Kairouan to take refuge on
5760-415: The Ma'qil had already split into many tribes in the Maghreb and had given rise to the Beni Hassan along with other Ma'qili tribes. The Beni Hassan expanded southwest and occupied Sanhaja lands in the 13th century after invading and defeating the Berber confederation. The Sanhaja has long had to pay tribute to the nomadic Bedouin Hassani invaders. The invasion was quick and effective and happened around
5880-426: The Maghreb The Arab migrations to the Maghreb involved successive waves of migration and settlement by Arab people in the Maghreb region of North Africa (excluding Egypt ), encompassing modern-day Algeria , Libya , Morocco and Tunisia . The process took place over several centuries, lasting from the early 7th century to the 17th century. The Arab migrants hailed from the Middle East , particularly
6000-425: The Maghreb during this wave of Arabian tribal immigration in the 11th century. They later allied with the Banu Hilal and entered under their protection. They adapted to the climatic desert conditions of the Maghreb, discovering the same way of life as in the Arabian Peninsula. In the 13th century, the Ma'qilis occupied southern Algeria , including the oasis towns of Tuat and Gourara. For some authors, at this point,
6120-407: The Maghreb. This event greatly increased the process of Arabization in the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century. There were several Arab tribes in Al-Andalus, of which the most prominent were Qays , Kilab , Uqayl , Mudar , Rabi'a , Yaman , Tayy , Lakhm , Judham , Amilah , and Quda'a . There were multiple factors that caused Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb. The first Arabs arrived in
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#17327757502896240-491: The Maghreb. According to al-Ya'qubi , in the mountains near Cyrenaica were the Arab tribes of Azd , Lakhm , Judham , al-Sadaf, and other Yemenite tribes on the eastern mountain, and Ghassan , Judham, Azd, Tujayb and others on the western mountain. In Waddan , there was a group that claimed to be Yemenite, and in Zawila , there were Arabs from the region of Khurasan and the cities of Basra and Kufa . In Kairouan, there were Arabs from Quraysh and other tribes within
6360-485: The Maghreb. They often rebelled against the Aghlabid regime. In 789, Ali ibn Abi Talib 's descendant Idris ibn Abdallah fled from the Hejaz and arrived in Tangier after the failed revolt against the Abbasids in the Battle of Fakhkh . He later moved to Walili and founded the city of Fez in the same year. He founded the Hashemite Idrisid dynasty , which established control over modern-day Morocco and western Algeria. The Idrisid dynasty played an important role in
6480-576: The Maghrib and the rule of al-Mu'izz ibn Balkīn as-Sanhājī the runaway slave. You will want for nothing." and told Al-Mu'izz "I have sent you horses and put brave men on them so that God might accomplish a matter already enacted". Upon their arrival in Cyrenaica , the Arab nomads discovered that the region was almost empty of its inhabitants, with only a few Zenata Berbers remaining, most of whom had been largely destroyed by Al-Mu'izz. Estimates suggest that up to 200,000 Hilalian families moved westward out of Egypt. The Banu Sulaym settled in Cyrenaica while
6600-416: The Marinid Makhzan (government) composed of both Arabs and Zenata. This led to the expansion of Arab tribes into Morocco where they settled in the plains, and many Berber groups were Arabized . Under the Marinids, Arabic became both the common and official language. Like the Marinids, the Zayyanid dynasty of the Kingdom of Tlemcen had to rely on Arab nomads for soldiers. The Ma'qilis also entered
6720-431: The Mashriq brought several Arab groups to the Maghreb. The Arab emigrants to the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century were largely refugees from Al-Andalus who left Christian Spanish persecution following the Fall of Granada in 1492. A major effect of the Arab migrations to the Maghreb was the Arabization of its population. With the large-scale arrival of Arab migrants, the indigenous Berber population underwent
6840-476: The Mashriq to the Maghreb increased during periods of unrest and disorder. A notable example of this was during the period of severe drought in Egypt due to a fall in the level of the Nile river , as well as plague and economic crisis. This encouraged Arab Bedouin tribes such as Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to settle in the Maghreb, which enjoyed a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph further persuaded them to march westwards by giving each tribesman
6960-409: The Mediterranean coastal strip at al-Mahdiyya , and deeply weakened the neighboring Hammadid dynasty and the Zenata . Their influx was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural, genetic and ethnic Arabization of the Maghreb . According to Ibn Khaldun, the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become desertified and turned into completely arid desert. The journey of Banu Hilal is recounted in
7080-423: The Roman historian Sallust , the demigod Hercules died in Spain and his polyglot eastern army was left to settle the land, with some migrating to Africa. Persians went to the West and intermarried with the Gaetulians and became the Numidians. The Medes settled and were known as Mauri, later Moors. The Numidians and Moors belonged to the race from which the Berbers are descended. The translated meaning of Numidian
