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122-521: The Stavelot Bible is a Romanesque illuminated manuscript Bible in two volumes datable to 1093–1097. It was produced for, but not necessarily in, the Benedictine monastery of Stavelot , in the Principality of Stavelot-Malmedy of modern Belgium , and required four years to complete. It was probably the main liturgical Bible of the monastery, kept on the altar of the abbey church or in

244-465: A Last Judgement of great rarity in that it has uniquely been signed by its creator, Giselbertus . A feature of the figures in manuscript illumination is that they often occupy confined spaces and are contorted to fit. The custom of artists to make the figure fit the available space lent itself to a facility in designing figures to ornament door posts and lintels and other such architectural surfaces. The robes of painted figures were commonly treated in

366-494: A raster scan to create an image (their panels may still be updated in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom scanning fashion, but always in a progressive fashion, and not necessarily at the same rate as the input signal), and so cannot benefit from interlacing (where older LCDs use a "dual scan" system to provide higher resolution with slower-updating technology, the panel is instead divided into two adjacent halves that are updated simultaneously ): in practice, they have to be driven with

488-633: A 7 or 14 MHz bandwidth), suitable for NTSC/PAL encoding (where it was smoothly decimated to 3.5~4.5 MHz). This ability (plus built-in genlocking ) resulted in the Amiga dominating the video production field until the mid-1990s, but the interlaced display mode caused flicker problems for more traditional PC applications where single-pixel detail is required, with "flicker-fixer" scan-doubler peripherals plus high-frequency RGB monitors (or Commodore's own specialist scan-conversion A2024 monitor) being popular, if expensive, purchases amongst power users. 1987 saw

610-432: A 75 to 90 Hz field rate (i.e. 37.5 to 45 Hz frame rate), and tended to use longer-persistence phosphors in their CRTs, all of which was intended to alleviate flicker and shimmer problems. Such monitors proved generally unpopular, outside of specialist ultra-high-resolution applications such as CAD and DTP which demanded as many pixels as possible, with interlace being a necessary evil and better than trying to use

732-485: A decade after the first ultra-high-resolution interlaced upgrades appeared for the IBM PC, to provide sufficiently high pixel clocks and horizontal scan rates for hi-rez progressive-scan modes in first professional and then consumer-grade displays, the practice was soon abandoned. For the rest of the 1990s, monitors and graphics cards instead made great play of their highest stated resolutions being "non-interlaced", even where

854-415: A double rate of progressive frames, resample the frames to the desired resolution and then re-scan the stream at the desired rate, either in progressive or interlaced mode. Interlace introduces a potential problem called interline twitter , a form of moiré . This aliasing effect only shows up under certain circumstances—when the subject contains vertical detail that approaches the horizontal resolution of

976-410: A fixed bandwidth, interlace provides a video signal with twice the display refresh rate for a given line count (versus progressive scan video at a similar frame rate—for instance 1080i at 60 half-frames per second, vs. 1080p at 30 full frames per second). The higher refresh rate improves the appearance of an object in motion, because it updates its position on the display more often, and when an object

1098-568: A flat and decorative style that bore little resemblance to the weight and fall of actual cloth. This feature was also adapted for sculpture. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre , Moissac , France, from about 1130. One of the most significant motifs of Romanesque design, occurring in both figurative and non-figurative sculpture

1220-733: A hallmark of the later Romanesque period. Figurative sculpture was based on two other sources in particular, manuscript illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. The extensive friezes sculpted on Armenian and Syriac churches have been proposed as another likely influence. These sources together produced a distinct style which can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and Italy. Images that occurred in metalwork were frequently embossed. The resultant surface had two main planes and details that were usually incised. This treatment

1342-558: A miser is another popular subject. Gothic architecture is usually considered to begin with the design of the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denis , north of Paris, by the Abbot Suger , consecrated 1144. The beginning of Gothic sculpture is usually dated a little later, with the carving of the figures around the Royal Portal at Chartres Cathedral , France, 1150–1155. The style of sculpture spread rapidly from Chartres, overtaking

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1464-432: A new half frame every 1/50 of a second (or 50 fields per second). To display interlaced video on progressive scan displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal (which adds input lag ). The European Broadcasting Union argued against interlaced video in production and broadcasting. Until the early 2010s, they recommended 720p 50 fps (frames per second) for the current production format—and were working with

1586-436: A path similar to text on a page—line by line, top to bottom. The interlaced scan pattern in a standard definition CRT display also completes such a scan, but in two passes (two fields). The first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines, filling in the gaps in the first scan. This scan of alternate lines

1708-448: A problem of applying the appropriate algorithms to the interlaced signal, as all information should be present in that signal. In practice, results are currently variable, and depend on the quality of the input signal and amount of processing power applied to the conversion. The biggest impediment, at present, is artifacts in the lower quality interlaced signals (generally broadcast video), as these are not consistent from field to field. On

