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183-824: B. ^ The written Norwegian language ceased to exist in the first half of the 16th century and was replaced by Danish. Written Danish was still used during the union with Sweden, but was slightly norwegianized through the creation of Nynorsk in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1885, the Storting accepted Landsmål as an official written language on par with Danish. c. ^ 1820: 2,585,000 in Sweden, and 970,000 in Norway. 1905: 5,260,000 in Sweden, and 2,300,000 in Norway. Chronological history Sweden and Norway or Sweden–Norway ( Swedish : Svensk-norska unionen ; Norwegian : Den svensk-norske union(en) ), officially

366-595: A , e i lit en stjerne – stjern a or even e i lit a stjerne – stjern en . Choosing either two or three genders throughout the whole text is not a requirement either, so one may choose to write tida ("the time" f ) and boken ("the book" m ) in the same work in Bokmål. This is not allowed in Nynorsk, where the feminine forms have to be used wherever they exist. In Nynorsk, unlike Bokmål, masculine and feminine nouns are differentiated not only in

549-412: A -verbs get the following inflections: All e -verbs (with -de in preterite) and j -verbs get the following inflections: All other e -verbs (those with -te in preterite) get the following inflections: All short verbs get the following inflections: Present participles are like all other living Scandinavian languages not inflected in Nynorsk. In general, they are formed with

732-453: A less important part of Denmark . At that time, Danish was declared the written language of Norway until 1814, and Danish with Norwegian intonation and pronunciation was on occasion spoken in the cities (see Dano-Norwegian ). With the independence of Norway from Denmark, Danish became a foreign language and thus lost much of its prestige, and a conservative, written form of Norwegian, Landsmål, had been developed by 1850. By this time, however,

915-638: A subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to 15 m (49 ft) thick. Geologically , Copenhagen lies in

1098-467: A 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of 33 °C (91 °F). Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There

1281-484: A Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813 and probably went along with them. But on the face of it, he adhered to the conditions of the Kiel Treaty by ordering Christian Frederik to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. But Christian Frederik kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He decided to claim

1464-542: A Swedish union, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On 10 June, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed. On 16 June, Carsten Anker wrote to Christian Frederik about his recent discussions with a high-ranking Prussian diplomat. He learned that Prussia and Austria were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar Alexander I of Russia (a distant cousin of Christian Frederik) favored

1647-662: A Swedish-Norwegian union but without Bernadotte as king, and that the United Kingdom was looking for a solution that would keep Norway out of Russia's sphere of influence. On 26 June, emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom arrived in Vänersborg in Sweden to persuade Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On 30 June

1830-580: A cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself. Count Wedel-Jarlsberg , the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, had been in Denmark to organize food supplies for the starving population while Prince Christian Frederik staged his insurrection. On his return trip he took time off to see Count Hans Henrik von Essen , newly appointed Swedish governor-general of Norway. When he arrived in March, he warned

2013-465: A city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age . Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age , and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard . The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from

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2196-405: A copy of the Nynorsk dictionary into a barrel of flames. After strong reactions to this book burning , they apologized and chose not to use the video. Bokmål has a much larger basis in the cities and generally outside of the western part of the country. Most Norwegians do not speak either Nynorsk or Bokmål as written, but a Norwegian dialect that identifies their origins. Nynorsk shares many of

2379-501: A day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in

2562-497: A dictionary which documented the Nynorsk language in Sunnfjord. In 1749, Erik Pontoppidan released a dictionary of Norwegian words that were incomprehensible to Danish people, Glossarium Norvagicum Eller Forsøg paa en Samling Af saadanne rare Norske Ord Som gemeenlig ikke forstaaes af Danske Folk, Tilligemed en Fortegnelse paa Norske Mænds og Qvinders Navne . Pontoppidan's dictionary was criticised by Torleiv Hannaas for being

2745-493: A feminine form, one of which is the adjective liten as is shown in the inflection table below. Adjectives have to agree with the noun in both gender and number just like Bokmål. Unlike Bokmål, Nynorsk has a more completed system of adjective agreement comparable to that of the Swedish language (see Nynorsk past participles ). Just like in Bokmål, adjectives have to agree after certain copula verbs, like in this case

2928-581: A former revolutionary turned heir to the Swedish throne was far from secure. Secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement in order to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia, Austria , and the United Kingdom , thanking them for their support, acknowledging

3111-511: A full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik. Carsten Anker was sent to London to negotiate recognition by the British government, with this instruction from the regent: "Our foremost need is peace with England. If, God forbid, our hope of English support is thwarted, you must make it clear to the minister what will be the consequences of leaving an undeserving people to misery. Our first obligation will then be

3294-502: A huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants. By the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station , its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within

3477-564: A lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78–33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. The delegates disagreed on whether to consider the sentiments of the European powers; some facts may have been withheld from them. By 20 April, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by Christian Magnus Falsen and Gunder Adler had been established as

3660-477: A modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed, and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Wends continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by

3843-507: A more radical approach, based on the principle that the spoken language of people living in the Norwegian countryside, who made up the vast majority of the population, should be regarded as more Norwegian than that of upper-middle class city-dwellers, who for centuries had been substantially influenced by the Danish language and culture. This idea was not unique to Aasen, and can be seen in the wider context of Norwegian romantic nationalism . In

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4026-451: A naval bombardment of Copenhagen from 2 to 5 September. The bombardment, which saw the deployment of Congreve rockets , killed 195 civilians and wounded 768, along with burning approximately 1,000 structures, including the Church of Our Lady . Copenhagen's defenders were unable to respond to the bombardment effectively due to relying on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach

4209-539: A number of banking and financial institutions have been established. Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students. Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro , the railway system which opened in 2002 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011. On the cultural front,

4392-435: A plural definite that follows the inflection pattern of a feminine word: mennene (the men). The word son which means son is another word that is inflected just like a masculine word except for the plural, where it is inflected like a feminine noun with an umlaut : søner (sons), sønene (the sons). Here is a short list of irregular nouns, many of which are irregular in Bokmål too and some of which even follow