7200-461: The Roman period, the area of what is now Tunisia enjoyed a huge development. The economy, mainly during the Empire, boomed: the prosperity of the area depended on agriculture. Called the Granary of the Empire , the area of actual Tunisia and coastal Tripolitania , according to one estimate, produced one million tons of cereals each year, one quarter of which was exported to the Empire. Additional crops included beans, figs, grapes, and other fruits. By
7320-443: The Trabelsi family, most notably in the cases of Imed Trabelsi and Belhassen Trabelsi , controlled much of the business sector in the country. The First Lady Leila Ben Ali was described as an "unabashed shopaholic " who used the state airplane to make frequent unofficial trips to Europe's fashion capitals. Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who were accused by
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#17327757502897440-409: The US feared political change in North Africa due to the looming presence of possible Soviet Union communist expansion. Bourguiba continued to plead to foreign leaders when he traveled to Italy on 6 November 1951. His contacts included Alberto Mellini Ponce De León , Mario Toscano , and Licinio Vestri . De León was an old friend of Bourguiba who had helped free him from German captivity, Toscano
7560-461: The case of the Tunisian nationalists. As part of postwar Tunisia, a new all-Tunisian labor organization was formed, the Union Générale des Travailleurs (UGTT) . This was one of the stronger components of the nationalist group Neo-Destour . Habib Bourguiba made his way to the United States on 13 September 1949. He attended the American Federation of Labor meeting in San Francisco , California. The French were opposed to his presence there, and
7680-419: The central area of El Djem (where there was the second biggest amphitheater in the Roman Empire). Berber bishop Donatus Magnus was the founder of a Christian group known as the Donatists . During the 5th and 6th centuries (from 430 to 533 AD), the Germanic Vandals invaded and ruled over a kingdom in Northwest Africa that included present-day Tripoli. The region was easily reconquered in 533–534 AD, during
7800-420: The city in 814 BC, as retold by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium . The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from Phoenicia, now present-day Lebanon and adjacent areas. After the series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean . The people of Carthage worshipped
7920-418: The coast where they survived for a century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym spread on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually obstructed the Qal'at Bani Hammad as they had done to Kairouan a few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained control over the high plains of Algiers and Oran . In the second half of the 12th century, they went to the Moulouya valley and the Atlantic coast in
8040-477: The command of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha , the younger brother of Oruç Reis, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent . However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 under Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis that the Ottomans permanently acquired the former Hafsid Tunisia , retaining it until the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881. Initially under Turkish rule from Algiers, soon
8160-586: The conquest in 698 and others were welcomed by Norman rulers to Sicily or Italy in the 11th and 12th centuries – the logical destination because of the 1200 year close connection between the two regions. The Arab governors of Tunis founded the Aghlabid dynasty , which ruled Tunisia, Tripolitania and eastern Algeria from 800 to 909. Tunisia flourished under Arab rule when extensive systems were constructed to supply towns with water for household use and irrigation that promoted agriculture (especially olive production). This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and
8280-423: The conversion of the Berbers to Islam and the full integration of the entire Maghreb into the Umayyad Caliphate . Throughout the period of conquest, Arab migrants settled in all parts of the Maghreb, arriving as peaceful newcomers that were welcomed everywhere. Large Arab settlements were established in several areas. A considerable portion of the Arab settlers belonged to the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim . During
8400-527: The country on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power. Protests continued for banning of the ruling party and the eviction of all its members from the transitional government formed by Mohammed Ghannouchi . Eventually the new government gave in to the demands. A Tunis court banned the ex-ruling party RCD and confiscated all its resources. A decree by the minister of the interior banned the "political police", special forces which were used to intimidate and persecute political activists. Arab migrations to
8520-401: The countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara . It also heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and spread Bedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant. These Bedouin tribes hastened and significantly intensified the Arabization process, as a substantial part of the Berber population was gradually assimilated by