1830-454: A progressive scan signal. The deinterlacing circuitry to get progressive scan from a normal interlaced broadcast television signal can add to the cost of a television set using such displays. Currently, progressive displays dominate the HDTV market. In the 1970s, computers and home video game systems began using TV sets as display devices. At that point, a 480-line NTSC signal was well beyond

1952-654: A range of different and easily identifiable musical instruments. A number of regional schools converged in the early Romanesque illuminated manuscript : the "Channel school" of England and Northern France was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art , whereas in Southern France the style depended more on Iberian influence, and in Germany and the Low Countries , Ottonian styles continued to develop, and also, along with Byzantine styles, influenced Italy. By

2074-411: A sharper 405 line frame (with around 377 used for the actual image, and yet fewer visible within the screen bezel; in modern parlance, the standard would be "377i"). The vertical scan frequency remained 50 Hz, but visible detail was noticeably improved. As a result, this system supplanted John Logie Baird 's 240 line mechanical progressive scan system that was also being trialled at the time. From

2196-490: A standard television set, the screen is either treated as if it were half the resolution of what it actually is (or even lower), or rendered at full resolution and then subjected to a low-pass filter in the vertical direction (e.g. a "motion blur" type with a 1-pixel distance, which blends each line 50% with the next, maintaining a degree of the full positional resolution and preventing the obvious "blockiness" of simple line doubling whilst actually reducing flicker to less than what

2318-641: A strong stylistic one from Mosan metalwork and enamels. The figure style shows the influences of the German tradition from Ottonian and Carolingian art , as well as Byzantine art , possibly mediated through Italian works. There is decorative influence from the Anglo-Norman Channel School . The miniatures show both the older technique of pen-drawing relatively lightly coloured-in, and the new style, derived from Italy, of fully painted images using opaque colours. The interlace decoration of

2440-489: A two-bladed shutter to produce 48 times per second illumination—but only in projectors incapable of projecting at the lower speed. This solution could not be used for television. To store a full video frame and display it twice requires a frame buffer —electronic memory ( RAM )—sufficient to store a video frame. This method did not become feasible until the late 1980s and with digital technology. In addition, avoiding on-screen interference patterns caused by studio lighting and

2562-429: A very high standard – these are often the structures to have survived, when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt. No Romanesque royal palace has really survived. The lay artist was becoming a valued figure – Nicholas of Verdun seems to have been known across the continent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay, and lay painters such as Master Hugo seem to have been in the majority, at least of those doing

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2684-416: A video frame captured consecutively. This enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system. This effectively doubles the time resolution (also called temporal resolution ) as compared to non-interlaced footage (for frame rates equal to field rates). Interlaced signals require a display that is natively capable of showing

2806-452: Is (barely) acceptable for small, low brightness displays in dimly lit rooms, whilst 80 Hz or more may be necessary for bright displays that extend into peripheral vision. The film solution was to project each frame of film three times using a three-bladed shutter: a movie shot at 16 frames per second illuminated the screen 48 times per second. Later, when sound film became available, the higher projection speed of 24 frames per second enabled

2928-508: Is 1080i/25. This convention assumes that one complete frame in an interlaced signal consists of two fields in sequence. One of the most important factors in analog television is signal bandwidth, measured in megahertz. The greater the bandwidth, the more expensive and complex the entire production and broadcasting chain. This includes cameras, storage systems, broadcast systems—and reception systems: terrestrial, cable, satellite, Internet, and end-user displays ( TVs and computer monitors ). For

3050-476: Is an unusually large ivory crucifix, with complex carving including many figures of prophets and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo , who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which many pieces or fragments remain from croziers , plaques, pectoral crosses and similar objects. With

3172-579: Is assumed that he had moved to Stavelot in the intervening years, as the Josephus was also made for the abbey there. Many scholars believe that he was also the main artist for the miniatures in both manuscripts, although it is agreed that at least four hands were involved in the miniatures in the Stavelot Bible. In particular, the most famous miniature, the image of Christ in Majesty (shown to

3294-585: Is based (at however many removes) on the 5th century mosaic band decorating the arch of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna. Dynes, Wayne Robert, The Illuminations of the Stavelot Bible , Education-Garla, 1978, New York, ISBN   0-8240-3225-X Reprint : Routledge Revivals. Romanesque art Outside Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterised by a vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The latter continued to follow essentially Byzantine iconographic models for

3416-520: Is called interlacing . A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the display's phosphor aided this effect. Interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan, but with twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate . To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing. Format identifiers like 576i50 and 720p50 specify

3538-422: Is captured. These artifacts may be more visible when interlaced video is displayed at a slower speed than it was captured, or in still frames. While there are simple methods to produce somewhat satisfactory progressive frames from the interlaced image, for example by doubling the lines of one field and omitting the other (halving vertical resolution), or anti-aliasing the image in the vertical axis to hide some of

3660-439: Is lost between frames. Despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video transmission formats such as DV , DVB , and ATSC . New video compression standards like High Efficiency Video Coding are optimized for progressive scan video, but sometimes do support interlaced video. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in

