134-680: The Sur Empire was an empire ruled by the Afghan -origin Sur dynasty in northern India for nearly 16 or 18 years, between 1538/1540 and 1556, with Sasaram (in modern-day Bihar ) serving as its capital. It was founded by Sher Shah Suri . The Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal Empire territories along the Indo-Gangetic Plain , from eastern Balochistan in the west of Indus River to modern-day Rakhine, Myanmar in
268-737: A Mughal army in July 1537, and advanced to Chunar. He reached the fort in November 1537 and laid siege to it. The siege of the fort at Chumar would last over six months until it finally fell despite the attempts from Rumi Khan to make quick work of the city. Sher Shah then led a second invasion into Bengal, and besieged Gauda . Gauda fell to the Afghan forces in April 1538. With the fort of Rohtasgarh also falling under his control in March 1538, which he used as
402-698: A Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests. Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement. A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined
536-630: A degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur , whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan in 1955. The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely " Peccavi " – or "I have sinned" ( Latin ). The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh:
670-665: A distance of two marches from the fort, and Adil Khan and Qutab Khan to bind themselves by solemn oaths that Puran Mall and his family will not be molested in any way. Sher Shah and his army withdrew a distance of two marches from the fort per the agreement. However, Sher Shah then encountered widows of the chiefs of Chanderi, with many others waiting for Sher Shah along the roadside. They called out to Sher Shah: We have suffered from this inhuman and malignant infidel all kinds of tyranny and oppression. He has slain our husbands and our daughters he has enslaved, and made dancing girls of them, and has seized our lands, and all our worldly goods for
804-514: A few thousand men against the Afghans, who wielded a force of 80,000 men and some cannons. In the ensuing battle of Sammel (also known as battle of Giri Sumel), Sher Shah emerged victorious, but several of his generals lost their lives and his army suffered thousands of casualties. After this victory, Sher Shah's general Khawas Khan Marwat took possession of Jodhpur and occupied the territory of Marwar from Ajmer to Mount Abu in 1544. Following
938-417: A forced march, which caught up to the retreating detachment of Puran Mal. The Rajput forces put up resistance, but were entirely annihilated. After conquering Multan in 1541, it was later overrun by Baloch tribes. As a result, Sher Shah began assembling for a campaign in 1543. It also aligned with his ideas of building a new road from Lahore to Multan. During this, a certain raider named Fateh Khan Jat looted
1072-560: A forged alliance with the Malwa Sultanate would be threatening. As a result, the Afghan armies first began their march on Gwalior . Led by Shujaat Khan, Gwalior was subjugated under Afghan rule. With this, the threat of being flanked as the Afghans advanced further into Malwa were extinguished. After gaining the submission of Abul Qasim Beg, the Mughal wali of Gwalior , The Afghans continued their march to Sarangpur . Qadir Khan,
1206-701: A fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan . They were ethnically Baloch , and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the British at the Battle of Miani and Battle of Dubbo . The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain
1340-589: A group of opposing Afghans, as also corroborated by Abulfazl Beyhaqi . It is recorded that Afghans were also enrolled in the Ghurid Kingdom (1148–1215). By the beginning of the Khilji dynasty in 1290, Afghans have been well known in northern India. Ibn Battuta , a famous Moroccan traveler, visiting Afghanistan following the era of the Khilji dynasty in 1333 writes. "We travelled on to Kabul, formerly
1474-531: A huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports Sindh ibex , wild sheep (urial) and black bear along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce tigers and Asian elephants too in KNP near
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#17327649664471608-543: A large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The Indus river dolphin is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh. Hog deer and wild bear occur, particularly in
1742-580: A long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai , having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend that highlights
1876-485: A long time past. ... If you do not give us justice, hereafter, in the day of resurrection when the first and the last of all men shall be collected together, we will accuse you. Upon hearing this, and further seeing the ruined families of Muslim survivors, Sher Shah was reported to have tears dropped from his eyes, and his idea of the destruction of oppression overtook him. Furthermore, demanded by his army to take action, Sher Shah ordered an army led by Isa Khan Hajjab to lead
2010-642: A major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between
2144-596: A marriage, including a portion of Bactria , while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BCE, the region came under the Indo-Greeks , followed by the Indo Scythians , who ruled with their capital at Minnagara . Later on, Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions, known as Hind . The local Rai dynasty emerged from Sindh and reigned for
2278-449: A message was sent thither to you (saying ) thus : ... look after the farming but the order was given to you thus. You should hand over the grain and then request it from the citizens store: I will not order, so ... I myself order and in respect of winter sends men thither to you then look after the farming. To Ormuzd Bunukan, Greetings." "because [you] (pl.), the clan of the Afghans, said thus to me: ... And you should not have denied (?)