8640-577: The detriment of the formerly more numerous South Arabian Qahtanite tribes. In 800, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab was appointed as governor of Ifriqiya by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid . He founded the Aghlabid dynasty , a dynasty of emirs from the tribe of Banu Tamim. During this time, Arab migration increased in numbers due to the anti-Kharijite wars against the Rustamid dynasty . The structure of
8760-444: The early Islamization of the area, and contributed to an increase in Arab migration and Arabization in major urban centers of the western Maghreb. Several Shia Arabs rapidly flocked to Fez, Arabizing the region. Fez experienced large waves of Arab migration, including one which involved 800 Arabs from Al-Andalus in 818 and one which involved 2,000 Arab families from Ifriqiya in 824. These Arab political entities, in addition to
8880-621: The end of the war in Africa. After the liberation of Tunisia from the Germans, the French regained control over the government and made participation in a nationalist party illegal once more. Moncef Bey , who was popular amongst Tunisians, was deposed by the French. The French claimed that his removal was due to him being sympathetic to the Axis countries during German occupation, but the real reason
9000-438: The entire Maghreb, where he continued to spread Islam and the Arabic language through missionary activity. He chose seventeen religious scholars to convert the locals. Many people became Muslims at the hands of these scholars and the inhabitants of the Maghreb gradually converted to Islam. Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz sent to the governor of Ifriqiya Ismail ibn Abdallah all scholars and men of culture, who were ordered to teach
9120-581: The governing councils controlling Tunisia remained largely composed of a foreign elite who continued to conduct state business in the Turkish language . Attacks on European shipping were made by corsairs , primarily from Algiers, but also from Tunis and Tripoli , yet after a long period of declining raids the growing power of the European states finally forced its termination. The plague epidemics ravaged Tunisia in 1784–1785, 1796–1797 and 1818–1820. In
9240-532: The groupings of Mudar , Rabi'a and Qahtan . In nearby Al-Jazira, there were Arabs from Banu Adi and other groups. In Satfura, there were people from Quraysh and Quda'a , in Baja there were people from Banu Hashim , and in Majjana there were people from Diyar Rabi'a. In al-Zab, in its capital Tobna , there was Quraysh, and other Arabs. In Sétif , there were tribesmen from Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah . In Bilizma,
9360-772: The heart lands of the Arab East, in particular with the Hijaz and Najd and parts of the Yemen Starting from the late 15th century, a new wave of Arabs arrived as refugees from Al-Andalus in response to the persecution they faced under Christian Spanish rule after the fall of Granada in the Reconquista in 1492. In 1609, Spain implemented the Expulsion of the Moriscos , which aimed to forcibly remove all Muslims from
9480-517: The increasing influx of powerful Arab tribes achieved cultural and linguistic dominance over the coastal plains, effectively transforming the region into a "cultural extension of the Arab East". Meanwhile, Berber languages and culture remained confined to the mountains and desert regions. Additionally, the Bedouins contributed to the desertification and nomadization of the Maghreb. The Banu Hilal conquered land which they largely devastated, causing
9600-593: The interests of the French and French citizens in Tunisia, at the Cercle Republicain d'outre Mer in Paris. The Neo-Destour group was not in favor of these reforms if they themselves were not involved in their creation. They also demanded the freedom of Bourguiba who was imprisoned on the Isle of Galete. Tunisia achieved independence from France on 20 March 1956 with Habib Bourguiba as Prime Minister. 20 March
9720-955: The international community. It is a member of the United Nations , Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , the Arab League , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the African Union , the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , the Non-Aligned Movement , the International Criminal Court , the Group of 77 , among others. It maintains close economic and political relations with some European countries, particularly with France and Italy , due to their geographical proximity. Tunisia also has an association agreement with
9840-724: The lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. The main Tunisian cities were conquered by the Normans of Sicily under the Kingdom of Africa in the 12th century, but following the conquest of Tunisia in 1159–1160 by the Almohads the Normans were evacuated to Sicily. Communities of Tunisian Christians would still exist in Nefzaoua up to the 14th century. The Almohads initially ruled over Tunisia through
9960-514: The local inhabitants. A later large-scale Arab migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes in the 11th-12th centuries rapidly accelerated this process. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized , establishing Arabs as the demographic majority of the population. Then, in 1546, the Ottoman Empire established control there, holding sway for over 300 years, until 1881, when
