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85-589: The Pottok or Pottoka ( / ˈ p ɒ t ə k , - k ə / or / p ə ˈ t j ɒ k , - k ə / , Basque : pottoka [poˈcoka] ), is an endangered, semi-feral breed of pony native to the Pyrenees of the Basque Country in France and Spain . It is considered an ancient breed of horse, particularly well adapted to the harsh mountain areas it traditionally inhabits. Once common, it

170-623: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​ , FAO, FAO. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​ , FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

255-609: A faculty at the Federal University of Paraná , in Curitiba. Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology , ecology , botany , genetics , soil science , climatology , hydrology , economics and forest management . Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs. In India, forestry education

340-756: A height range of 1.20–1.47 m (11.3–14.2 h). The Government of Biscay carried out research into some 250 horses of the Pottok population of Biscay, both wild and stabled, in 1996–97. The census revealed that the majority of semi-feral Pottoks in Biscay live in the far northwest of the province, in the Encartaciones . These semi-feral herds are rounded up twice a year, once in March before birthing and once in October after weaning. The survey also concluded that

425-662: A large variety of coat colours . They have also been bred with Iberian horses following guidelines of pony clubs, Arabian horses and Welsh ponies . This cross-breeding has left perhaps no more than 150 purebred mares north of the Pyrenees. Their adaptation to mountain life and coloration made them ideal for use by smugglers in former times. From the 16th century onwards, they became popular as circus horses but also as pit ponies in France and Britain . Today, they are in demand as children's ponies because they adapt well to domestication. Efforts are now being made to ensure

510-449: A large, square head, small ears, short neck and long back with short but slim legs, and small, sturdy hooves . The winter fur ( borra ) is one of the key characteristics of the Pottok and can reach up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length on young horses. The archetypal coat colorations are in bay range with no patterning, but today various shades of brown and black exist in Pottok herds. Pottok pintos first appeared in Biscay in

595-400: A limited area ( Gascony and Old Castile ) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavy Basque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed). Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like /f/ to /h/ ). As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides,

680-455: A mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species , building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire . The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau , Hesse , in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at

765-622: A modest comeback. In the Spanish part, Basque-language schools for children and Basque-teaching centres for adults have brought the language to areas such as western Enkarterri and the Ribera del Ebro in southern Navarre, where it is not known to ever have been widely spoken; and in the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have almost stopped the decline of the language. Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been

850-812: A population of 2,634,800 over 16 years of age (1,838,800 in the Autonomous community, 546,000 in Navarre and 250,000 in the Northern Basque Country), 806,000 spoke Basque, which amounted to 30.6% of the population. Compared to the 1991 figures, this represents an overall increase of 266,000, from 539,110 speakers 30 years previously (430,000 in the BAC , 40,110 in FCN , and 69,000 in the Northern provinces). This number has tended to increase, as in all regions

935-455: A region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species. The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity . More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems , may impact

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1020-464: A sole mother tongue has decreased from 19% in 1991 to 15.1% in 2016, while Basque and another language being used as mother language increased from 3% to 5.4% in the same time period. General public attitude towards efforts to promote the Basque language have also been more positive, with the share of people against these efforts falling from 20.9% in 1991 to 16% in 2016. In 2021, the study found that in

1105-527: Is a language spoken by Basques and other residents of the Basque Country , a region that straddles the westernmost Pyrenees in adjacent parts of northern Spain and southwestern France. Basque is classified as a language isolate (unrelated to any other known languages) and the only language isolate in Europe. The Basques are indigenous to and primarily inhabit the Basque Country. The Basque language

1190-422: Is also the age of maturity for males. Foals, like those of other breeds, are born after 11 months during spring/early summer and are weaned after 6–7 months. Pottok numbers have been severely reduced by habitat loss and crossbreeding. In the 20th century, piebald Pottoks were bred, particularly for circus use. Stockier ponies for agricultural work were bred by crossbreeding with draught horses , also often with

1275-929: Is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people. For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area, wood is the most important renewable resource , and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year. Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.  Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high. Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$ 1.25 per day. Over