3782-510: Is particularly rare given its much lower line-scanning frequency vs typical "VGA"-or-higher analog computer video modes. Playing back interlaced video from a DVD, digital file or analog capture card on a computer display instead requires some form of deinterlacing in the player software and/or graphics hardware, which often uses very simple methods to deinterlace. This means that interlaced video often has visible artifacts on computer systems. Computer systems may be used to edit interlaced video, but

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3904-759: Is pictorial and biblical in subject. A great variety of themes are found on capitals and include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man , episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes which prefigure his Death and Resurrection , such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions' den . Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three Kings being particularly popular. The cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey in Northern Spain, and Moissac are fine examples surviving complete, as are

4026-443: Is stationary, human vision combines information from multiple similar half-frames to produce the same perceived resolution as that provided by a progressive full frame. This technique is only useful, though, if source material is available in higher refresh rates. Cinema movies are typically recorded at 24fps, and therefore do not benefit from interlacing, a solution which reduces the maximum video bandwidth to 5 MHz without reducing

4148-477: Is that there are doorways which are Romanesque in form, and yet show a naturalism associated with Early Gothic sculpture. One of these is the Pórtico da Gloria dating from 1180, at Santiago de Compostela . This portal is internal and is particularly well preserved, even retaining colour on the figures and indicating the gaudy appearance of much architectural decoration which is now perceived as monochrome. Around

4270-630: Is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–965, apparently the prototype of what became a popular form. These were later set up on a beam below the chancel arch, known in English as a rood , from the twelfth century accompanied by figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist to the sides. During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture strongly revived, and architectural reliefs are

4392-417: Is the primary reason that interlacing is less suited for computer displays. Each scanline on a high-resolution computer monitor typically displays discrete pixels, each of which does not span the scanline above or below. When the overall interlaced framerate is 60 frames per second, a pixel (or more critically for e.g. windowing systems or underlined text, a horizontal line) that spans only one scanline in height

4514-465: Is the spiral. One of the sources may be Ionic capitals . Scrolling vines were a common motif of both Byzantine and Roman design, and may be seen in mosaic on the vaults of the 4th century Church of Santa Costanza , Rome. Manuscripts and architectural carvings of the 12th century have very similar scrolling vine motifs. Another source of the spiral is clearly the illuminated manuscripts of the 7th to 9th centuries, particularly Irish manuscripts such as

4636-411: Is visible for the 1/60 of a second that would be expected of a 60 Hz progressive display - but is then followed by 1/60 of a second of darkness (whilst the opposite field is scanned), reducing the per-line/per-pixel refresh rate to 30 frames per second with quite obvious flicker. To avoid this, standard interlaced television sets typically do not display sharp detail. When computer graphics appear on

4758-743: The Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty". Many detached fragments are in museums, and a window at Twycross Church in England is made up of important French panels rescued from the French Revolution . Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible (in that it could be added to or re-arranged) and seems to have been often re-used when churches were rebuilt in

4880-670: The Gniezno Doors , and the doors of the Basilica di San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The aquamanile , a container for water to wash with, appears to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century. Artisans often gave the pieces fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest. The Cloisters Cross

5002-522: The Province of Burgos , Spain, though from a monastery, are secular in subject-matter, showing huge and vigorous mythical beasts above a frieze in black and white with other creatures. They give a rare idea of what decorated Romanesque palaces would have contained. In England and France , the Romanesque period saw the rise of pigaches , "scorpion-tail" or "ram's-horn" shoes much assailed by

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5124-453: The St. Albans Psalter , Hunterian Psalter , Winchester Bible (the "Morgan Leaf" shown above), Fécamp Bible , Stavelot Bible , and Parc Abbey Bible . By the end of the period lay commercial workshops of artists and scribes were becoming significant, and illumination, and books generally, became more widely available to both laity and clergy. The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of

5246-561: The St. Gall Gospel Book , spread into Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission . In these illuminations the use of the spiral has nothing to do with vines or other plant forms. The motif is abstract and mathematical. The style was then picked up in Carolingian art and given a more botanical character. It is in an adaptation of this form that the spiral occurs in the draperies of both sculpture and stained glass windows. Of all

5368-469: The sacristy , rather than in the library. It is one of the most important Mosan manuscripts of the last quarter of the 11th century, and shares some of its scribes and artists with the earlier Lobbes Bible and a manuscript of Josephus , in all of which a monk called Goderannus was at least a scribe, and possibly the main artist. For many years it was in the Royal Library at Bamberg , until it

5490-654: The semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists , comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of

5612-684: The 12th century there had been reciprocal influences between all these, although naturally regional distinctiveness remained. The typical foci of Romanesque illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial , and the Psalter , where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases more lavish examples might have cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page, in compartments. The Bibles in particular often had a, and might be bound into more than one volume. Examples include