4575-480: A result of continued British fears that Denmark would ally with France, another British fleet led by Admiral James Gambier was dispatched to Copenhagen with orders to seize or destroy the Dano-Norwegian navy. The British published a proclamation demanding the surrender of the Dano-Norwegian fleet, and the Danish responded with "what amounted to a declaration of war". Gambier's forces responded by carrying out

4758-565: A retreat to the Glomma river. The Swedish Army, in trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the battle of Langnes , an important tactical victory for the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near Kongsvinger . On 3 August Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in Moss . On 7 August, a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at

4941-417: A somewhat haphazard collection of rarities, and for being written by someone who was not proficient in Nynorsk, in contrast with Jensøn's dictionary. It is agreed, and also admitted by Pontoppidan himself, that the scope of Pontoppidan's work was not to provide a complete or rigid study of Nynorsk, but to make an attempt to further the understanding of the language. A systematic study of the Norwegian language

5124-466: A standard that Aasen called Landsmål. New versions detailing the written standard were published in 1864 and 1873, and in the 20th century by Olav Beito in 1970. During the same period, Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb standardised the orthography of the Faroese language . Spoken Faroese is closely related to Landsmål and dialects in Norway proper, and Lucas Debes and Peder Hansen Resen classified

5307-616: A union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, Bernadotte offered favorable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to enable a union of the two countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of

5490-532: A union with Norway, to compensate for the loss of Finland. He was also held in high esteem because he had refrained from pursuing the retreating army of Sweden while that country was hard pressed by Russia in the Finnish War . Christian August was elected Crown Prince of Sweden on 29 December 1809 and left Norway on 7 January 1810. After his sudden death in May 1810, Sweden chose as his successor another enemy general,

5673-458: A uniting expression for all Norwegian dialects, what he called the fundamental dialect ; Einar Haugen called it Proto-Norwegian . The idea that the study should end up in a new written language marked Aasen's work from the beginning. A fundamental idea for him was that the fundamental dialect should be Modern Norwegian , not Old Norwegian or Old Norse . Therefore, he did not include grammatical categories which were extinct in all dialects. At

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5856-505: Is Bellevue Beach . It is 700 metres (2,300 ft) long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach. The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge , literally meaning Iceland's Quay, and has won international acclaim for its design. Copenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone ( Köppen : Cfb ). Its weather

6039-415: Is also the most common way to construct the sentence in the Norwegian dialects and is also legal Bokmål. Copenhagen Copenhagen ( Danish : København [kʰøpm̩ˈhɑwˀn] ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark , with a population of 1.4 million in the urban area . The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager , separated from Malmö , Sweden , by

6222-1044: Is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall ( Rådhus ), which is situated on City Hall Square . The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality. Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts ( bydele ): Indre By , Østerbro , Nørrebro , Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave , Valby , Vanløse , Brønshøj-Husum , Bispebjerg , Amager Øst , and Amager Vest . Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen , Frederiksstaden , Islands Brygge , Holmen , Christiania , Carlsberg , Sluseholmen , Sydhavn , Amagerbro , Ørestad , Nordhavnen , Bellahøj , Brønshøj , Ryparken , and Vigerslev . Most of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern-style court of justice, Hof- og Stadsretten ,

6405-463: Is considered Constitution Day in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized. On 22 May, the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania. The guns of Akershus Fortress sounded the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the Cathedral . There was continuing concern about

6588-410: Is decided by referendum within the local school district. The number of school districts and pupils using primarily Nynorsk has decreased from its height in the 1940s, even in Nynorsk municipalities. Nynorsk is also part of the school curriculum in high school and elementary school for all students in Norway, where students are taught to write it. The prevailing regions for Nynorsk are the rural areas of

6771-594: Is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen . Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court ( Sø- og Handelsretten ) also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court ( Højesteret ), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen,

6954-491: Is mostly used in scripted contexts, like news broadcasts from television stations, such as NRK and TV2 . It's also widely used in theaters, like Det Norske Teatret and by teachers. Since the 1970s, the motto of the Nynorsk movement has largely been "speak dialect, write Nynorsk", which has marginalized the use of normed Nynorsk speech to mainly scripted contexts. This is in contrast to the normed Bokmål speech which many speakers use in all social settings. Outside of scripts, it

7137-427: Is quite common to rather speak a Norwegian dialect. Compared to many other countries, dialects have a higher social status in Norway and are often used even in official contexts. At the same time, it is not uncommon for dialect speakers to use a register closer to the Nynorsk writing standard when deemed suitable, especially in formal contexts. Nynorsk is a North Germanic language , close in form to both Icelandic and

7320-537: Is slightly more complicated in Bokmål, which has inherited the Danish two-gender system. Written Danish retains only the neuter and the common gender. Though the common gender took what used to be the feminine inflections in Danish, it matches the masculine inflections in Norwegian. The Norwegianization in the 20th century brought the three-gender system into Bokmål, but the process was never completed. In Nynorsk these are important distinctions, in contrast to Bokmål, in which all feminine nouns may also become masculine (due to

7503-487: Is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point. June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine

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7686-459: Is the only Norwegian-language form of publication, among them are Dag & Tid and Framtida.no . Many local newspapers have also chosen Nynorsk as the only language form of publication, like Firdaposten , Hallingdølen , Hordaland and Bø blad . Many newspapers are also officially neutral, conforming to either Nynorsk or Bokmål in an article as they see fit, like Klassekampen and Bergens Tidende . Commercial products produced in

7869-581: Is the public mass transit company serving all of eastern Denmark, except Bornholm . The Copenhagen Metro , launched in 2002, serves central Copenhagen. Additionally, the Copenhagen S-train , the Lokaltog ( private railway ), and the Coast Line network serve and connect central Copenhagen to outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2.5 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport , Kastrup, is