10080-449: The majority of Maghrebi Arabs were Qahtanites from South Arabia . The Umayyad Caliphate was aware of the importance of the spread and settlement of Arabs in the Maghreb to the Caliph. Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik swore that he would send a large army and added "I will not leave a single Berber compound without pitching beside it a tent of a tribesman from Qays or Tamim ". The Abbasids reconquered Ifriqiya in 761 from
10200-518: The most modern but repressive countries in the Arab world". On 12 May 1964, Tunisia nationalized foreign farmlands. Immediately after, France canceled all financial assistance for the country, which was to amount to more than $ 40 million. This led to the Tunisian National Assembly passing a bill that required all residents of the country to subscribe to a "popular loan" in proportion to their income. From 1977 until 2005, Tunisia
10320-417: The most significant wave of Arab migration occurred in the 11th century with the arrival of more Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula , such as Banu Hilal , Banu Sulaym , and Maqil . The last significant wave of Arab migration to the Maghreb was from Al-Andalus in the 17th century as a result of the Reconquista . These migrants established numerous Arab empires and dynasties in the Maghreb, such as
10440-517: The native Berber population, destroying their language and culture and giving rise to the contemporary Sahrawi people . The Arab nomads controlled the entire territory of present-day Mauritania ever since. The Moorish Sahara is the western extremity of the Arab World. Western it certainly is, some districts further west than Ireland, yet in its way of life, its culture, its literature and in many of its social customs, it has much in common with
10560-490: The new settlers and had to share with them pasturelands and seasonal migration routes. By the 15th century, the area of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized. This resulted in the development of Maghrebi Arabic , a variety which traces its origins to the Bedouin Arabic varieties that were introduced to the Maghreb by Hilalian tribes in the 11th century, which eventually became widely spoken by
10680-639: The politics of the Almohad Empire. The Almohad government thus helped the Arabs to overcome the barriers of the Atlas mountains, and accelerated their expansion into Morocco to complete the nomads' predominance over the lowlands of the Maghrib as far as the Atlantic. The appearance of the Arabs added to the complexity of the ethnic composition of Morocco, and introduced a significant non-Berber element to
10800-534: The population consisted of tribesmen from Banu Tamim . Al-Ya'qubi's information does not include the whole Maghreb, such as the western Maghreb where the Idrisids arrived with Arab tribes and encouraged other Arabs to arrive. The 11th century witnessed the most significant wave of Arab migration, surpassing all previous movements. This event unfolded when the Zirid dynasty of Ifriqiya proclaimed its independence from
10920-668: The population. The Arabs also increased pasture lands at the expense of agriculture, which gradually became confined to the mountains. Abd al-Mu'min expected opposition from the Masmuda to whom he was a stranger, so he gained Arab support to secure the succession of his son. With the decline of the Almohad army, the Arab nomads became the most powerful force in the Moroccan plains, and no ruler could have held authority there without their support. The later 'Alawite dynasty came to power in
11040-562: The pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria , the French invaded with an army of about 36,000 and forced the Bey of Tunis, Muhammad III as-Sadiq , to agree to the terms of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo . With this treaty, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate , over the objections of Italy. European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were also 105,000 Italians in Tunisia . During
11160-566: The previous adjectival form was "Tunisine". Farming methods reached the Nile Valley from the Fertile Crescent region about 5000 BC, and spread to the Maghreb by about 4000 BC. Agricultural communities in the humid coastal plains of central Tunisia then were ancestors of today's Berber tribes. It was believed in ancient times that Africa was originally populated by Gaetulians and Libyans, both nomadic peoples. According to
11280-609: The protests. The protests inspired the Arab Spring , a wave of similar actions throughout the Arab world. The catalyst for mass demonstrations was the death of Mohamed Bouazizi , a 26-year-old Tunisian street vendor, who set himself afire on 17 December 2010 in protest at the confiscation of his wares and the humiliation inflicted on him by a municipal official named Faida Hamdy . Anger and violence intensified following Bouazizi's death on 4 January 2011, ultimately leading longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to resign and flee
11400-463: The recent gene flow caused by the Arab migrations to the Maghreb in the first millennium CE. Both southern Qahtanite and northern Adnanite Arabs contributed to the diverse ethnic mix of the Maghreb. Therefore, it has been established that the Eu10 chromosome pool in the Maghreb originates not only from early Neolithic migrations but also from recent expansions of Arab tribes from Arabia . The results of