5734-470: The 1940s onward, improvements in technology allowed the US and the rest of Europe to adopt systems using progressively higher line-scan frequencies and more radio signal bandwidth to produce higher line counts at the same frame rate, thus achieving better picture quality. However the fundamentals of interlaced scanning were at the heart of all of these systems. The US adopted the 525 line system, later incorporating

5856-564: The 6, 7 and 8  MHz of bandwidth that NTSC and PAL signals were confined to. IBM's Monochrome Display Adapter and Enhanced Graphics Adapter as well as the Hercules Graphics Card and the original Macintosh computer generated video signals of 342 to 350p, at 50 to 60 Hz, with approximately 16 MHz of bandwidth, some enhanced PC clones such as the AT&;T 6300 (aka Olivetti M24 ) as well as computers made for

5978-461: The Gothic style – the earliest datable English glass, a panel in York Minster from a Tree of Jesse probably of before 1154, has been recycled in this way. Interlaced video Interlaced video (also known as interlaced scan ) is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth . The interlaced signal contains two fields of

6100-517: The Japanese home market managed 400p instead at around 24 MHz, and the Atari ST pushed that to 71 Hz with 32 MHz bandwidth - all of which required dedicated high-frequency (and usually single-mode, i.e. not "video"-compatible) monitors due to their increased line rates. The Commodore Amiga instead created a true interlaced 480i60/576i50 RGB signal at broadcast video rates (and with

6222-685: The Lobbes Bible has been replaced by foliage forms. The decorative scheme of the book is typical of large monastic Bibles, which during the Romanesque period were the most common books to be lavishly illuminated for display, along with the psalter , having taken over this role from the Gospel book . Careful examination of the Greek keyhole pattern surrounding the Christ in Majesty will reveal clusters of triple and five dot pattern in white. The entire scheme

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6344-455: The PC industry today remains against interlace in HDTV, and lobbied for the 720p standard, and continues to push for the adoption of 1080p (at 60 Hz for NTSC legacy countries, and 50 Hz for PAL); however, 1080i remains the most common HD broadcast resolution, if only for reasons of backward compatibility with older HDTV hardware that cannot support 1080p - and sometimes not even 720p - without

6466-615: The Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In England, France and the Netherlands such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm . Murals in Denmark , as well as in Sweden , and elsewhere many have since been restored. In Catalonia (Spain) , there

6588-511: The Spanish region of Catalonia, an elaborate pictorial scheme in low relief surrounds the door of the church of Santa Maria at Ripoll . The purpose of the sculptural schemes was to convey a message that the Christian believer should recognize wrongdoing, repent and be redeemed. The Last Judgement reminds the believer to repent. The carved or painted Crucifix , displayed prominently within

6710-476: The Stavelot Bible a colophon records that the work took four years, including the illuminations and what was no doubt a magnificent metalwork treasure binding . The task was finished when " Jerusalem was under attack by many peoples", in other words during the First Crusade . Goderannus had written the Lobbes Bible, which another colophon dates to 1084; at that time he was a monk of Lobbes Abbey , but it

6832-557: The TTL-RGB mode available on the CGA and e.g. BBC Micro were further simplifications to NTSC, which improved picture quality by omitting modulation of color, and allowing a more direct connection between the computer's graphics system and the CRT. By the mid-1980s, computers had outgrown these video systems and needed better displays. Most home and basic office computers suffered from the use of

6954-539: The Z ;axis (away from or towards the camera) will still produce combing, possibly even looking worse than if the fields were joined in a simpler method. Some deinterlacing processes can analyze each frame individually and decide the best method. The best and only perfect conversion in these cases is to treat each frame as a separate image, but that may not always be possible. For framerate conversions and zooming it would mostly be ideal to line-double each field to produce

7076-490: The adoption of Hiberno-Saxon traditions into Romanesque styles in England and on the continent, the influence was primarily one-way. Irish art during this period remained isolated, developing a unique amalgam of native Irish and Viking styles which would be slowly extinguished and replaced by mainstream Romanesque style in the early 13th century following the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. ) Most Romanesque sculpture

7198-506: The aforementioned full-frame low-pass filter. This animation demonstrates the interline twitter effect using the Indian Head test card . On the left are two progressive scan images. Center are two interlaced images. Right are two images with line doublers . Top are original resolution, bottom are with anti-aliasing. The two interlaced images use half the bandwidth of the progressive one. The interlaced scan (center) precisely duplicates

7320-538: The amount of fine metalwork owned by the nobility. The bronze Gloucester candlestick and the brass font of 1108–1117 now in Liège are superb examples, very different in style, of metal casting. The former is highly intricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a triumphal column and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathedral ,

7442-583: The arcades over the canon tables . In general the artists worked roughly on stretches of books in the Biblical sequence, so that, for example, the Pentateuch initials are all by the same hand. The Christ in Majesty , which comes at the start of the New Testament , is the only full-page miniature; all others are decorated letters and historiated initials in large narrow panels at the start of