8052-508: Is the same as the neuter form of the adjective, just like in Bokmål. For instance Han gjør lite (he does little). Adverbs are not inflected, like most European languages. The system of agreement after copula verbs in the Scandinavian languages is a remnant of the grammatical case system. The verbs where the subject and predicate of the verb had the same case are known as copula verbs. The system of grammatical case disappeared but there

8235-514: Is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices. According to Statistics Denmark , the urban area of Copenhagen ( Hovedstadsområdet ) consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg , Albertslund , Brøndby , Gentofte , Gladsaxe , Glostrup , Herlev , Hvidovre , Lyngby-Taarbæk , Rødovre , Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup , Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with

8418-491: Is unnecessary, and that students would be better off spending their time on learning a foreign language, or simply focusing on one of the language forms. Some critics of obligatory Nynorsk and Bokmål as school subjects have been very outspoken about their opposition. For instance, during the 2005 election, the Norwegian Young Conservatives made an advertisement where a candidate for parliament threw

8601-553: The Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it. As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League . In 1368, it was successfully invaded during the Second Danish-Hanseatic War . As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring , the city began expanding to

8784-466: The Convention of Moss was concluded: a general ceasefire based effectively on terms of peace. Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of a future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into

8967-494: The Copenhagen Opera House , a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15 . On 3 July 2022, three people were killed in a shooting at Field's mall in Copenhagen. Police chief inspector Søren Thomassen announced

9150-494: The Copenhagen Stock Exchange . Copenhagen's economy has developed rapidly in the service sector , especially through initiatives in information technology , pharmaceuticals and clean technology . Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge , Copenhagen has increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region . With several bridges connecting

9333-500: The Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes emanating from the city centre. Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural , economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with

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9516-591: The Gunboat War , which lasted until the 1814 Treaty of Kiel . Despite the turmoil the Napoleonic Wars brought to the city, Copenhagen soon experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age . Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In

9699-747: The House of Lords on 10 May. His arguments were also voiced in the House of Commons – after having fought for freedom in Europe for 22 years, the United Kingdom could not go on to support Sweden in her forced subjugation of a free people then under a foreign yoke. But the Treaty between Britain and Sweden could not be ignored: Sweden had helped the allies during the war, and promises had to be kept. Anker stayed on in London until fall, doggedly maintaining his efforts to awaken sympathy and support for Norwegian interests. By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized

9882-630: The Moltke Mansion , Yellow Palace and the Vestindisk Pakhus were funded with profits made from the Danish slave trade. In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefited from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to

10065-780: The Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time

10248-528: The Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s. In disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II , who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I , who supported Lutheranism . Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall. After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which

10431-789: The Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts . During the 18th century, the Danish slave trade , which began during the 17th century, underwent a rapid expansion. Between 1660 and 1806, Danish merchants, many of them based out of Copenhagen, transported approximately 120,000 enslaved Africans to the Danish West Indies . These merchants were mostly affiliated with the slave-trading Danish West India Company and Danish Asiatic Company , both of which were headquartered in Copenhagen. Many buildings in Copenhagen, such as

10614-559: The Storting convened. Delegates from areas occupied by Sweden in Østfold were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On 10 October, Christian Frederik abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting, until the necessary amendments to the Constitution could be enacted. Nynorsk Between 10 and 15 percent of Norwegians (primarily in

10797-534: The Technical University of Denmark , Copenhagen Business School , and the IT University of Copenhagen . The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the football clubs F.C. Copenhagen and Brøndby IF . The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. Movia

10980-655: The Treaty of Stockholm of 3 March 1813. Some weeks later, Russia gave her guarantee to the same effect, and in April Prussia also promised Norway as his prize for joining the battle against Napoleon. In the meantime, Sweden obliged its allies by joining the Sixth Coalition and declaring war against France and Denmark-Norway on 24 March 1813. During his campaigns on the Continent, Charles John successfully led

11163-637: The United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway , and known as the United Kingdoms , was a personal union of the separate kingdoms of Sweden and Norway under a common monarch and common foreign policy that lasted from 1814 until its peaceful dissolution in 1905 . The two states kept separate constitutions, laws, legislatures, administrations, state churches, armed forces, and currencies; the kings mostly resided in Stockholm , where foreign diplomatic representations were located. The Norwegian government

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11346-569: The western counties of Rogaland , Vestland and Møre og Romsdal , where an estimated 90% of the population writes Nynorsk. Some of the rural parts of Innlandet , Buskerud , Telemark and Agder also write primarily in Nynorsk. In the Sunnmøre region of Møre og Romsdal, all municipalities (except the Bokmål-majority Ålesund) have stated Nynorsk as the official standard. In Vestland, almost all municipalities have declared Nynorsk as

11529-536: The Øresund strait. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road. Originally a Viking fishing village established in the 10th century in the vicinity of what is now Gammel Strand , Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. During the 16th century, the city served as the de facto capital of the Kalmar Union and the seat of the Union's monarchy, which governed most of

11712-734: The Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea . The Swedish city of Malmö and the town of Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is 42 kilometres (26 mi) northwest of Malmö , Sweden, 85 kilometres (53 mi) northeast of Næstved , 164 kilometres (102 mi) northeast of Odense , 295 kilometres (183 mi) east of Esbjerg and 188 kilometres (117 mi) southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde . The city centre lies in

11895-411: The "standard-neutral" counties have declared Nynorsk as their official standard. Ålesund was the largest municipality with Nynorsk as its official language form, until the area of Haram, Norway (a Nynorsk-majority area) was separated from the rest of the municipality from 1 January 2024, and the remaining Ålesund municipality opted for "standard-neutrality". The main standard used in primary schools

12078-570: The 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally 'old shore') in the 11th century or even earlier. The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as Portus Mercatorum , meaning 'Merchants' Harbour' or, in the Danish of the time, Købmannahavn . Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon 's construction of

12261-429: The 1840s, Aasen traveled across rural Norway and studied its dialects. He preferred the rural dialects of Vestlandet and inland Østlandet , whilst avoiding the city dialects and focusing less on the dialects of southern Østlandet and southern coast of Skagerrak , which he considered to be too much corrupted by Danish. In 1848 and 1850, he published the first Norwegian grammar and dictionary, respectively, which described