11520-632: The region. To weaken resistance by Arab tribes in Ifriqiya , the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min transferred them to Morocco in large numbers and settled them in the Atlantic plains in the 12th century. The region was formerly inhabited by the Barghawata tribal group, however this area was largely destroyed and depopulated by the Almoravids in their war against the heretic Barghawata, and it
11640-528: The region. The descendants of the Arab settlers in the Maghreb are known as Maghrebi Arabs . According to Charles-André Julien , a specialist in North African history, the Hilalian invasion was "the most important event of the entire medieval period in the Maghrib". Arab migration to the Maghreb first started in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb . This first started in 647 under
11760-459: The religion of Islam. They were distributed around the regions of the Maghreb. In less than one century, the great majority of Christians converted to Islam with "great zeal that they sought martyrdom", and the final conversions took place in the first two centuries after the hijrah . The Berbers were the only people to be incorporated into the Umayyad armies and to have converted to Islam on such
11880-595: The rise of Roman power. From the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 202 BC, Carthage functioned as a client state of the Roman Republic for another 50 years. Following the Battle of Carthage which began in 149 BC during the Third Punic War , Carthage was conquered by Rome in 146 BC. Following its conquest, the Romans renamed Carthage to Africa , incorporating it as a province. During
12000-671: The rule of Emperor Justinian I , by the Eastern Romans led by General Belisarius , preluding a 165-year era of Byzantine rule . Sometime between the second half of the 7th century and the early part of the 8th century, Arab Muslim conquest occurred in the region . They founded the first Islamic city in Northwest Africa, Kairouan . It was there in 670 AD that the Mosque of Uqba , or the Great Mosque of Kairouan,
12120-458: The same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس , and only by context can one tell the difference. In English, Tunisia before independence was also often called simply "Tunis", a name that persisted until the 1940s; under French influence, the neologism "Tunisia", adapted from Tunisie , gradually took hold. The adjective "Tunisian" first appeared in English in 1825;
12240-533: The son of Abu Hafs declared himself independent. During the reign of the Hafsid dynasty from their capital Tunis, fruitful commercial relationships were established with several Christian Mediterranean states. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold. In the last years of the Hafsid dynasty , Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire . The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis took place in 1534 under
12360-473: The territories and boundaries of the local Berber tribes were relocated and shrunk. The Zenata were displaced westward, while the Kabyles were forced to the north. The Berbers took refuge in the mountains whereas the plains were settled by Arabs and Arabized. This led to the displacement of Berber languages by Arabic as the lingua franca of the coastal plains of the Maghreb. This linguistic shift occurred as
12480-528: The vast majority of Maghrebis. The diverse linguistic landscape of the Maghreb led to the choice of Banu Hilal's Arabic as the lingua franca of the Maghreb. The Umayyad Caliphate played a significant role in Islamizing the population of the Maghreb. Umayyad campaigns into the Maghreb were highly successful. In 705, Musa ibn Nusayr launched a major campaign into the western Maghreb, capturing most of its cities. This allowed him to impose his authority over
12600-554: The west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares maritime borders with Italy through the islands of Sicily and Sardinia to the north and Malta to the east. It features the archaeological sites of Carthage dating back to the 9th century BC, as well as the Great Mosque of Kairouan . Known for its ancient architecture, souks , and blue coasts, it covers 163,610 km (63,170 sq mi), and has
12720-504: The western Maghreb to areas such as Doukkala . They heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture , and spread nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant. It played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara . In addition, they destroyed the Berber Zirid state and most of its cities, sparing only
12840-419: The work of local human rights organizations. In 2008, in terms of press freedom , Tunisia was ranked 143rd out of 173. The Tunisian Revolution was an intensive campaign of civil resistance that was precipitated by high unemployment , food inflation , corruption , a lack of freedom of speech and other political freedoms and poor living conditions . Labour unions were said to be an integral part of
12960-841: The year 1250, by the end of the Almohad Caliphate . Additionally, the Beni Hassan dominated the valleys of the Moulouya , Draa , Sous , as well as the Tafilalt oasis region. Historical accounts report that these Hassani communities enriched themselves by collecting tolls from trade caravans and extorting farming and herding villages settled in the oases. This took place during the Char Bouba war in modern-day Western Sahara and Mauritania from 1644 to 1674, which after decades of confrontations ended up completely Arabizing