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7564-576: The best known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun and others ( c.  1180 –1225). The Stavelot Triptych and Reliquary of St. Maurus are other examples of Mosan enamelwork. Large reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden frame, but smaller caskets were all metal and enamel. A few secular pieces, such as mirror cases, jewellery and clasps have survived, but these no doubt under-represent

7686-518: The best work, by the end of the period. The iconography of their church work was no doubt arrived at in consultation with clerical advisors. Precious objects in these media had a very high status in the period, probably much more so than paintings – the names of more makers of these objects are known than those of contemporary painters, illuminators or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel , became very sophisticated. Many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which

7808-511: The books of the Bible. Several of these show large numbers of small figures in different scenes, in particular the "I" of In principio at the beginning of the Book of Genesis , which takes up the whole height of the page, with a total of 33 small scenes within a geometric framework, ranging from the events of Genesis itself to the Last Judgement . They show varied influences, including

7930-762: The church, reminds the sinner of redemption. Often the sculpture is alarming in form and in subject matter. These works are found on capitals, corbels and bosses, or entwined in the foliage on door mouldings. They represent forms that are not easily recognizable today. Common motifs include Sheela na Gig , fearsome demons , ouroboros or dragons swallowing their tails, and many other mythical creatures with obscure meaning. Spirals and paired motifs originally had special significance in oral tradition that has been lost or rejected by modern scholars. The Seven Deadly Sins including lust, gluttony and avarice are also frequently represented. The appearance of many figures with oversized genitals can be equated with carnal sin, and so can

8052-783: The clergy at the time. Orderic Vitalis in particular blamed them for the supposed rise in sodomy and homosexuality of the era. The shoes are now principally remembered as precursors to the much more extravagant poulaines that became popular following the Black Death . Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry in Bayeux , France or the Tapestry of Creation in Girona , Spain, but many more closely worked pieces of Opus Anglicanum ("English work" – considered

8174-454: The color keyed picture for each eye in the alternating fields. This does not require significant alterations to existing equipment. Shutter glasses can be adopted as well, obviously with the requirement of achieving synchronisation. If a progressive scan display is used to view such programming, any attempt to deinterlace the picture will render the effect useless. For color filtered glasses the picture has to be either buffered and shown as if it

8296-545: The color standards are often used as synonyms for the underlying video standard - NTSC for 525i/60, PAL/SECAM for 625i/50 - there are several cases of inversions or other modifications; e.g. PAL color is used on otherwise "NTSC" (that is, 525i/60) broadcasts in Brazil , as well as vice versa elsewhere, along with cases of PAL bandwidth being squeezed to 3.58 MHz to fit in the broadcast waveband allocation of NTSC, or NTSC being expanded to take up PAL's 4.43 MHz. Interlacing

8418-404: The combing, there are sometimes methods of producing results far superior to these. If there is only sideways (X axis) motion between the two fields and this motion is even throughout the full frame, it is possible to align the scanlines and crop the left and right ends that exceed the frame area to produce a visually satisfactory image. Minor Y axis motion can be corrected similarly by aligning

8540-534: The composite color standard known as NTSC , Europe adopted the 625 line system, and the UK switched from its idiosyncratic 405 line system to (the much more US-like) 625 to avoid having to develop a (wholly) unique method of color TV. France switched from its similarly unique 819 line monochrome system to the more European standard of 625. Europe in general, including the UK, then adopted the PAL color encoding standard, which

8662-479: The concept of breaking a single image frame into successive interlaced lines, based on his earlier experiments with phototelegraphy. In the USA, RCA engineer Randall C. Ballard patented the same idea in 1932, initially for the purpose of reformatting sound film to television rather than for the transmission of live images. Commercial implementation began in 1934 as cathode-ray tube screens became brighter, increasing

8784-418: The disparity between computer video display systems and interlaced television signal formats means that the video content being edited cannot be viewed properly without separate video display hardware. Current manufacture TV sets employ a system of intelligently extrapolating the extra information that would be present in a progressive signal entirely from an interlaced original. In theory: this should simply be

8906-467: The doorway are figures who are integrated with the colonnettes that make the mouldings of the doors. They are three-dimensional, but slightly flattened. They are highly individualised, not only in appearance but also expression and bear quite strong resemblance to those around the north porch of the Abbey of St. Denis, dating from 1170. Beneath the tympanum there is a realistically carved row of figures playing

9028-448: The effective picture scan rate of 60 Hz. Given a fixed bandwidth and high refresh rate, interlaced video can also provide a higher spatial resolution than progressive scan. For instance, 1920×1080 pixel resolution interlaced HDTV with a 60 Hz field rate (known as 1080i60 or 1080i/30) has a similar bandwidth to 1280×720 pixel progressive scan HDTV with a 60 Hz frame rate (720p60 or 720p/60), but achieves approximately twice

9150-531: The fall of the Western Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out, as it effectively did (for religious reasons) in the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) world. Some life-size sculpture was evidently done in stucco or plaster, but surviving examples are understandably rare. The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe

9272-622: The faster motions inherent in the increasingly popular window-based operating systems, as well as the full-screen scrolling in WYSIWYG word-processors, spreadsheets, and of course for high-action games. Additionally, the regular, thin horizontal lines common to early GUIs, combined with low color depth that meant window elements were generally high-contrast (indeed, frequently stark black-and-white), made shimmer even more obvious than with otherwise lower fieldrate video applications. As rapid technological advancement made it practical and affordable, barely

9394-525: The figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period. Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style, and much glass from at least the first part of the 13th century can be considered as essentially Romanesque. Especially fine are large figures of 1200 from Strasbourg Cathedral (some now removed to the museum) and of about 1220 from Saint Kunibert's Church in Cologne . Most of

9516-454: The finest in the West) and other styles have survived, mostly as church vestments . The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in

9638-409: The frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate (which is twice the frame rate). This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate. To avoid confusion, SMPTE and EBU always use frame rate to specify interlaced formats, e.g., 480i60 is 480i/30, 576i50 is 576i/25, and 1080i50

9760-615: The frame rate isn't doubled in the deinterlaced output. Providing the best picture quality for interlaced video signals without doubling the frame rate requires expensive and complex devices and algorithms, and can cause various artifacts. For television displays, deinterlacing systems are integrated into progressive scan TV sets that accept interlaced signal, such as broadcast SDTV signal. Most modern computer monitors do not support interlaced video, besides some legacy medium-resolution modes (and possibly 1080i as an adjunct to 1080p), and support for standard-definition video (480/576i or 240/288p)

9882-418: The frame rate. I.e., 1080p50 signal produces roughly the same bit rate as 1080i50 (aka 1080i/25) signal, and 1080p50 actually requires less bandwidth to be perceived as subjectively better than its 1080i/25 (1080i50) equivalent when encoding a "sports-type" scene. Interlacing can be exploited to produce 3D TV programming, especially with a CRT display and especially for color filtered glasses by transmitting

10004-400: The full resolution of the progressive image. ALiS plasma panels and the old CRTs can display interlaced video directly, but modern computer video displays and TV sets are mostly based on LCD technology, which mostly use progressive scanning. Displaying interlaced video on a progressive scan display requires a process called deinterlacing . This is can be an imperfect technique, especially if

10126-409: The functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Le Mans , Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, and Saint-Denis , a number of panels of the 12th century have survived. At Canterbury these include a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth from a series of Ancestors of Christ . Adam represents a highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in

10248-659: The graphics abilities of low cost computers, so these systems used a simplified video signal that made each video field scan directly on top of the previous one, rather than each line between two lines of the previous field, along with relatively low horizontal pixel counts. This marked the return of progressive scanning not seen since the 1920s. Since each field became a complete frame on its own, modern terminology would call this 240p on NTSC sets, and 288p on PAL . While consumer devices were permitted to create such signals, broadcast regulations prohibited TV stations from transmitting video like this. Computer monitor standards such as

10370-529: The highest quality was no longer confined, as it largely was in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods, to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries. Monasteries continued to be extremely important, especially those of the expansionist new orders of the period, the Cistercian , Cluniac , and Carthusian , which spread across Europe. But city churches, those on pilgrimage routes, and many churches in small towns and villages were elaborately decorated to

10492-421: The image; the other contains all even-numbered lines. Sometimes in interlaced video a field is called a frame which can lead to confusion. A Phase Alternating Line (PAL)-based television set display, for example, scans 50 fields every second (25 odd and 25 even). The two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second (or 25 frames per second ), but with interlacing create

10614-433: The individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals. Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for "painting" a video image on an electronic display screen (the other being progressive scan ) by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame. One field contains all odd-numbered lines in

10736-405: The industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, and easier conversion to other formats, such as 720p 50 and 1080i 50. The main argument is that no matter how complex the deinterlacing algorithm may be, the artifacts in the interlaced signal cannot be completely eliminated because some information

10858-582: The introduction of VGA , on which PCs soon standardized, as well as Apple's Macintosh II range which offered displays of similar, then superior resolution and color depth, with rivalry between the two standards (and later PC quasi-standards such as XGA and SVGA) rapidly pushing up the quality of display available to both professional and home users. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, monitor and graphics card manufacturers introduced newer high resolution standards that once again included interlace. These monitors ran at higher scanning frequencies, typically allowing

10980-407: The level of flicker caused by progressive (sequential) scanning. In 1936, when the UK was setting analog standards, early thermionic valve based CRT drive electronics could only scan at around 200 lines in 1/50 of a second (i.e. approximately a 10 kHz repetition rate for the sawtooth horizontal deflection waveform). Using interlace, a pair of 202.5-line fields could be superimposed to become

11102-444: The limits of vacuum tube technology required that CRTs for TV be scanned at AC line frequency. (This was 60 Hz in the US, 50 Hz Europe.) Several different interlacing patents have been proposed since 1914 in the context of still or moving image transmission, but few of them were practicable. In 1926, Ulises Armand Sanabria demonstrated television to 200,000 people attending Chicago Radio World’s Fair. Sanabria’s system