12444-620: The Allied Army of the North in its defense of Berlin , defeating two separate French attempts to take the city, and at the decisive Battle of Leipzig . He then marched against Denmark to force the Danish King to surrender Norway. On 7 January, on the verge of being overrun by Swedish, Russian, and German troops under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden, King Frederick VI of Denmark (and of Norway) agreed to cede Norway to

12627-491: The Austrian emissary August Ernst Steigentesch made the famous comment: "The people? What do they have to say against the will of their rulers? That would be to put the world on its head." In the course of the negotiations Christian Frederik offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session of the Storting. However he refused to surrender

12810-409: The British ships and their longer-range artillery. A British landing force of 30,000 men entered and occupied Copenhagen; during the battle, the British suffered almost 200 casualties, while the Danish suffered 3,000. Virtually the entire Dano-Norwegian fleet was surrendered to the British, who either burnt them or brought them back to Britain. Denmark declared war on Britain, leading to the outbreak of

12993-434: The Catholic-born Bernadotte from being king) and that Jews and Jesuits would be barred from entering the kingdom. But the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two-thirds of the legislative assembly. Although the final edict of the constitution was signed on 18 May, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on 17 May

13176-460: The Crown Prince was mentioned. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, invoking Norway's right to self-determination as well as the possibility of reuniting Norway and Denmark in the future. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister, pointing out that it would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway. Although

13359-556: The Danish language had been gradually reformed into the written language Riksmål, and no agreement was reached on which of the two forms to use. In 1885, the parliament declared the two forms official and equal. Efforts were made to fuse the two written forms into one language. A result was that Landsmål and Riksmål lost their official status in 1929, and were replaced by the written forms Nynorsk and Bokmål, which were intended to be temporary intermediary stages before their final fusion into one hypothesised official Norwegian language known at

13542-484: The English term for the city was adapted from its Low German name, Kopenhagen . Copenhagen's Swedish name is Köpenhamn , a direct translation of the mutually intelligible Danish name. The city's Latin name, Hafnia , is the namesake of the element hafnium . Although the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on

13725-403: The European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to side with Sweden in an all-out confrontation. As the constitutional convention drew closer, the independence movement gained in strength. On 10 April, the delegates convened at Eidsvoll. Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in

13908-462: The Faroese tongue as Norwegian in the late 17th century. Faroese is now regarded as a separate language. Aasen's work is based on the idea that Norwegian dialects had a common structure that made them a separate language alongside Danish and Swedish. The central point for Aasen therefore became to find and show the structural dependencies between the dialects. In order to abstract this structure from

14091-705: The French marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte , who was also seen as a gallant adversary and had proved his ability as an army commander. The chief objective of Bernadotte's foreign policy as Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden was the acquisition of Norway, and he pursued that goal by definitively renouncing Sweden's claims in Finland and joining the enemies of Napoleon. In 1812, he signed the secret Treaty of Saint Petersburg with Russia against France and Denmark-Norway. His foreign policy provoked some criticism among Swedish politicians, who found it immoral to indemnify Sweden at

14274-670: The King of Sweden in order to stave off an occupation of Jutland . These terms were formalized and signed on 14 January at the Treaty of Kiel , in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of the Faroe Islands , Iceland and Greenland . Article IV of the treaty stated that Norway was ceded to "the King of Sweden", and not to the Kingdom of Sweden – a provision favorable to his former Norwegian subjects as well as to their future king, whose position as

14457-637: The Napoleonic wars, and succeeded for a long time, in spite of many invitations to join the belligerent alliances. Both countries joined Russia and Prussia in a League of Armed Neutrality in 1800. Denmark-Norway was forced to withdraw from the League after the British victory at the First Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801, but still stuck to a policy of neutrality. However, the league collapsed after

14640-710: The Nazis started to arrest Jews , although most managed to escape to Sweden . In 1945 Ole Lippman , leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive , invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, air vice-marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building,

14823-428: The Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. The four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. On 20 July, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik, accusing him of court intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. Two days later he met with

15006-459: The Norwegian independence movement. Niels Rosenkrantz , the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand to disinherit Christian Frederik was not addressed. Swedish troops massed along the border, and there were daily rumors of an invasion. In several letters to von Essen, commander of

15189-524: The Norwegian language in use after Old Norwegian , 11th to 14th centuries, and Middle Norwegian , 1350 to about 1550. The written Norwegian that was used until the period of Danish rule (1536-1814), closely resembles Nynorsk (New Norwegian). A major source of old written material is Diplomatarium Norvegicum in 22 printed volumes. In 2023 Jon Fosse received the Nobel Prize in Literature . He

15372-588: The Norwegian military headquarters in Spydeberg with a ceasefire offer based on the promise of a union with respect for the Norwegian constitution. The following day, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in Moss on 10 August. On 14 August,

15555-404: The Norwegian public received the news that their country had been ceded to the King of Sweden. It caused a general indignation among most people, who disliked the idea of being subjected to Swedish rule, and enthusiastically endorsed the idea of national independence. The Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, and to uphold the grain embargo, unless

15738-461: The Nynorsk areas of Norway are also often distributed with Nynorsk text, like types of Gamalost . Many computer programs and apps that serve the whole country often present a choice between Bokmål and Nynorsk, especially those produced by the Norwegian government. There are also requirements by law that many Norwegian institutions have to follow. These laws are in order to keep Nynorsk and Bokmål as equals, which has been seen as an important case since

15921-499: The Swedish forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel and ordered that all Danish officials who did not return home were to be treated as outlaws. But the regent countered by confiscating all navy vessels stationed in Norway and arresting officers who were planning to sail them to Denmark. On 1 April, King Frederick VI of Denmark sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting

16104-420: The Swedish ultimatum, saying that surrender would constitute treason against the people. On 29 July, Swedish forces invaded Norway. Swedish forces met little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of Fredriksten . The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By 4 August, the fortified city of Fredrikstad surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered

16287-630: The area originally defined by the old ramparts , which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring ( Fæstningsringen ) and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late-19th- and early-20th-century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro , Nørrebro , Vesterbro and Amagerbro . The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave , Valby , Vigerslev , Vanløse , Brønshøj , Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery. The central area of

16470-416: The arrest of a 22-year-old man and said that the police cannot rule out an act of terrorism. Copenhagen is part of the Øresund Region , which consists of Zealand , Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces

16653-486: The assassination of Tsar Paul I in 1801. Denmark-Norway was compelled into an alliance with France after the second British attack on the Danish navy at the Second Battle of Copenhagen . The Danish were forced to surrender the navy after heavy bombardment, because the army was at the southern border to defend it against a possible French attack. As Sweden in the meantime had sided with the British, Denmark-Norway

16836-483: The basis of the constitution. The first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee on 1 May. Key precepts of the constitution included the assurance of individual freedom, the right to property , and equality. Following a contentious debate on 4 May, the assembly decided that Norway would adhere to the Lutheran faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby prevent

17019-461: The battleground defeats. In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the "Norwegian" king to his new subjects, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition

17202-580: The busiest airport in the Nordic countries . Copenhagen's name ( København in Danish), reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation in Old Norse , from which Danish descends, was Kaupmannahǫfn [ˈkɔupˌmɑnːɑˌhɔvn] (cf. modern Icelandic : Kaupmannahöfn [ˈkʰœipˌmanːaˌhœpn̥] , Faroese : Keypmannahavn ), meaning 'merchants' harbour'. By

17385-469: The capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I , following approval from Pope Sixtus IV . This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe . Originally controlled by the Catholic Church , the university's role in society was forced to change during

17568-482: The cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to convene at Eidsvoll on 10 April. The Swedish government immediately sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that the insurrection was a violation of the Treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the allied powers. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he

17751-412: The chief market. Saw-mill owners and timber merchants in the Christiania region, backed by great fortunes and economic influence, formed an elite group that began to see the central government in Copenhagen as a hindrance to Norwegian aspirations. Their increasing self-assertiveness led them to question the policies that favored Danish interests over that of Norway's while rejecting key Norwegian demands for

17934-498: The cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand . They are located in the Capital Region ( Region Hovedstaden ). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services , which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor , a council , and an executive. Copenhagen Municipality

18117-526: The city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to 50 m (160 ft) above sea level. The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over 30 m (98 ft), divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest. Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø. Copenhagen rests on

18300-541: The city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged. As a result of British fears that Denmark would ally with France , a Royal Navy fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker was dispatched to neutralize the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy . On 2 April 1801, Parker's fleet encountered the Dano-Norwegian navy anchored near Copenhagen. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led

18483-570: The city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02. As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War , Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war. In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish

18666-520: The city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck , it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III . During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping. Christoffer Valkendorff , a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development. The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states. During

18849-487: The city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c.  1020 . Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen . These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as

19032-518: The construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and the establishment of cultural institutions such as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts . The city also became the centre of the Danish slave trade during this period. In 1807, the city was bombarded by a British fleet during the Napoleonic Wars , before the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. After World War II ,

19215-400: The country away from the union with Denmark and either annex it or form a union. The repeated wars and invasions led to popular resentment against Sweden among Norwegians. During the eighteenth century, Norway enjoyed a period of great prosperity and became an increasingly important part of the union. The industry with the largest growth was that of the export of planks, with Great Britain as

19398-420: The country voluntarily complied with the provisions of the Kiel Treaty. In that case, he would call a constitutional convention. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to develop their plans. On 10 February, Christian Frederik invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend Carsten Anker 's estate at Eidsvoll to discuss

19581-448: The creation of important national institutions, such as a bank and a university. Some members of the "timber aristocracy" thus saw Sweden as a more natural partner, and cultivated commercial and political contacts with Sweden. Around 1800, many prominent Norwegians secretly favored a split with Denmark, without actively taking steps to promote independence. Their undeclared leader was Count Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg . The Swedish policy during

19764-466: The creation of the language forms. For instance the State-owned broadcaster NRK is required by law to have at least 25% of their content in Nynorsk. This means that at least one quarter of their content on broadcast and online media has to be in Nynorsk. There is also a requirement for state organs and universities to have content written in Nynorsk. Every student in the country should be presented

19947-461: The delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the Crown Prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts or face war. On 27 July, a Swedish fleet took over the islands of Hvaler , effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The following day, Christian Frederik rejected

20130-592: The district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts. It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn . In 1658–1659, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault . By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway. All

20313-404: The early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes ( Danish : Søerne ) that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were

20496-460: The emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they turned down Christian Frederik's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlov put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny,

20679-413: The expense of a weaker friendly neighbor. Moreover, the United Kingdom and Russia insisted that Charles John's first duty was to the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Britain vigorously objected to the expenditure of her subsidies on the Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. Only after Charles gave his word did the United Kingdom also promise to countenance the union of Norway and Sweden by

20862-422: The feminine forms are not optional, they have to be used. As for adjectives and determiners, the list of words with a feminine inflection form are quite few compared to those for the masculine and neuter after the 2012 language revision. All the past participles for strong verbs are for instance no longer inflected for the feminine (with an inflection ending -i ) and there is just a handful of adjectives left with

21045-448: The following noun also gets the definite inflection - a form of double definiteness. Nynorsk requires the use of double definiteness, where as in Bokmål this is not required due to its Danish origins, but the usage in Bokmål depends on the formality of the text. That is, in Bokmål it is perfectly fine to write I første avsnitt (which means; "in the first paragraph"), while the same sentence in Nynorsk would be I det første avsnittet which

21228-552: The former offices of the Shell Oil Company . Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building. The attack, known as " Operation Carthage ", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash, four of