2412-506: A particular people as mentioned in the Bactrian documents. "To Ormuzd Bunukan, from Bredag Watanan ... greetings and homage from ... the sotang (?) of Parpaz (under) the glorious Yabghu of Hephthal , the chief of the Afghans, the judge of Tukharistan and Gharchistan . Moreove, a letter [has come hither] from you, so I have heard how [you have] written to me concerning my health. I arrived in good health (and) afterwards (?) I heard that
2546-640: A period of 144 years, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India. Aror was noted to be the capital. The Brahmin dynasty of Sindh succeeded the Rai dynasty . Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama , a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty. After the empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under
2680-694: A period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent. Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta . The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the Indo-Islamic architectural style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the Makli Hill . It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including
2814-410: A place to situate Afghan families and loot he obtained during the war, also transferring the loot he obtained from Gaur to Rohtasgarh. With this victory, Sher Shah held his first coronation. Following the fall of Gaur, Sher Shah offered favorable peace terms to Humayun, offering 10,000,000 dinars, and that he would surrender Bihar in exchange for control of Bengal. Humayun did not wish to leave Bengal in
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#17327649664472948-522: A recovery from this fever I will return with all speed, and Puran Mall who has enslaved the families of the Muslims in Chanderi and has made dancing girls of their daughters and did not accompany my son Qutab Khan — him will I so punish that he may be a warning to others. Before resorting to war, Sher Shah offered Varanasi to Puran Mall if he ceded Raisin. Puran Mall refused to agree to any offer, and as
3082-472: A result, Sher Shah declared war. Jalal Khan led the Afghan army, reaching Vidisha , where he merged forces with Sher Shah. The Afghan forces then advanced to Raisin, besieging it. The siege of the city lasted for six months until the artillery of Sher Shah destroyed the cities defenses, which led to Puran Mall surrendering. The treaty observed the points that: Free passage to himself [Puran Mall] and his family with their belongings, The retirement of Sher Shah to
3216-495: A safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified 'Hindu' with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook, both
3350-600: A sortie, breaking out of the fort and successfully fleeing. Despite this, Hinda Baluch was captured during the sortie. With this, the Balochi leaders were executed. Following the campaign, Haibat Khan would subjugate upper Sindh as far as Sehwan . In 1543, Sher Shah Suri with a force of 80,000 cavalry set out against Maldeo Rathore , the Rajput king of Marwar . Maldeo Rathore with an army of 4,000-12,000 cavalry and archers advanced to face Sher Shah's army. Instead of marching to
3484-641: A tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling Sind (from the Perso-Arabic سند ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in the Sindh Assembly , and the name is now spelt Sindh . Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization . There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of Mohenjo Daro . Built around 2500 BCE, it
3618-428: A vast town, the site of which is now occupied by Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principal mountain is called Kuh Sulayman . It is told that the prophet Sulayman [Solomon] ascended this mountain and having looked out over India, which was then covered with darkness, returned without entering it." A 16th-century Muslim historian writing about
3752-552: A year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season. Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on Jacobabad ), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on Hyderabad ), and Lar (the lower region, centred on Karachi ). The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during
3886-615: Is Sindh's most multiethnic city which hosts most of the province's Urdu-speaking population who form a plurality, along many other groups. Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about 579 kilometres (360 mi) from north to south and 442 kilometres (275 mi) (extreme) or 281 kilometres (175 mi) (average) from east to west, with an area of 140,915 square kilometres (54,408 sq mi) of Pakistani territory. Sindh
4020-719: Is bounded by the Thar Desert to the east, the Kirthar Mountains to the west and the Arabian Sea and Rann of Kutch to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River . Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: Siro ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above Sehwan ; Vicholo ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to Hyderabad ; and Lāṟu ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of
4154-549: Is clear from coins dated AH 945 (1538 AD) that Sher Khan had assumed the royal title of Farid al-Din Sher Shah and had coins struck in his own name prior to the battle of Chausa. Sher Shah was responsible for greatly rebuilding and modernizing the Grand Trunk Road , a major artery which runs all the way from modern day Bangladesh to Afghanistan . Caravanserais (inns) and mosques were built and trees were planted along
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4288-436: Is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above 46 °C (115 °F ) between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of 2 °C (36 °F) occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until
4422-522: Is later recorded in the 6th century CE in the form of "Avagāṇa" [अवगाण] by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in his Brihat-samhita . "It would be unfavourable to the people of Chola, the Afghans (Avagāṇa), the white Huns and the Chinese." The word Afghan also appeared in the 982 Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam , where a reference is made to the village of Saul, which was estimated to be located near Gardez , in