13080-563: Was a shooting location for five films of the Star Wars film franchise. In 1982, Tunisia became the center of the Palestinian Liberation Organization , a militant and political organization based in the capital Tunis. In November 1987, doctors declared Bourguiba unfit to rule and, in a bloodless coup d'état, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency in accordance with Article 57 of
13200-479: Was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture. The depredation of the Tunisian campaigns by the Banu Hilal , a warlike Arab tribe encouraged by the Fatimids of Egypt to seize Northwest Africa, sent the region's rural and urban economic life into further decline. Consequently, the region underwent rapid urbanisation as famines depopulated the countryside and industry shifted from agriculture to manufactures. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that
13320-618: Was considered the only democratic state in the Arab world , according to the The Economist Democracy Index . After a democratic backsliding , Tunisia is rated a hybrid regime . It is one of the few countries in Africa ranking high on the Human Development Index , with one of the highest per capita incomes on the continent, ranking 129th in GDP per capita income. Tunisia is well integrated into
13440-554: Was constructed. This mosque is the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the Muslim West with the oldest standing minaret in the world; it is also considered a masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture. The Arab migration to the Maghreb began during this time. The region in its entirety was taken in 695, retaken by the Byzantine Eastern Romans in 697, but lost permanently in 698. The transition from
13560-430: Was depopulated again by an Almohad expedition in 1149–1150 and again in 1197–1198 to suppress revolts against them in the region. The Almohads helped the Arab tribes pass the barriers of the Atlas Mountains , and accelerated their expansion to Morocco to complete the nomadic Bedouin predominance over the lowlands of the Maghreb as far as the Atlantic coastal plains. The Arab tribes increasingly played an important role in
13680-472: Was inhabited by the indigenous Berbers . The Phoenicians , a Semitic people , began to arrive in the 12th century BC, settling on the coast and establishing several settlements , of which Carthage emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC. The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as the Punic people . Ancient Carthage was a major mercantile empire and a military rival to
13800-472: Was marked by the construction of new palace cities such as al-Abbasiya (809) and Raq Adda (877). After conquering Cairo , the Fatimids abandoned Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria to the local Zirids (972–1148). Zirid Tunisia flourished in many areas: agriculture, industry, trade, and religious and secular learning. Management by the later Zirid emirs was neglectful though, and political instability
13920-715: Was occupied by Germany. SS Commander Walter Rauff continued to implement the "Final Solution" there. From 1942 to 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the Tunisia Campaign , a series of battles between the Axis and Allied forces. The battle opened with initial success by the German and Italian forces, but the massive supply and numerical superiority of the Allies led to the Axis surrender on 13 May 1943. The six-month campaign of Tunisia's liberation from Axis occupation signalled
14040-637: Was replaced by Pierre Voizard . Voizard had previously been the French Minister to Monaco . A month after his arrival in Tunis on 26 September 1953, Voizard made many changes to ease tensions in Tunisia. He lifted press censorship and freed several political prisoners. He also restored the full powers of civil authorities and raised the state of siege in the Sahel . On 26 January 1954, Voizard announced that there would soon be new reforms in favor of granting more sovereignty to Tunisians while insuring
14160-583: Was the Banu Ghaniya , relatives of the Almoravids , who from their base in Mallorca tried to restore Almoravid rule over the Maghreb. Around 1200 they succeeded in extending their rule over the whole of Tunisia until they were crushed by Almohad troops in 1207. After this success, the Almohads installed Walid Abu Hafs as the governor of Tunisia. Tunisia remained part of the Almohad state, until 1230 when
14280-760: Was the head of the Ufficio Studi e Documentazione in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , and Vestri was an Africanist scholar. Despite his best efforts, the Italians remained neutral as they did not want to ruin relations with NATO ally France, nor did they want to hamper any possibility of future relations with Tunisia as it served as a key part of the Mediterranean . The French Resident General in Tunisia, Jean de Hautecloque [ de ; fr ] left Tunis to go to Paris on 25 August 1953, when he
14400-419: Was triggered by dissatisfaction with the lack of freedom and democracy under the 24-year rule of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali , overthrew his regime and catalyzed the broader Arab Spring movement across the region. Free multiparty parliamentary elections were held shortly thereafter; the country again voted for parliament on 26 October 2014, and for president on 23 November 2014. From 2014 to 2020, it
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