11224-537: The magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition which rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion and the upper stage showing

11346-517: The many examples that occur on Romanesque portals, one of the most outstanding is that of the central figure of Christ at La Madeleine, Vezelay . Another influence from Insular art are engaged and entwined animals, often used to superb effect in capitals (as at Silos) and sometimes on a column itself (as at Moissac). Much of the treatment of paired, confronted and entwined animals in Romanesque decoration has similar Insular origins, as do animals whose bodies tail into purely decorative shapes. (Despite

11468-520: The most common subjects in churches, which remained Christ in Majesty , the Last Judgment , and scenes from the life of Christ . In illuminated manuscripts more originality is seen, as new scenes needed to be depicted. The most lavishly decorated manuscripts of this period were bibles and psalters . The same originality applied to the capitals of columns, which were often carved with complete scenes with several figures. The large wooden crucifix

11590-450: The new Gothic architecture. In fact, many churches of the late Romanesque period post-date the building at Saint-Denis. The sculptural style based more upon observation and naturalism than on formalised design developed rapidly. It is thought that one reason for the rapid development of naturalistic form was a growing awareness of Classical remains in places where they were most numerous and a deliberate imitation of their style. The consequence

11712-405: The numerous figures shown with protruding tongues, which are a feature of the doorway of Lincoln Cathedral . Pulling one's beard was a symbol of masturbation, and pulling one's mouth wide open was also a sign of lewdness. A common theme found on capitals of this period is a tongue poker or beard stroker being beaten by his wife or seized by demons. Demons fighting over the soul of a wrongdoer such as

11834-522: The old scanning method, with the highest display resolution being around 640x200 (or sometimes 640x256 in 625-line/50 Hz regions), resulting in a severely distorted tall narrow pixel shape, making the display of high resolution text alongside realistic proportioned images difficult (logical "square pixel" modes were possible but only at low resolutions of 320x200 or less). Solutions from various companies varied widely. Because PC monitor signals did not need to be broadcast, they could consume far more than

11956-425: The old unprocessed NTSC signal, the screens do not all follow motion in perfect synchrony. Some models appear to update slightly faster or slower than others. Similarly, the audio can have an echo effect due to different processing delays. When motion picture film was developed, the movie screen had to be illuminated at a high rate to prevent visible flicker . The exact rate necessary varies by brightness — 50 Hz

12078-446: The other hand, high bit rate interlaced signals such as from HD camcorders operating in their highest bit rate mode work well. Deinterlacing algorithms temporarily store a few frames of interlaced images and then extrapolate extra frame data to make a smooth flicker-free image. This frame storage and processing results in a slight display lag that is visible in business showrooms with a large number of different models on display. Unlike

12200-405: The overall framerate was barely any higher than what it had been for the interlaced modes (e.g. SVGA at 56p versus 43i to 47i), and usually including a top mode technically exceeding the CRT's actual resolution (number of color-phosphor triads) which meant there was no additional image clarity to be gained through interlacing and/or increasing the signal bandwidth still further. This experience is why

12322-463: The period, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement , but treated with more freedom than painted versions, as there were no equivalent Byzantine models. Compositions usually had little depth and needed to be flexible to be fit into the shapes of historiated initials , column capitals, and church tympanums;

12444-418: The pixels of the progressive image (left), but interlace causes details to twitter. A line doubler operating in "bob" (interpolation) mode would produce the images at far right. Real interlaced video blurs such details to prevent twitter, as seen in the bottom row, but such softening (or anti-aliasing) comes at the cost of image clarity. But even the best line doubler could never restore the bottom center image to

12566-525: The progressive-scan equivalents. Whilst flicker was often not immediately obvious on these displays, eyestrain and lack of focus nevertheless became a serious problem, and the trade-off for a longer afterglow was reduced brightness and poor response to moving images, leaving visible and often off-colored trails behind. These colored trails were a minor annoyance for monochrome displays, and the generally slower-updating screens used for design or database-query purposes, but much more troublesome for color displays and

12688-464: The relief sculptures on the many Tournai fonts found in churches in southern England, France and Belgium. A feature of some Romanesque churches is the extensive sculptural scheme which covers the area surrounding the portal or, in some case, much of the facade. Angouleme Cathedral in France has a highly elaborate scheme of sculpture set within the broad niches created by the arcading of the facade. In

12810-535: The right) was contributed by a different artist, sometimes termed the "Master of the Holy Majesty", who may have been a layman. It has even been suggested that it is a later addition to the manuscript, considering its advanced technique for the time, although most scholars find this theory unlikely, given that other artists of the region were known to demonstrate similar precocity at the time. A number of other miniatures are also attributed to this artist, including

12932-689: The saint to whom the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four " elders of the Apocalypse ", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Last Judgement , with an enthroned and judging Christ at