4556-467: Is received in the winters. The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a unicameral and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is Karachi . The provincial government is led by Chief Minister who is directly elected by the popular and landslide votes ; the Governor serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by
4690-603: Is well known for its distinct culture , which is strongly influenced by Sufist Islam , an important marker of Sindhi identity for both Hindus and Muslims . Sindh is prominent for its history during the Bronze Age under the Indus Valley civilization , and is home to two UNESCO -designated World Heritage Sites : the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro . The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BCE under
4824-705: The Abbasid Caliphate in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad . The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the Ghaznavid Empire , thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh. The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and
4958-616: The Battle of Chausa . The Afghans descended on the Mughals and caught them off guard, and resulted in the complete rout of the Mughals. Humayun barely escaped with his life, and the Mughals suffered over 7,000 dead, with many prominent noblemen dead. Following his defeat, Humayun returned to Agra , and restored order after disturbances from his brother, Hindal Mirza . Humayun mobilized a large force, and advanced with an army of 40,000, while Sher Shah amassed 15,000. Humayun met Sher Shah at Kannauj , with both armies mirroring each other across
5092-543: The Ganges river. Humayun crossed the river and began skirmishing with Sher Shah's army. Amidst the fighting, Humayun's army saw many nobles hiding their insignia to prevent them from being recognized by the Afghans, with many nobles also fleeing from the battle. The Mughal army was defeated, which led to Humayun fleeing to Sindh . Following this victory, Sher Khan was crowned a second time on 17 May 1540 as Sher Shah, being declared as Emperor of Northern India, while also donning
5226-649: The Indus Delta below Hyderabad. The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, Acacia rupestris (kher), and Tecomella undulata ( lohirro ) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the Acacia nilotica (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The Azadirachta indica (neem) (nim), Zizyphys vulgaris (bir) (ber), Tamarix orientalis (jujuba lai) and Capparis aphylla (kirir) are among
5360-475: The Karrani dynasty , which ruled from 1563 to 1576. Following the flight of Humayun , Sher Shah continued in pursuit, advancing into the Punjab. Sher Shah advanced on Lahore , and caused panic among the Mughals. Kamran Mirza was not prepared to face Sher Shah, and as a result, retreated to Kabul, leaving the region to Sher Shah. Sher Shah captured Lahore in November 1540, with Afghan armies advancing as far as
5494-648: The Khyber Pass , but not extending his empire beyond the Indus as Sher Shah did not wish to incorporate many Afghans who enjoyed their independence and face difficulties with them. The Afghans also seized control of Multan in 1541, but did not pursue the retreat of the Mughals further, seeing them as no longer as a threat. Not longer after, Sher Shah entered conflict with the Gakhars , who had always been difficult to subjugate, and caused issues amongst former rulers in
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5628-632: The Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta. They were later overthrown by the Turkic Arghuns in the late 15th century. In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar , himself born in the Rajputana kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh. Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh
5762-560: The Musulmáns of the Kohistán (the mountains), and how matters stood there, they said, "Don't call it Kohistán, but Afghánistán; for there is nothing there but Afgháns and disturbances." Thus it is clear that for this reason the people of the country call their home in their own language Afghánistán, and themselves Afgháns. The people of India call them Patán ; however the reason for this is not known. But it occurs to me, that when, under
5896-538: The Paktia province of Afghanistan. "Saul, a pleasant village on a mountain. In it live Afghans. " Hudud al-'Alam also speaks of a king in Ninhar ( Nangarhar ), who had Muslim, Afghan and Hindu wives. "Ninhar, a place of which the king makes a show of Islam, and has many wives, (namely) over thirty Muslim, Afghan, and Hindu (wives). The rest of the people are idolaters. In (Ninhar) there are three large idols." In
6030-576: The Pashtuns . Since the second half of the twentieth century, the term " Afghan " evolved into a demonym for all residents of Afghanistan , including those outside of the Pashtun ethnicity. The earliest mention of the name Afghan ( Abgân ) is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE. In the 4th century, the word "Afghans/Afghana" (αβγανανο) was used in reference to
6164-648: The President of Pakistan . The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh , who is appointed by the Prime Minister of Pakistan . Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in Pakistan's politics . In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the left-wing and its political culture serves as a dominant place for
6298-707: The Red Sea , many of the Copts became converts to the Jewish faith ; but others, stubborn and self-willed, refusing to embrace the true faith, leaving their country, came to India, and eventually settled in the Sulimany mountains, where they bore the name of Afghans." The coined term of Afghanistan came into place in 1855, officially recognized by the British during the reign of Dost Mohammad Khan . Some scholars suggest that
6432-585: The Sanskrit and Avestan words for " horse "), or the Assakenoi of Arrian , which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush . This view was propounded by scholars like Christian Lassen , J. W. McCrindle , M. V. de Saint Martin, and É. Reclus , The Indian epic Mahabharata speaks about Kambojas among the finest horsemen , and ancient Pali texts describe their lands as
6566-405: The Striped hyena (charakh), jackal , fox , porcupine , common gray mongoose and hedgehog . The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh krait of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck
6700-546: The Taj Mahal . Amongst his magnitude of reforms while consolidating the empire, Sher Shah Suri abolished taxes that were held on the borders of provinces. This was due to Sher Shah wishing to invigorate trade throughout India, and only two levies remaining in place, with them being upon goods being brought into the country, and the second for when goods were sold. Customs as a result, were entirely removed. Afghan (ethnonym) The ethnonym Afghan ( Dari Persian / Pashto : افغان ) has been used historically to refer to
6834-467: The Thar Desert of Sindh in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India , and the Kirthar Mountains in the western portion of the province. The economy of Sindh is the second largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab ; its provincial capital Karachi is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of
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#17327649664476968-402: The invasion by Alexander . Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. He constructed a harbour at the city of Patala in Sindh. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator , when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered
7102-446: The land of horses . Kambojas spoke Avestan language and followed Zoroastrianism . Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism originated in the land of Kambojas. The last part of the name -stān is a Persian suffix for "place of". The Pashto translation of stogna is prominent in many languages of Asia. The name Afghanistan is mentioned in writing by the 16th century Mughal ruler Babur and his descendants, referring to
7236-399: The left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide general elections , in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its centre-right agenda . In metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Hyderabad , the MQM (another party of
7370-414: The second-largest province by population after Punjab . It is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan to the west and north-west and Punjab to the north. It shares an International border with the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east; it is also bounded by the Arabian Sea to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River ,
7504-413: The 11th century, Afghans are mentioned in al-Biruni 's Tarikh-ul Hind ("History of the Indus"), which describes groups of rebellious Afghans in the tribal lands west of the Indus River in what is now known as Pakistan. Al-Utbi, the Ghaznavid chronicler. In n his Tarikh-i Yamini records that many Afghans and Khiljis (possibly the modern Ghilji ) living between Laghman and Peshawar enlisted in
7638-404: The 14th century. Later chroniclers like Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid. The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum. The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across
7772-830: The 2023 census indicated a population of 5,182 Sikhs. Languages of Sindh (2023) According to the 2023 census , the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi , the first language of 33,462,299 60% of the population. It is followed by Urdu 12,409,745 (22%), Pashto 2,955,893 (5.3%), Punjabi 2,265,471 (4.1%), Balochi 1,208,147 (2.2%), Saraiki 913,418 (1.6%), and Hindko 830,581 (1.5), Brahui 265,769, Mewati 57,059, Kashmiri 53,249, Balti 27,193, Shina 22,273, Koshistani 14,885, 777 Kalasha and others are 1,151,650, Other minority languages include Kutchi , Gujarati , Aer , Bagri , Bhaya , Brahui , Dhatki , Ghera , Goaria , Gurgula , Jadgali , Jandavra , Jogi , Kabutra , Kachi Koli , Parkari Koli , Wadiyari Koli , Loarki , Marwari , Sansi , and Vaghri . Karachi city
7906-432: The Afghan army extending as far as Kannauj . As a result, Humayun was effectively stranded at Gauda with no communication lines. After learning of disturbances at Agra , Humayun rushed to settle for peace with Sher Khan, which was concluded. Humayun crossed the Karmanasa River , where he could easily be attacked by the Afghans. Sher Khan, seeing the fragile state of the Mughal army, attacked the Mughal army led by Humayun at
8040-421: The Gakhars, and to wade off any threat of Mughal return, he left 50,000 men in the Punjab , while he returned toward the Bengal, whose governor he placed was becoming unruly. In 1542, Sher Shah embarked on his campaign to Malwa . This was a result of fears of Malwa joining with the Mughals against Sher Shah. Sher Shah also faced the external threat of Humayun, who was attempting to forge a kingdom in Gujarat, and
8174-492: The Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following. The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh. Sindh came to be at the forefront of the Khilafat Movement . Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as
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#17327649664478308-442: The Munsif in collection of land revenues, and measuring land. While the Munsif in the Pargana would be under the oversight of the chief Munsif in the Sarkar. Villages were often autonomous and were governed by their own assemblies called Panchayats . This was respected by Sher Shah during his reign. Each assembly consisted of elders of a village who looked after the needs of villagers and instructed their own punishments in respect to
8442-535: The Muslim landed elite, waderas , and the Hindu commercial elements, banias , collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus. In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues. Due to British policies, much land in Sindh
8576-408: The Rajputs were a Jihad . The war against Puran Mall was described as a Jihad, and his treatment of Maldeo was argued as signs of religious intolerance . However, he was always tolerant of Hindus, and did not hold any grudges against them, or wage propaganda. According to Srivastava, Sher Shah's balance made his fellow Muslims content with his lenient treatment of Hindus. Sher Shah's evaluated policy
8710-414: The Sher Mandal, an octagonal building also inside the Purana Qila complex, which later served as the library of Humayun. He built a new city, Bhera , in present-day Pakistan in 1545, including within it a grand masjid named after him. The mausoleum of Sher Shah Suri is described as one of the most beautiful monuments in India, due to its grandeur and dignity. Cunningham even was inclined to prefer it over