21411-459: The incomplete transition to a three-gender system) and inflect using its forms, and indeed a feminine word may be seen in both forms, for example boka or boken ("the book") in Bokmål. This means that e n lit en stjerne – stjern en ("a small star – the star", only masculine forms) and e i lit a stjerne – stjern a (only feminine forms) both are correct Bokmål, as well as every possible combination: e n lit en stjerne – stjern

21594-534: The initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl , pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen Naval Base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries . In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realised in the harbour area and in the west of Amager . The national library's Black Diamond building on

21777-586: The international climate, and the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case. The first council of state convened, and established the nation's supreme court. On 5 June, the British emissary John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with

21960-449: The king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumored that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of Bornholm . The king asked the United Kingdom to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the official British government position of rejecting an independent Norway. He stated that Norway should subject itself to

22143-507: The main attack. The Dano-Norwegian fleet put up heavy resistance, and the battle is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar . It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have "put the telescope to the blind eye" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire . The British ultimately won the battle, sinking or capturing most of Dano-Norwegian fleet, which led Denmark to agree not to ally with France. In 1807, as

22326-556: The major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army. The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm . Copenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires that destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728

22509-488: The marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle . In 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of Hafn (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon , Bishop of Roskilde (1158–1191) and Archbishop of Lund (1177–1201), by King Valdemar I . Upon Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde . Around 1200,

22692-756: The middle of the 17th century rose to the status of a major regional power after the intervention of Gustavus II Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War . The ambitious wars waged by King Charles XII , however, led to the loss of that status after the Great Northern War , 1700–1721. Following the dissolution of the Kalmar Union, Sweden and Denmark-Norway remained rival powers and fought many wars, during which both Denmark and Norway had to cede important provinces to Sweden in 1645 and 1658. Sweden also invaded Norway in 1567, 1644, 1658, and 1716 to wrest

22875-524: The modern-day Nordic region as part of a Danish confederation with Sweden and Norway . The city flourished as the cultural and economic centre of Scandinavia during the Renaissance . By the 17th century, it had become a regional centre of power, serving as the heart of the Danish government and military . During the 18th century, Copenhagen suffered from a devastating plague outbreak and urban conflagrations . Major redevelopment efforts included

23058-592: The most bloody revenge upon Sweden and her friends; but you must never lose the hope that England will realize the unjustice that is being done to us, and voice it until the last moment – as well as our constant wish for peace." Anker's plea for support was firmly rejected by prime minister Lord Liverpool , but he persisted in his mission to convince his contacts among British aristocrats and politicians of Norway's cause. He succeeded in introducing that cause in Parliament, where Earl Grey spoke for almost three hours in

23241-419: The north of Slotsholmen. In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark , Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as

23424-408: The northern part of Denmark where the land is rising because of post-glacial rebound . Amager Strandpark , which opened in 2005, is a 2 km (1 mi) long artificial island , with a total of 4.6 km (2.9 mi) of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg , about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from downtown Copenhagen,

23607-443: The official standard – the city of Bergen being one of only two exceptions. Written Nynorsk is found in all the same types of places and for the same uses ( newspapers , commercial products , computer programs , etc.) as other written languages. Most of the biggest newspapers in Norway have certain articles written in Nynorsk, like VG and Aftenposten , but are mainly Bokmål. There are also nationwide newspapers where Nynorsk

23790-516: The old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats. In Denmark during World War II , Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be "a model protectorate " and initially

23973-454: The old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart ( Vestvolden ) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about

24156-594: The opportunity to take their exam in either Nynorsk or Bokmål. Nynorsk is first and foremost a written language form but it does appear as a spoken language. Spoken Nynorsk is often referred to as normed Nynorsk speech. Bokmål speech in Eastern Norway often conforms to Urban East Norwegian , whereas Bokmål speech in Bergen and Trondheim is called pen-bergensk (lit. fine Bergenish) and pen-trøndersk (lit. fine Trondheimish), respectively. Normed Nynorsk speech

24339-453: The other form of written Norwegian ( Bokmål ). Nynorsk grammar is closer in grammar to Old West Norse than Bokmål is, as the latter was influenced by Danish. Grammatical genders are inherent properties of nouns , and each gender has its own forms of inflection. Standard Nynorsk and all Norwegian dialects, with the notable exception of the Bergen dialect , have three grammatical genders : masculine , feminine and neuter . The situation

24522-443: The people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally he would relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country. The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederik confirmed his willingness to abdicate

24705-582: The planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target and aimed their bombs at the school, leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed. On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised

24888-522: The presence of Christian Frederik on 11 April, before the debates began the next day. Two parties were soon formed, the "Independence party", variously known as the "Danish party" or "the Prince's party", and on the other hand, the "Union party", also known as the "Swedish party". All delegates agreed that independence would be the ideal solution, but they disagreed on what was feasible. The constitutional committee presented its proposals on 16 April, provoking

25071-617: The problems that minority languages face. In Norway, each municipality and county can choose to declare either of the two language standards as the official language or remain "standard-neutral". As of 2020, 90 municipalities had declared Nynorsk the official standard, while 118 had chosen Bokmål; another 148 were "neutral" between the two, numbers that have been stable since the 1970s. As for counties, three have declared Nynorsk as their official standard: Møre og Romsdal , Telemark and Vestland . Most municipalities in Rogaland and few in

25254-458: The process to create the common language form Samnorsk. A minor purist fraction of the Nynorsk population has stayed firm with the historical Aasen norm where these alterations of Nynorsk were rejected, which is known as Høgnorsk (English: High Norwegian , analogous to High German ). Ivar Aasen-sambandet is an umbrella organization of associations and individuals promoting the use of Høgnorsk, whereas Noregs Mållag and Norsk Målungdom advocate

25437-463: The provisional government made him very popular in Norway. Moreover, his Swedish adversaries noticed his merits and his popularity, and in 1809 chose him as successor to the Swedish throne after King Gustav IV Adolf was overthrown. One factor contributing to the poor performance of the Swedish invasion force in Norway was that Russia at the same time invaded Finland on 21 February 1808. The two-front war proved disastrous for Sweden, and all of Finland