1360-434: Is challenging since written material and documentation only is available for some few hundred years. Almost all hypotheses concerning the origin of Basque are controversial, and the suggested evidence is not generally accepted by mainstream linguists. Some of these hypothetical connections are: The region where Basque is spoken has become smaller over centuries, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. Nothing

1445-403: Is distinguished from atso "old woman". In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical ⟨s⟩ and the alveolar affricate ⟨tz⟩ are used. Basque also features postalveolar sibilants ( /ʃ/ , written ⟨x⟩ , and /tʃ/ , written ⟨tx⟩ ). Forestry Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what

1530-531: Is endangered through habitat loss , mechanization and crossbreeding but efforts are increasingly made to safeguard the future of this breed. It is considered iconic by the Basque people . Pottoka is the Basque language name for this horse, both north and south of the mountains. In Upper Navarrese , potto and pottoka are generic terms for colts and young horses whereas in Lapurdian and Lower Navarrese

1615-582: Is generally referred to as Aquitanian and is assumed to have been spoken in the area before the Roman Republic 's conquests in the western Pyrenees . Some authors even argue for late Basquisation , that the language moved westward during Late Antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire into the northern part of Hispania into what is now the Basque Country . Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while

1700-820: Is genetically closest to breeds like the Asturcón , the Losino , the Galician , the Landais , and the Monchino horses. Tests have revealed considerable genetic differences between populations in the Northern Basque Country and the Southern Basque Country , leading some to consider them separate breeds. Some claim the Pottok's origins derive from the horses on ancient cave paintings in

1785-644: Is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities. In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters . In Canada

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1870-638: Is known about the limits of this region in ancient times, but on the basis of toponyms and epigraphs, it seems that in the beginning of the Common Era it stretched to the river Garonne in the north (including the south-western part of present-day France); at least to the Val d'Aran in the east (now a Gascon -speaking part of Catalonia ), including lands on both sides of the Pyrenees ; the southern and western boundaries are not clear at all. The Reconquista temporarily counteracted this contracting tendency when

1955-427: Is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber , fuel wood, wildlife habitat , natural water quality management , recreation , landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes , biodiversity management, watershed management , erosion control , and preserving forests as " sinks " for atmospheric carbon dioxide . Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as

2040-496: Is known of its origins, but it is likely that an early form of the Basque language was present in and around the area of modern Basque Country before the arrival of the Indo-European languages in western Europe during the 3rd millennium BC. Authors such as Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte have noted that the words for "knife" ( aizto ), "axe" ( aizkora ), and "hoe" ( aitzur ) appear to derive from

2125-624: Is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry. The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner 's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood 's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn 's Sylva (1662). [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

2210-616: Is much debate about how best to increase numbers – whether to focus only on the purebreds or to employ selective crossbreeding to build greater numbers of Pottok-like ponies. Pottok are shown both at agricultural shows and town festivals: In the Northern Basque Country, two studbooks for the Pottok were set up in 1970. Crossbreds, covered under Book B, must have at least 50% Pottok blood, while Book A covers those of higher purity. Horses in Book A are divided into two types,

2295-520: Is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families , but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species . Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in

2380-639: Is one strong loanword candidate, ezker , long considered the source of the Pyrenean and Iberian Romance words for "left (side)" ( izquierdo , esquerdo , esquerre ). The lack of initial /r/ in Gascon could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched. The other most commonly claimed substrate influences: The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages. The change of /f/ to /h/ occurred historically only in

2465-513: Is spoken by 806,000 Basques in all territories. Of these, 93.7% (756,000) are in the Spanish area of the Basque Country and the remaining 6.3% (50,000) are in the French portion. Native speakers live in a contiguous area that includes parts of four Spanish provinces and the three "ancient provinces" in France. Gipuzkoa , most of Biscay , a few municipalities on the northern border of Álava and

2550-436: Is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands , incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems , and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture , which deals with the art and practice of forest management. Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University . It integrates