8844-404: The Shiqar, and Munsif. Shiqars were tasked with the responsibility of civil administration, and themselves could field 200-300 soldiers to maintain law and order in their districts. The Munsif of a Sarkar was responsible for revenue collection, and civil justice. The chief Shiqars would often handle cases of criminal justice. Sarkars were also in turn divided into two or three Parganas . A Pargana
8978-502: The Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of Gujarat , under the protection of Muhammad bin Tughluq , the sultan of Delhi . Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For
9112-437: The Umayyad Caliphate's Caliphal province of Sind . After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond Persia . The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate . Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 CE, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib . During
9246-463: The army of Sabuktigin after Jayapala was defeated. "The Afghans and Khiljis who resided among the mountains having taken the oath of allegiance to Subooktugeen, many of them were enlisted in his army, after which he returned in triumph to Ghizny ." Al-Utbi further states that Afghans and Ghiljis made up a part of Mahmud Ghaznavi 's army and were sent on his expedition to Tokharistan , while on another occasion Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked and punished
9380-441: The banks of the Gumal . They entered into the service of Muhabbat Khán Súr, Dáúd Sáhú-khail, to whom Sultán Bahlol had given in jágír the Parganas of Hariána and Bahkála, etc., in the Panjáb , and they settled in the pargana of Bajwára. The system of tri-metalism which came to characterize Mughal coinage was introduced by Sher Shah. While the term rūpya had previously been used as a generic term for any silver coin, during his rule
9514-446: The caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali . Under the Umayyads (661–750 CE), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab with
9648-572: The central inundation belt. Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The national parks established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature and Sindh Wildlife Department support
9782-484: The command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós , hence the modern Indus . The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind . The word Sind is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river," a reference to the Indus River . Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu , a Dravidian word for date palm ,
9916-420: The conquest of Marwar, Sher Shah besieged Kalinjar Fort in 1544. While leading the siege, he was mortally wounded from a gunpowder explosion from one of his cannons bursting. Sher Shah was taken to his tent where he remained for two days. When he received the news that the fort finally fell, he remarked: "Thanks to Almighty god". Sher Shah succumbed to his wounds and died on 22 May 1545, at the age of 73 or 59. He
10050-480: The consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential. The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the Bombay Presidency . Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh
10184-441: The country was not a definite political unit, and its component parts were not bound together by any identity of race or language. The earlier meaning of the word was simply "the land of the Afghans", a limited territory which did not include many parts of the present state but did comprise large districts now either independent or within the boundary of British India (Pakistan)." There are a number of other hypotheses suggested for
10318-606: The country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the Port of Karachi . The remainder of Sindh consists of an agriculture -based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country. Sindh is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam ( transl. 'Gateway of Islam ' ), as it was one of the first regions of the Indian subcontinent to fall under Islamic rule . The province
10452-444: The customs of the community. The chief of a village would be a form of a diplomat between the villages and the higher government. The religious policy of Sher Shah is debated amongst historians. Dr. Qanungo states that Sher Shah upheld religious tolerance toward Hindus . Ram Sharma states that Sher Shah Suri was heavily devoted to his faith, always praying the five prayers . And on other occasions, claimed that Sher Shah's wars against
10586-540: The east. Even as Sher Shah Suri consolidated his power over North India, Eastern India was still considered to be the seat of Sur power in India. This is demonstrated by the fact that 8 of the 16 silver mint cities he established were in the region between Chunar and Fathabad . Sher Shah Suri 's relentless campaigns on the Bengal Sultanate prompted its ruler to request aid from Humayun , who in turn mobilized
10720-568: The eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus. The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh. Some of them were adherents of Isma'ilism . One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to Iltutmish , the Sultan of Delhi , and was allowed to continue on as a vassal. The Sammas overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established
10854-522: The end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January. Sindh lies between the two monsoons —the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the Himalayan mountains —and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice
10988-850: The enemy's capital Sher Shah halted in the village of Sammel in the pargana of Jaitaran , ninety kilometres east of Jodhpur . After one month of skirmishing, Sher Shah's position became critical owing to the difficulties of food supplies for his huge army. To resolve this situation, Sher Shah resorted to a cunning ploy. One evening, he dropped forged letters near the Maldeo's camp in such a way that they were sure to be intercepted. These letters indicated, falsely, that some of Maldeo's army commanders were promising assistance to Sher Shah. This caused great consternation to Maldeo, who immediately suspected his commanders of disloyalty. Maldeo left for Jodhpur with his own men, abandoning his commanders to their fate. Following this, Maldeo's generals, Jaita and Kumpa, fought with