25620-470: The realm as compensation for the loss of Finland in 1809 and as a reward for joining the alliance against Napoleon. By the 1814 Treaty of Kiel , the King of Denmark-Norway was forced to cede Norway to the King of Sweden, but Norway refused to submit to the treaty provisions, declared independence , and convoked a constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in early 1814. After the adoption of the new Constitution of Norway on 17 May 1814, Prince Christian Frederick

25803-474: The regent that he was playing a dangerous game, but was himself accused of colluding with Sweden. Public opinion was increasingly critical of the policy of the regent, who was suspected of maneuvering to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty. On 9 March, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated himself from

25986-540: The reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city. On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen : the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen , the stock exchange. To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616. To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed

26169-463: The role of Russia in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region. On 18 January, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. Already in Norway, the viceroy of Norway, Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in

26352-456: The royal residence of Christiansborg Palace , which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with

26535-419: The same irregular inflection as in Bokmål (like the word in the first row: ting ): Expressing ownership of a noun (like "the girl's car") is very similar to how it is in Bokmål, but the use of the reflexive possessive pronouns sin , si , sitt , sine are more extensive than in Bokmål due to the preservation of historical grammatical case expressions. Compound words are constructed in exactly

26718-554: The same period was to cultivate contacts in Norway and encourage all signs of separatism. King Gustav III (1746–1792) actively approached any circle in Norway that might favor a union with Sweden instead of with Denmark. Such endeavors on both sides of the border toward a "rapprochement" were far from realistic before the Napoleonic Wars created conditions that caused great political upheavals in Scandinavia. Sweden and Denmark-Norway strenuously attempted to remain neutral during

26901-491: The same time, the categories that were inherited from the old language and were still present in some dialects should be represented in the written standard. Haugen has used the word reconstruction rather than construction about this work. From the outset, Nynorsk was met with resistance among those who believed that the Dano-Norwegian then in use was sufficient. With the advent and growth of mass media, exposure to

27084-413: The same way as Bokmål. A grammatical gender is not characterized by noun inflection alone; each gender can have further inflectional forms. That is, gender can determine the inflection of other parts of speech which agree grammatically with a noun. This concerns determiners , adjectives and past participles . The inflection patterns and words are quite similar to those of Bokmål, but unlike Bokmål

27267-412: The singular form but also in the plural forms. For example: That is, nouns generally follow these patterns, where all definite articles/plural indefinite articles are suffixes: The gender of each noun normally follows certain patterns. For instance will all nouns ending in -nad be masculine, like the word jobbsøknad (job application). Almost all nouns ending in -ing will be feminine, like

27450-567: The situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional Eidsvoll session, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination, and that he should act as a regent for the time being. Back in Christiania on 19 February, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. He ordered all congregations to meet on 25 February to swear loyalty to

27633-464: The standard languages increased, and Bokmål's position is dominant in many situations. This may explain why negative attitudes toward Nynorsk persist, as is seen with many minority languages . This is especially prominent among students, who are required to learn both of the official written languages. There are however many individual reasons for both positive and negative attitudes towards Nynorsk. Many claim that obligatory learning of both language forms

27816-445: The status of a mere province ruled by Danish kings from their capital, Copenhagen . After the establishment of absolutism in 1660, a more centralized form of government was established, but Norway kept some separate institutions, including its own laws, army, and coinage. The united kingdoms are referred to as Denmark-Norway by later historians. Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union permanently in 1523 under King Gustav Vasa , and in

27999-405: The suffix -ande on the verb stem; Ein skrivande student (a writing student). As can be seen from the inflection tables for adjectives and past participles , they all have their own inflection for definiteness. Just like Bokmål, when adjectives and past participles are accompanied by the articles in the following table below, the adjective/past participle gets the definite inflection and

28182-479: The surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital. Shortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five "fingers" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering

28365-422: The throne for "reasons of health", leaving his authority with the state council as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated 28 August he ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority", implicitly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway. On 3 September the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway

28548-453: The throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. On 30 January, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that King Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. On 2 February

28731-543: The throne on 18 November and took the regnal name of Haakon VII. Sweden and Norway had been united under the same crown on two previous occasions: from 1319 to 1343 under Magnus Eriksson and again briefly from 1449 to 1450 under Karl Knutsson in opposition to Christian of Oldenburg who was elected king of the Kalmar Union by the Danes . During the following centuries, Norway remained united with Denmark in close union, nominally as one kingdom, but in reality reduced to

28914-448: The time Old Danish was spoken, the capital was called Køpmannæhafn , with the current name deriving from centuries of subsequent regular sound change . The English cognates of the original name would be " chapman 's haven ". The English chapman , German Kaufmann , Dutch koopman , Swedish köpman , Danish købmand , and Icelandic kaupmaður share a derivation from Latin caupo , meaning 'tradesman'. However,

29097-443: The time as Samnorsk. This project was later abandoned and Nynorsk and Bokmål remain the two officially sanctioned standards of what is today called the Norwegian language. Both written languages are in reality fusions between the Norwegian and Danish languages as they were spoken and written around 1850, with Nynorsk closer to Norwegian and Bokmål closer to Danish. The official standard of Nynorsk has been significantly altered during

29280-406: The union. Continuing differences between the two realms led to a failed attempt to create a separate Norwegian consular service and then, on 7 June 1905, to a unilateral declaration of independence by the Storting. Sweden accepted the union's dissolution on 26 October. After a plebiscite confirming the election of Prince Carl of Denmark as the new king of Norway, he accepted the Storting's offer of

29463-502: The use of Nynorsk in general. The Landsmål (Landsmaal) language standard was constructed by the Norwegian linguist Ivar Aasen during the mid-19th century, to provide a Norwegian-based alternative to Danish , which was commonly written, and to some extent spoken, in Norway at the time. The word Nynorsk also has another meaning. In addition to being the name of the present, official written language standard, Nynorsk can also refer to