2635-482: Is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles. In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation. Silvology ( Latin : silva or sylva , "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek : -λογία , -logia , "science of" or "study of")

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2720-431: Is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management. Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires , pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation , poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material. About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this

2805-724: The Algonquian peoples in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Strait of Belle Isle . The Basque language features five vowels: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ and /u/ (the same that are found in Spanish , Asturian and Aragonese ). In the Zuberoan dialect, extra phonemes are featured: There is no distinctive vowel length in Basque, although vowels can be lengthened for emphasis. The mid vowels /e/ and /o/ are raised before nasal consonants. Basque has an a-Elision Rule, according to which

2890-566: The Asturian Xíriga . Part of the Romani community in the Basque Country speaks Erromintxela , which is a rare mixed language , with a Kalderash Romani vocabulary and Basque grammar. A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced pidgins have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a Basque–Icelandic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland. The Algonquian–Basque pidgin arose from contact between Basque whalers and

2975-589: The French Basque Country , Basque was still spoken in all the territory except in Bayonne and some villages around, and including some bordering towns in Béarn . In the 20th century, however, the rise of Basque nationalism spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments in the Southern Basque Country , it has recently made

3060-640: The Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizeable number of Romance words. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan ) in the north-east, Navarro-Aragonese in the south-east and Spanish in the south-west. Since 1968, Basque has been immersed in a revitalisation process, facing formidable obstacles. However, significant progress has been made in numerous areas. Six main factors have been identified to explain its relative success: While those six factors influenced

3145-525: The Latin script is used for the Basque alphabet . In Basque, the name of the language is officially euskara (alongside various dialect forms). In French, the language is normally called basque , though euskara has become common in recent times. Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as vasco , lengua vasca , or euskera . Both terms, vasco and basque , are inherited from

3230-573: The Spanish language is the official language of the nation, but allows autonomous communities to provide a co-official language status for the other languages of Spain . Consequently, the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Autonomous Community establishes Basque as the co-official language of the autonomous community. The Statute of Navarre establishes Spanish as the official language of Navarre, but grants co-official status to

3315-776: The University of Giessen , in Hesse-Darmstadt . In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid ( Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes ), founded in 1844. The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville , North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate . Another early school

3400-691: The effects of climate change . Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone. Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture , forest protection , and forest regulation . This includes management for timber, aesthetics , recreation , urban values, water , wildlife , inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products , plant genetic resources , and other forest resource values . Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or

3485-445: The voiceless apicoalveolar fricative [s̺] is written ⟨s⟩ ; the tip of the tongue points toward the upper teeth and friction occurs at the tip (apex). For example, zu "you" (singular, respectful) is distinguished from su "fire". The affricate counterparts are written ⟨tz⟩ and ⟨ts⟩ . So, etzi "the day after tomorrow" is distinguished from etsi "to give up"; atzo "yesterday"

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3570-466: The 14th century when a law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that Item nuyl corridor nonsia usado que faga mercadería ninguna que compre nin venda entre ningunas personas, faulando en algaravia nin en abraych nin en basquenç : et qui lo fara pague por coto XXX sol —essentially penalising the use of Arabic, Hebrew, or Basque in marketplaces with a fine of 30 sols (the equivalent of 30 sheep). Although

3655-492: The 1850s and have spread to parts of Navarre and Labourd since. There are noticeable differences between mountain herds of Pottok and valley or flatland herds, with mountain horses generally being smaller. The official French breed standard distinguishes two types, the Pottok de Montagne or Mountain Pottok, with a height range of 1.15–1.32 m (11.1–13.0 h), and the larger Pottok de Prairie or Plains Pottok, which has

3740-587: The 4 indigenous horse breeds in the Basque Country have examined their relationship to other horses. Based on microsatellite tests, of the four Basque horse breeds, the Pottok and the Basque Mountain Horse , are genetically the most distant from other breeds. The others, the Burguete horse and the Jaca Navarra (today considered meat breeds ), less so. This variability in the Pottok and