11122-512: The entire stretch on both sides of the road to provide shade to travelers. Wells were also dug, especially along the western section. He also established an efficient postal system, with mail being carried by relays of horse riders. The Sur empire consisted of many subdivisions, referred to as Iqtas . Some of these provinces were ruled by military governors, such as Haibat Khan, who governed the Punjab . Haibat Khan had control of over 30,000 men, and
11256-427: The epithet of Sultan Adil, meaning "Just King". With the defeat and flight of Humayun, Sher Shah captured Delhi . Realizing the importance of Bengal , Sher Shah focused much of his administrative efforts in the region. Khijir Khan, the governor of Bengal under Sher Shah, led a revolt in March 1541. Sher Shah mobilized an army and lead it himself, defeating Khijir Khan and restoring Bengal under his suzerainty. Bengal
11390-610: The government restored the mosque to Muslims. The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah. Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G. M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in
11524-492: The governor of Bahrain, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas , dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch and Debal . Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids. These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships. Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until
11658-518: The hands of a hostile state, especially with its rich resources, as well as the contributing factor that Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah , wounded, entered the camp of Humayun and requested the continuation of war against Sher Shah. Ghiyasuddin would die from his wounds not long after. Following this, Humayun began his march to Bengal against Sher Khan, however the march of the Mughal army would be overwhelmed from poor weather conditions, with rains causing
11792-667: The history of Muslim rule in the subcontinent states: "He [Khalid bin Abdullah son of Khalid bin Walid ] retired, therefore, with his family, and a number of Arab retainers, into the Sulaiman Mountains, situated between Multan and Peshawar, where he took up his residence, and gave his daughter in marriage to one of the Afghan chiefs, who had become a proselyte to Mahomedism. From this marriage many children were born, among whom were two sons famous in history. The one Lodhi ,
11926-480: The huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the monsoon winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant olive ridley turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators. Sindh lies in a tropical to subtropical region; it
12060-423: The last census conducted prior to the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 4,840,795 out of which 3,462,015 (71.5%) were Muslims, 1,279,530 (26.4%) were Hindus and the remaining were Tribals, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Jains, Jews, and Buddhists. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of Hindus overall, accounting for 8.8% of the population, roughly around 4.9 million people, and 13.3% of
12194-626: The left with the support of Muhajirs ) has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province. In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system
12328-414: The local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha. Sindh has the second highest Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2023 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 55.7 million. Religion in Sindh according to 2023 census Islam in Sindh has
12462-554: The loss of his baggage between Patna and Monghyr . Humayun eventually reached Gauda and seized it without any opposition on 8 September 1538. However, the city was abandoned by the Afghans, with no loot as they had stripped the treasury. Humayun remained at Gaur for months, stuck there due to the weather, however he restored order into the city. However, as this was happening, Sher Khan drove deep into his territory, seizing Bihar and Varanasi , while also recovering control over Chunar, and laying siege to Jaunpur, with other detachments of
12596-508: The lower Sindh region. Among the wild animals, the Sindh ibex (sareh), blackbuck , wild sheep ( Urial or gadh) and wild bear are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing. Deer occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do
12730-440: The mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī . The Achaemenids conquered the region and established the satrapy of Hindush . The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan). Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area. These areas remained under Persian control until
12864-471: The men of Rob [that] the Afghans took (away) the horses." "[To...]-bid the Afghan... Moreover, they are in [War]nu (?) because of the Afghans, so [you should] impose a penalty on Nat Kharagan ... ... Lord of Warnu with ... ... ...the Afghan... ..." The name of the Aśvakan or Assakan has been preserved in that of the modern Pashtun , with the name Afghan being derived from Asvakan . The term "Afghan"
12998-507: The mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance. Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors. The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of
13132-428: The more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of Avicennia tomentosa (timmer) and Ceriops candolleana (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in
13266-429: The name historically, all of them obsolete. Sindh Europe North America Oceania Sindh ( / ˈ s ɪ n d / SIND ; Sindhi : سِنْڌ ; Urdu : سِنْدھ , pronounced [sɪndʱə] ; abbr. SD , historically romanized as Sind ) is a province of Pakistan . Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and
13400-883: The officials be held responsible themselves and be hanged. As a result of these reforms, historians praise it for its effectiveness. Sher Shah built several monuments including Rohtas Fort (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan), many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna , the Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque inside the Purana Qila complex in Delhi, and