29646-492: The variety of dialects, he developed some basic criteria, which he called the most perfect form . He defined this form as the one that best showed the connection to related words, with similar words, and with the forms in Old Norwegian . No single dialect had all the "perfect forms"; each dialect had preserved different aspects and parts of the language. Through such a systematic approach, Aasen believed one could arrive at

29829-467: The various districts, the cityscape is characterised by parks, promenades, and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens , The Little Mermaid statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle , Frederik's Church , Børsen and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen ,

30012-707: The verb conjugation class they pertain to, described in the verb section. In Nynorsk, the verb skrive (to write, strong verb) has the following forms: In fact, all strong verbs are conjugated in this pattern: Strong verbs had an optional feminine form -i prior to the 2012 language revision that still are used among some users. Some of the weak verbs have to agree in only number (just like in Bokmål), while many have to agree in both gender and number (like in Swedish). The weak verbs are inflected according to their conjugation class (see Nynorsk verb conjugation ). All

30195-437: The verb for "to be": vere ( er is its present tense). Other important copula verbs where predicative agreement happens are verte and bli (both mean "become"). Other copula verbs are also ser ut (looks like) and the reflexive verbs in Nynorsk . When verbs are used other than these copula verbs, the adjectives like in the example above will no longer be adjectives but an adverb. The adverb form of an adjective

30378-443: The verb functions as an adjective, are inflected just like an adjective. This is very similar to the system of agreement in the Swedish language , where all participles have an inflection for gender, number and definiteness. In contrast, participles in Bokmål are only in general inflected for number and definiteness and shares many of the inflections it got from the Danish language. The inflections of these participles are inferred from

30561-488: The waterfront was completed in 1999. Since the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge , which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager . The city's service and trade sectors have developed while

30744-400: The west around the city of Bergen ) have Nynorsk as their official language form, estimated by the number of students attending secondary schools. Nynorsk is also taught as a mandatory subject in both high school and middle school for all Norwegians who do not have it as their own language form. Norway had its own written and oral language— Norwegian . After the Kalmar Union , Norway became

30927-472: The word forventning (expectation). The -ing nouns also get an irregular inflection pattern, with -ar and -ane in the plural indefinite and plural definite (just like the masculine) but inflected like a feminine noun in every other way. There are a few other common nouns that have an irregular inflection too, like mann which means man and is a masculine word, but for plural it gets an umlaut (just like English): menn (men) and it gets

31110-470: The work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971. Motor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on

31293-450: Was ceded to Russia at the Peace of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809. In the meantime, discontent with the conduct of the war led to the deposition of King Gustav IV on 13 May 1809. Prince Christian August, the enemy commander who had been promoted to viceroy of Norway in 1809, was chosen because the Swedish insurgents saw that his great popularity among the Norwegians might open the way for

31476-526: Was elected king. The ensuing Swedish–Norwegian War (1814) and the Convention of Moss compelled Christian Frederick to abdicate after calling an extraordinary session of the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting , to revise the Constitution in order to allow for a personal union with Sweden. On 4 November the Storting elected Sweden's king, Charles XIII , as the King of Norway , thereby confirming

31659-411: Was forced by Napoleon to declare war on Sweden on 29 February 1808. Because the British naval blockade severed communications between Denmark and Norway, a provisional Norwegian government was set up in Christiania, led by army general Prince Christian August of Augustenborg . This first national government after several centuries of Danish rule demonstrated that home rule was possible in Norway, and

31842-413: Was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities. In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, it was generally accepted that the union with Sweden was inevitable. On 7 October, an extraordinary session of

32025-489: Was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen ( Københavns Byret ), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby . With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy

32208-425: Was later seen as a test of the viability of independence. Christian August's greatest challenge was to secure the food supply during the blockade. When Sweden invaded Norway in the spring of 1808, he commanded the army of Southern Norway and compelled the numerically superior Swedish forces to withdraw behind the border after the battles of Toverud and Prestebakke . His success as a military commander and as leader of

32391-404: Was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna , threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for

32574-415: Was made by Ivar Aasen in the mid 19th century. After the dissolution of Denmark–Norway and the establishment of the union between Sweden and Norway in 1814, Norwegians considered that neither Danish, by now a foreign language, nor by any means Swedish, were suitable written norms for Norwegian affairs. The linguist Knud Knudsen proposed a gradual Norwegianisation of Danish. Ivar Aasen, however, favoured

32757-581: Was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, and that his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with Napoleon . The Swedish delegation arrived in Christiania on 24 February. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedes characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, and returned to Sweden. The next day, church bells in Christiania rang for

32940-430: Was presided over by viceroys : Swedes until 1829, Norwegians until 1856. That office was later vacant and then abolished in 1873. Foreign policy was conducted through the Swedish foreign ministry until the dissolution of the union in 1905. Norway had been in a closer union with Denmark , but Denmark–Norway 's alliance with Napoleonic France caused the United Kingdom and Russia to consent to Sweden's annexation of

33123-590: Was still specific gender forms that was left. Most adjectives will follow this pattern of inflection for adjectives, which is the same as in Bokmål: Examples of adjectives that follow this pattern are adjectives like fin (nice), klar (ready/clear), rar (weird). Adjectives/perfect participles that end in a diphthong (like the word grei , which means straightforward/fine) will follow this inflection pattern: All adjective comparison follow this pattern: Past participles of verbs, which are when

33306-565: Was the first person awarded this prize to write in Nynorsk. After the transition from Middle Norwegian to New Norwegian/Nynorsk ( c.  1525 ), several studies of the language were assembled. The oldest of these is a language overview and collection of proverbs from the early 1600s Vest-Agder. Later in the century, a dictionary from Robyggjelaget was written. Neither of these works were printed until more recently. In 1646, however, Christen Jensøn (1610-1653), born in Askvoll, Norway, released

33489-487: Was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire , it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city. A substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on

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