3825-557: The BAC, when both parents were Basque speakers, 98% of children were only communicated to in Basque, while 2% were communicated to in both Basque and Spanish. When only one parent was a Basque speaker and their first language was Basque, 84% used Basque and Spanish and 16% only Spanish. In Navarre, the family language of 94.3% of the youngest respondents with both Basque parents was Basque. In the Northern Basque Country, however, when both parents were Basque speaking, just two-thirds transmitted only Basque to their offspring, and as age decreased,

3910-772: The Basque Autonomous Community in 1997; 40 in Álava, 849 in Biscay and 97 in Gipuzkoa. In 2005 Switzerland was the only other country holding a studbook recognised by the French breed standard and regulations. This has been kept since 2000 by the Swiss Pottok Society, which since 2004 is a member of the Swiss Society for Ponies and Small Horses SVPK. Basque language France Basque ( / ˈ b æ s k , ˈ b ɑː s k / ; euskara [eus̺ˈkaɾa] )

3995-412: The Basque Country, excluding the southern part of Navarre, the south-western part of Álava , and the western part of Biscay, and including some parts of Béarn . In 1807, Basque was still spoken in the northern half of Álava—including its capital city Vitoria-Gasteiz —and a vast area in central Navarre, but in these two provinces, Basque experienced a rapid decline that pushed its border northwards. In

4080-637: The Basque Mountain Horse appears to be related to the fact males range more widely and mate with more females in these feral or semi-feral herds. Research into a known single-nucleotide polymorphism showed this non-native alternation is very rare in purebred Pottoks. Tests of mitochondrial DNA revealed Pottoks are most likely to crossbreed with the Basque Mountain Horses, less so with other breeds. Although some genetic markers of other European horse breeds were found, overall

4165-455: The Basque language could be used—and easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations (education, mass media, literature), and this is its main use today. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region and from school to school. Basque is the only surviving language isolate in Europe . The current mainstream scientific view on the origin of

4250-464: The Basque language in the Basque-speaking areas of northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is permitted (with translation), as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the border. The positions of

4335-481: The Basque language is geographically surrounded by Romance languages , it is a language isolate that is unrelated to them or to any other language. Most scholars believe Basque to be the last remaining descendant of one of the pre-Indo-European languages of prehistoric Europe . Consequently, it may be impossible to reconstruct the prehistory of the Basque language by the traditional comparative method except by applying it to differences between Basque dialects. Little

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4420-619: The Basques and of their language is that early forms of Basque developed before the arrival of Indo-European languages in the area, i.e. before the arrival of Celtic and Romance languages in particular, as the latter today geographically surround the Basque-speaking region. Typologically, with its agglutinative morphology and ergative–absolutive alignment , Basque grammar remains markedly different from that of Standard Average European languages. Nevertheless, Basque has borrowed up to 40 percent of its vocabulary from Romance languages, and

4505-1211: The Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs. In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area . The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide. In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes ; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded. These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats . This system

4590-474: The Christian lords called on northern Iberian peoples — Basques, Asturians , and " Franks " — to colonise the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language , while other languages like Spanish , Gascon , French , or Latin were preferred for the administration and high education. By the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was reduced basically to the present-day seven provinces of

4675-519: The Latin ethnonym Vascones , which in turn goes back to the Greek term Οὐάσκωνες ( ouáskōnes ), an ethnonym used by Strabo in his Geographica (23 CE, Book III). The Spanish term Vascuence , derived from Latin vasconĭce , has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well-liked amongst Basque speakers generally. Its use is documented at least as far back as

4760-793: The Mountain Pottok and the Plains Pottok. Only horses which live for a minimum of nine months in the year in semi-feral conditions in a harem containing mares, foals and stallions in the mountainous areas of la Rhune , Baïgorry , Ursuya and Artzamendi are considered Mountain Pottoks. The breed standard specifies: In the Southern Basque Country, the criteria specify: According to an atlas of Basque breeds compiled by IKT Nekazal Ikerketa eta Teknologia (Agricultural Research and Technology), there were 986 Pottoks in