13534-569: The other Sur ; who each, subsequently, became head of the tribes which to this day bear their name. I have read in the Mutla-ul-Anwar , a work written by a respectable author, and which I procured at Burhanpur , a town of Khandesh in the Deccan , that the Afghans are Copts of the race of the Pharaohs ; and that when the prophet Moses got the better of that infidel who was overwhelmed in
13668-699: The princes of the house of the Ghorian , who left his native country, and married a daughter of one of the Afghán chiefs of Roh. with his son Hasan Khán, the father of Sher Sháh, came to Hindu-stán from Afghánistán , from a place which is called in the Afghán tongue "Shargarí",* but in the Multán tongue "Rohrí". It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains , about six or seven kos in length, situated on
13802-562: The province's rural population as per 2023 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of
13936-622: The region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriages . 2020 community estimates indicated the Sikh population in Sindh stood at approximately 10,000 persons, while
14070-575: The region. Sher Shah resorted to diplomacy, inviting the Gakhar chief and asking him to acknowledge him as the emperor of India. The Gakhar chief gave an insulting response, which enraged Sher Shah. Sher Shah marched through the Punjab and subjugated the Gakhars, laying waste to much of the countryside and taking many prisoner. Sher Shah also constructed the Rohtas Fort . To further secure his rule over
14204-583: The reign of Uthman . In 712, Mohammed Bin Qasim defeated the Brahmin dynasty and annexed it to the Umayyad Caliphate . This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The Habbari dynasty ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent emirate from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became semi-independent from
14338-427: The religious pir families. Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats, the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province, it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan. In 1947, violence did not constitute
14472-404: The routes between Lahore and Delhi , which surmounted to numerous complaints in return. As a result, Sher Shah ordered Haibat Khan to put an end to the raids of Fateh Khan. Haibat Khan successfully trapped Fateh Khan in a mud fort around Fatehpur . Seeking no possible way of escaping the situation, Fateh Khan surrendered to Haibat Khan. However, the garrison of the fort led by Hinda Baluch made
14606-546: The rule of Muhammadan sovereigns, Musulmáns first came to the city of Patná , and dwelt there, the people of India (for that reason) called them Patáns—but God knows!" Regarding the modern state of Afghanistan , the Encyclopædia of Islam explains: "The country now known as Afghanistan has borne that name only since the middle of the 18th century, when the supremacy of the Afghan race became assured: previously various districts bore distinct apellations, however
14740-466: The ruler of Ranthambore . Shujaat Khan was placed as the new governor of Malwa. Qadir Khan attempted to retrieve his lost territories, and entered in battle against Shujaat Khan on separate occasions. Despite numerical inferiority, Shujaat Khan decisively defeated the coalition of Qadir Khan. Shujaat Khan was awarded with over 12,000 horses due to his valiant efforts. After the death of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Puran Mall recovered control of Raisin after it
14874-682: The ruler of the Malwa Sultanate, being abandoned by his vassals who refused to support him, begged for the mercy of Sher Shah, who treated him well. Despite former grudges, Sher Shah reconciliated and gave him gifts, and even gave Qadir Khan a Jagir in Bengal . Despite this, Qadir Khan did not like the generous offer, and instead, fled to Gujarat, with an attempt to re-capture him in a pursuit led by Shujaat Khan ending in failure. Sher Shah consolidated his new territories before returning to Agra . While returning to Agra, he received submission from
15008-405: The site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration. A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced
15142-468: The strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on Makli Hill near Thatta . The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis. In 1941,
15276-595: The summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches 43–44 °C (109–111 °F). Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower rainfall than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about 35–38 °C (95–100 °F). In the Kirthar range at 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District , temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall
15410-567: The term rūpee came to be used as the name for a silver coin of a standard weight of 178 grains, which was the precursor of the modern rupee . The Rupee is today used as the national currency in India , Indonesia , Maldives , Mauritius , Nepal , Pakistan , Seychelles , and Sri Lanka . Gold coins called the Mohur weighing 169 grains and copper coins called Paisa were also minted during his reign. According to numismatists Goron and Goenka, it
15544-404: The territory between Khorasan , Kabulistan , and the Indus River , which was inhabited by tribes of Afghans . "The road from Khorasān leads by way of Kandahār. It is a straight level road, and does not go through any hill-passes... In the country of Kābul there are many and various tribes. Its valleys and plains are inhabited by Tūrks , Aimāks, and Arabs. In the city and the greater part of
15678-577: The things Sher Shah Suri was renowned for was giving justice. Courts were held by Qadis , with Sher Shah as well observing civil cases. Hindus settled their disputes in Panchayat assemblies, while in criminal cases, nobody was exempt from the law of the empire. The criminal law of the empire was extremely harsh, and done so to prevent others from doing a crime out of fear of the repercussions. Sher Shah gave heavy punishments for people in high posts, including government officials. The reputation of Sher Shah
15812-458: The victim's breath in his sleep. Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the Balochistan border in Kirthar Mountains . The rare Houbara bustard finds Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides
15946-474: The villages, the population consists of Tājiks*( Sarts ). Many other of the villages and districts are occupied by Pashāis , Parāchis, Tājiks, Berekis, and Afghans... In the hill-country to the north-east lies Kaferistān , such as Kattor and Gebrek. To the south is Afghānistān." The name "Afghanistan" is also mentioned in the writings of the 16th-century historian Ferishta : "The men of Kábul and Khilj also went home; and whenever they were questioned about
16080-533: The water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east. During the Bronze Age , the territory of Sindh was known as Sindhu-Sauvīra , covering the lower Indus Valley, with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Pañjāb around Multān . The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to
16214-473: The west to modern-day Bangladesh in the east. Despite its short reign, the Sur Empire significantly influenced Mughal administrative reforms when they returned to power, most notably under Mughal Emperor Akbar . It was at the time of this bounty of Sultán Bahlul [Lodi], that the grandfather of Sher Sháh, by name Ibráhím Khán Súr,* The Súr represent themselves as descendants of Muhammad Súr, one of
16348-699: The word "Afghan" is derived from the words awajan/apajan in Avestan and ava-Han/apa-Han in Sanskrit , which means "killing, striking, throwing and resisting, or defending." Under the Sasanians , and possibly the Parthian Empire , the word was used to refer to men of a certain Persian sect. Another view is that the name Afghan evidently derives from the word Aśvakan which means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or " cavalrymen " (from aśva or aspa ,
16482-574: Was a moderately sized town and surrounding villages. In every Pargana, there was a Shiqar, Munsif, and one treasurer who went under the title of Fotdar. They were also accompanied by a Karkun who could write in Hindi and Persian. The Shiqar of a Pargana would be a military officer under the oversight of the Shiqar of the Sarkar. The responsibilities of a Shiqar in a Pargana were to maintain stability, and assist
16616-517: Was able to give jagirs to his own soldiers. Khwas Khan was another military governor, who ruled over Rajasthan , and assembled over 20,000 men. The head of Iqtas were known by different names, such as Hakim, Faujdar , or Momin. These head of Iqtas had their own bodies of men, which were usually less than 5,000 men. The responsibility of these heads were instilling order and law in the subdivisions they controlled. Iqtas themselves were divided into districts, named Sarkars. Sarkars had two chief officers,
16750-423: Was annexed by Bahadur Shah in 1532. Upon his restored rule in the region, he led many tyrannical actions on the Muslim populace of the city. The survivors of this occasion developed a grudge against Puran Mall. Sher Shah, hearing of this, and seeking to obtain control of Raisen himself, began preparing for war. Sher Shah remarked: I did wrong when I said I would go towards Bengal. If Almighty God would vouchsafe me
16884-594: Was divided into 47 smaller administrative divisions, appointing them under a shiqdar , which would be oversighted by Kazi Fajilot as the chief supervisor of the Muqtars . These reforms saw the prominence of Afghans in Bengal, with many Afghans moving and settling in the region. Some of the Afghans who settled in the region would go on to establish the Muhammad Shahi dynasty , which ruled Bengal from 1553 to 1563, and
17018-459: Was formidable in this regard as a just ruler, to the point where merchants could travel through and sleep in deserts without fear of being harassed by bandits or robbers. The soldiers of Sher Shah acted as police, with the duty of these soldiers to look for thieves and robbers. Sher Shah Suri also implemented the reform of self-responsibility. It was the duty assigned to officials to find the culprits of different cases in examples such as murder, lest
17152-548: Was led by a commander. Discipline was strict, with provisions being given by Banjaras, who accompanied the army. Men were also assigned roles, attributing to the system of the Dagh, with spys being able to be rooted out using this method. Sher Shah also considered Pashto a sign of friendliness, and gave higher salaries to Afghans who could speak Pashto in his army. In 1540, Sher Shah's army consisted of over 150,000 cavalrymen, 25,000 infantrymen, and over 5,000 war elephants. One of
17286-535: Was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab. Later, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913,
17420-494: Was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilization, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems. It was one of the world's earliest major cities , contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Minoan Crete , and Caral-Supe . Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and
17554-491: Was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule from their capital of Khudabad , before shifting to Hyderabad from 1768 onwards. The Talpurs succeeded the Kalhoras and four branches of the dynasty were established. One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad , another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur , a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas , and
17688-527: Was seen that Islam should hold supremacy over the lands he had conquered, but not to displace Hinduism. Sher Shah's army defeated the Mughal Empire and drove them out of India. Sher Shah invited Afghans from across the empire and gave them high positions, with himself taking interest in recruiting troops. Sher Shah also promoted out of Merit. The Afghan army utilized heavy emphasis on their cavalry , while his infantry were armed with muskets. One of his reforms included splitting up his armies into divisions, which
17822-554: Was succeeded by his son, Jalal Khan, who took the title of Islam Shah Suri . Sher Shah was buried in the Sher Shah Suri Tomb (122 ft high), stands in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram, a town on the Grand Trunk Road . The tomb finished its construction on 16 August 1545, three months following the death of Sher Shah. The Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, from Balochistan in
17956-491: Was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades. Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic
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