13054-445: The scanlines in a different sequence and cropping the excess at the top and bottom. Often the middle of the picture is the most necessary area to put into check, and whether there is only X or Y axis alignment correction, or both are applied, most artifacts will occur towards the edges of the picture. However, even these simple procedures require motion tracking between the fields, and a rotating or tilting object, or one that moves in

13176-404: The simpler approach would achieve). If text is displayed, it is large enough so that any horizontal lines are at least two scanlines high. Most fonts for television programming have wide, fat strokes, and do not include fine-detail serifs that would make the twittering more visible; in addition, modern character generators apply a degree of anti-aliasing that has a similar line-spanning effect to

13298-399: The spatial resolution for low-motion scenes. However, bandwidth benefits only apply to an analog or uncompressed digital video signal. With digital video compression, as used in all current digital TV standards, interlacing introduces additional inefficiencies. EBU has performed tests that show that the bandwidth savings of interlaced video over progressive video is minimal, even with twice

13420-411: The technical difference is simply that of either starting/ending the vertical sync cycle halfway along a scanline every other frame (interlace), or always synchronising right at the start/end of a line (progressive). Interlace is still used for most standard definition TVs, and the 1080i HDTV broadcast standard, but not for LCD , micromirror ( DLP ), or most plasma displays ; these displays do not use

13542-427: The tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures often varied in size in relation to their importance. Landscape backgrounds, if employed at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism – as in the trees in the "Morgan Leaf". Portraiture hardly existed. During this period, Europe grew steadily more prosperous, and art of

13664-557: The top. One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament , showing the Creation , the Fall of Man and other stories including a lively depiction of Noah's Ark complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through which can be seen Noah and his family on

13786-678: The upper deck, birds on the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea . The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in the narthex and Christ in Majesty . The range of colours employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia , Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France. The now-dispersed paintings from Arlanza in

13908-405: The video format. For instance, a finely striped jacket on a news anchor may produce a shimmering effect. This is twittering . Television professionals avoid wearing clothing with fine striped patterns for this reason. Professional video cameras or computer-generated imagery systems apply a low-pass filter to the vertical resolution of the signal to prevent interline twitter. Interline twitter

14030-451: Was a German innovation at the very start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna. High relief was the dominant sculptural mode of the period. Colours were very striking, and mostly primary. Presently, these colours can typically only be seen in their original vividness in samples of stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts. Stained glass became widely used, although few survive today. In an invention of

14152-570: Was a campaign to save such murals in the early 20th century (as of 1907) by removing them and transferring them to safekeeping in Barcelona , resulting in the spectacular collection at the National Art Museum of Catalonia . In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion. A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic , had, as its focal point in

14274-575: Was acquired by the British Library in London , where it is catalogued as Add MS 28106-28107 . The pages measure 581 x 390 mm, and there are 228 and 240 leaves in the two volumes. Both volumes of the book were written by two Benedictine monks, the calligraphers Brother Ernest (or Ernesto) and Brother Goderannus. Goderannus had the habit, helpful to modern scholars, of adding colophons with some detailed information to his manuscripts. In

14396-677: Was adapted to stone carving and is seen particularly in the tympanum above the portal, where the imagery of Christ in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists is drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval Gospel Books . This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the "Prior's Door" at Ely Cathedral . In South- Western France , many have survived, with impressive examples at Saint-Pierre, Moissac , Souillac , and La Madeleine, Vézelay – all daughter houses of Cluny, with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and other buildings. Nearby, Autun Cathedral has

14518-423: Was essentially based on NTSC, but inverted the color carrier phase with each line (and frame) in order to cancel out the hue-distorting phase shifts that dogged NTSC broadcasts. France instead adopted its own unique, twin-FM-carrier based SECAM system, which offered improved quality at the cost of greater electronic complexity, and was also used by some other countries, notably Russia and its satellite states. Though

14640-507: Was mechanically scanned using a 'triple interlace' Nipkow disc with three offset spirals and was thus a 3:1 scheme rather than the usual 2:1. It worked with 45 line 15 frames per second images being transmitted. With 15 frames per second and a 3:1 interlace the field rate was 45 fields per second yielding (for the time) a very steady image. He did not apply for a patent for his interlaced scanning until May 1931. In 1930, German Telefunken engineer Fritz Schröter first formulated and patented

14762-603: Was progressive with alternating color keyed lines, or each field has to be line-doubled and displayed as discrete frames. The latter procedure is the only way to suit shutter glasses on a progressive display. Interlaced video is designed to be captured, stored, transmitted, and displayed in the same interlaced format. Because each interlaced video frame is two fields captured at different moments in time, interlaced video frames can exhibit motion artifacts known as interlacing effects , or combing , if recorded objects move fast enough to be in different positions when each individual field

14884-400: Was ubiquitous in displays until the 1970s, when the needs of computer monitors resulted in the reintroduction of progressive scan, including on regular TVs or simple monitors based on the same circuitry; most CRT based displays are entirely capable of displaying both progressive and interlace regardless of their original intended use, so long as the horizontal and vertical frequencies match, as

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