4845-416: The age group most likely to speak Basque was those between 16 and 24 years old. In the BAC, the proportion in this age group who spoke the language (74.5%) was nearly triple the comparable figure from 1991, when barely a quarter of the population spoke Basque. While there is a general increase in the number of Basque speakers during this period, this is mainly because of bilingualism . Basque transmission as

4930-521: The area and thus claim to descend from the Magdalenian horses of 14,000–7000 BC. Other link its origins to an influx of horses during the Bronze Age . However, neither of these theories has to date been scientifically verified. Genetic research by the University of the Basque Country 's Genetics , Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology department into various genetic markers amongst

5015-688: The continued survival of purebred Pottoks. The Pottok was the first Basque horse breed to be included in the list of indigenous Basque breeds requiring conservation efforts in June 1995. Its status was classified as endangered. Various reserves, for example in Bidarray in Lower Navarre or the ZAPE Society in the Aralar Range have been set up to protect the pony and its environment. There

5100-446: The corresponding fricatives [β] , [ð] , and [ɣ] . Basque has a distinction between laminal and apical articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. With the laminal alveolar fricative [s̻] , the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth. This is the usual /s/ in most European languages. It is written with an orthographic ⟨z⟩ . By contrast,

5185-428: The debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments. Examples of arguments against the substrate theory, and possible responses: Beyond these arguments, a number of nomadic groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the gacería in Segovia , the mingaña , the Galician fala dos arxinas and

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5270-412: The genetic distance to the other European breeds is large. One marker previously only found in certain British breeds has also been found in Pottoks. Its traditional range extends west as far as the Biscayan Encartaciones and east roughly as far as the Saint-Jean-le-Vieux area. A census carried out in 1970 found roughly 3.500 purebred Pottoks north of the Pyrenees and approximately 2.000 purebreds to

5355-602: The genetic diversity of trees. The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype ) will determine its performance (its phenotype ) at a particular site. Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases . Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity

5440-403: The influence of the neighbouring Romance languages on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular Gascon and Aragonese , and to a lesser degree Spanish are thought to have received this influence in

5525-534: The main characteristics of the Biscayan population were: Semi-feral Pottoks tend to be shy and live in small, territorial herds or harems numbering between 10 and 30 mares . They are able to predict the weather conditions, moving into the valleys in anticipation of bad weather and upland when high pressure builds. During the autumn, the herd breaks up into smaller groups of 5–10 horses and re-unite in spring. Foals mature quickly. Fillies become fertile at age 2, normally mate at age 3 and give birth at age 4, which

5610-469: The main political parties of Navarre, divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. Support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary, depending on the area. Others consider it unfair, since the rights of Basque speakers differ greatly depending on the place they live. The 2021 sociolinguistic survey of all Basque-speaking territories showed that, of all people aged 16 and above: In 2021, out of

5695-478: The meaning of pottoka is "pony". Ultimately the name is linked to words such as pottolo "chubby, tubby". In French sources, the spelling Pottok predominates. In English, both Pottoka and Pottok are encountered but the term Basque Pony can occasionally also be encountered. Many opinions exist on the origins of the Pottok. It is deemed by the scientific community to have lived in the area for at least several thousand years. It displays signs of genetic isolation and

5780-476: The most divergent Basque dialects. Modern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects: These dialects are divided in 11 subdialects, and 24 minor varieties among them. According to Koldo Zuazo , the Biscayan dialect or "Western" is the most widespread dialect, with around 300,000 speakers out of a total of around 660,000 speakers. This dialect is divided in two minor subdialects: the Western Biscayan and Eastern Biscayan, plus transitional dialects. Although

5865-442: The most important component of the biosphere , and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science , craft , and technology . A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester . Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry. All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others. Forestry

5950-571: The northern area of Navarre formed the core of the remaining Basque-speaking area before measures were introduced in the 1980s to strengthen Basque fluency. By contrast, most of Álava, the westernmost part of Biscay, and central and southern Navarre are predominantly populated by native speakers of Spanish , either because Basque was replaced by Spanish over the centuries (as in most of Álava and central Navarre), or because it may never have been spoken there (as in parts of Enkarterri and south-eastern Navarre). In Francoist Spain , Basque language use

6035-428: The official languages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognised in some areas. For instance, the fuero or charter of the Basque-colonised Ojacastro (now in La Rioja ) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. Basque was allowed in telegraph messages in Spain thanks to the royal decree of 1904. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states in Article 3 that

6120-440: The past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science , there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture . Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose

6205-614: The past. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through substrate interference following language shift from Aquitanian or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees. Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. anchoa 'anchovies', bizarro 'dashing, gallant, spirited', cachorro 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque. Ignoring cultural terms, there

6290-410: The public use of Basque was suppressed, with people fined for speaking it. Public use of Basque was frowned upon by supporters of the regime, often regarded as a sign of anti-Francoism or separatism . Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. As a part of this process, a standardised form of the Basque language, called Euskara Batua ,

6375-487: The revitalisation process, the extensive development and use of language technologies is also considered a significant additional factor. Many linguists have tried to link Basque with other languages, but no hypothesis has gained mainstream acceptance. Apart from pseudoscientific comparisons , the appearance of long-range linguistics gave rise to several attempts to connect Basque with geographically very distant language families such as Georgian . Historical work on Basque

6460-563: The south, a considerable drop from historic populations, linked to an overall drop in the number of horses being bred and used commercially. Competition with sheep and more recently commercial forestry has also infringed on the Pottok's natural habitat. The traditional core habitat are the mountains of Labourd and Navarre from about 1.500m upwards, generally on poor acidic soil and limestone formations. The Pottok measures 1.15 to 1.47 metres (11.1 to 14.2 hands ) in height, and weighs between 300 and 350 kilograms (661 and 772 lb). It has

6545-435: The study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology . Dendrology ( Ancient Greek : δένδρον , dendron , "tree"; and Ancient Greek : -λογία , -logia , science of or study of ) or xylology ( Ancient Greek : ξύλον , ksulon , "wood") is the science and study of woody plants ( trees , shrubs , and lianas ), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There

6630-401: The transmission rate also decreased. Basque is used as a language of commerce both in the Basque Country and in locations around the world where Basques immigrated throughout history. The modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Biscayan and Souletin, which are regarded as

6715-453: The various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. The Ley del Vascuence ("Law of Basque"), seen as contentious by many Basques, but considered fitting Navarra's linguistic and cultural diversity by some of

6800-518: The vowel /a/ is elided before any following vowel. This does not prevent the existence of diphthongs with /a/ present. There are six diphthongs in Basque, all falling and with /i̯/ or /u̯/ as the second element. In syllable-final position, all plosives are devoiced and are spelled accordingly in Standard Basque. When between vowels, and often when after /r/ or /l/ , the voiced plosives /b/ , /d/ , and /ɡ/ , are pronounced as

6885-578: The word for "stone" ( haitz ), and have therefore concluded that the language dates to prehistoric Europe when those tools were made of stone. Others find this unlikely: see the aizkora controversy . Latin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language , for instance, the personal names Nescato and Cison ( neskato and gizon mean 'young girl' and 'man', respectively in modern Basque). This language

6970-516: Was developed by the Euskaltzaindia in the late 1960s. Besides its standardised version, the five historic Basque dialects are Biscayan , Gipuzkoan , and Upper Navarrese in Spain and Navarrese–Lapurdian and Souletin in France. They take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that

7055-402: Was discouraged by the government's repressive policies . In the Basque Country, "Francoist repression was not only political, but also linguistic and cultural." Franco's regime suppressed Basque from official discourse, education, and publishing, making it illegal to register newborn babies under Basque names, and even requiring tombstone engravings in Basque to be removed. In some provinces

7140-482: Was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains. Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to

7225-648: Was the New York State College of Forestry , established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898. Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America. In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa , Minas Gerais , in 1962, and moved the next year to become

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