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130-515: The Papal Navy was separate from the Papal Army , a varying combination of volunteers , mercenaries , and Catholic military orders , being disbanded in 1870. The modern Vatican City State does not maintain any formal naval or maritime forces; however, it does maintain a paramilitary police force , the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City as well as the militarized Swiss Guard , responsible for

260-601: A felucca , and a pinnace . Leo XII acquired a small fleet of raiders and luggers , which were converted by the Finance Guard into twelve patrol boats armed with twin mortars to perform coast guard duties in two squadrons, eight vessels in the Adriatic Sea and four in the Tyrrhenian . In 1840, Lt. Col. Alessandro Cialdi directed an expedition to Egypt to retrieve several alabaster monoliths - gifts from

390-667: A 94-gun pink, with 150 crew. In 1762, the domestically-built three-masted frigate San Clemente was completed and launched in Civitavecchia, and blessed by Clement XIII in a christening ceremony; the Clemente was joined in 1763 by the newly-completed three-masted frigate San Carlo . After a brief period of naval expansion under Popes Benedict XIV and Clement XIII, the Papal Navy slowly withered until, by 1780, it consisted of just three galleys and two corvettes, and its mandate

520-567: A Venetian-led Catholic fleet of 52 ships at the Battle of Matapan ; the Catholic squadrons fought an Ottoman fleet of 59 ships, and sank 14 Ottoman ships while losing only 3 Catholic ships (the Venetian fireship Capitan Trivisan , the Venetian hospital ship Madonna del Rosario , and one galley). This Ottoman naval defeat marked the end of the unsuccessful Turkish invasion of Corfu. In 1745,

650-591: A combined Imperial-Pisan fleet of 16 galleys to Civitavecchia as part of an intense pressure campaign against the College of Cardinals - he simultaneously surrounded the city of Rome with Imperial soldiers. In 1244, Pope Innocent IV - lacking an independent maritime capability - asked his Lombard ally Genoa to ferry him to France to secure French support against the encroachments of the Holy Roman Empire. 22 Genoese galleys arrived in Civitavecchia, received

780-466: A force of Neapolitan, Amalfitan , Gaetan , and Papal ships repulsed the pirates off Ostia in 849; this first engagement marked the birth of the Papal Navy. In 877, Pope John VIII led a new papal fleet into battle against Saracen invaders, beating their fleet near Terracina - capturing 18 galleys and freeing 600 slaves. Following Mujahid's invasion of Sardinia , Pope Benedict VIII supported Pisan , Genoese , and Neapolitan expeditions to liberate

910-532: A gradual revival of the pope's temporal power in the Papal States. Throughout the 16th century, virtually independent fiefs such as Rimini (a possession of the Malatesta family) were brought back under Papal control. In 1512 the state of the church annexed Parma and Piacenza, which in 1545 became an independent duchy under an illegitimate son of Pope Paul III . This process culminated in the reclaiming of

1040-594: A new galley - the San Benedetta - was completed and launched, christened with a blessing from Benedict XIV . In April 1747, the enormous galley Capitana was completed in Civitavecchia, measuring 50m long, triple-masted, and adorned with a statue of the pope; Benedict XIV returned to Civitavecchia for the Capitana 's launch. In 1755, Benedict XIV purchased two frigates from the British Navy , which joined

1170-585: A number of Italian cities. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne ' Emperor of the Romans '. From the 9th century to the 12th century, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – was disputed. It was unclear whether the Papal States were a separate realm with

1300-400: A papal blessing, and departed for France with Innocent aboard. By 1291, the Papal Navy had been briefly revived - Pope Nicholas IV used his navy's 10 galleys along with 20 galleys chartered from Venice in a last-ditch attempt to reinforce Acre with 2,500 papal soldiers; the papal fleet was defeated in battle and was too late to save the city from capture, but the fleet was able to evacuate

1430-643: A period of about 25 years. The final blow to the Beylik of Karaman was struck by Mehmed II , who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered territories of the Beylik of Ramadan and the Beylik of Dulkadir in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluk Sultanate , and his son Süleyman

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1560-858: A result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered realms, who engaged in power struggles with the Byzantines , the Genoese , the Knights Templar , as well as between each other. By 1300, the Turks had reached the Aegean coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were the Karamanids and the Germiyanids in the central area. The Beylik of Osmanoğlu , who would later go on to become

1690-703: A siege of only 53 days, the Ottoman army captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire; the loss of the Byzantine buffer made mainland Europe accessible to the Ottomans, and greatly disrupted the existing European balance of power . In response, Pope Calixtus III established a shipyard on the Tiber River and rapidly assembled a papal fleet of galleys and transports. In 1456, this fleet departed (carrying 300 cannons and 5,000 papal soldiers) for

1820-611: A small fleet of six Barbary ships; two Barbary ships were sunk, and the other four were captured. During the pontificate of Innocent X , the Papal Navy launched several times from Civitavecchia to fight the Ottoman fleets in the Levant, including a galley fleet sailing to Candia in 1645 under the command of Niccolò Ludovisi , the Pope's nephew. During Jubliee Year 1650, the Papal Navy remained on patrol in Civitavecchia to defend pilgrims from

1950-744: The atabegs (former Seljuk leaders), and other religious Muslim leaders, in addition to employing Ghazi warriors from Persia and Turkestan, who also fled the Mongols. The ghazis fought under the inspiration of either a mullah or a general, trying to assert Islamic power, with the attacks on Byzantine territory further expanding the power sphere of the beyliks. As the Byzantine Empire weakened, their cities in Asia Minor became gradually less and less able to resist these attacks, and many Turks began to settle in western parts of Anatolia. As

2080-665: The départements of Tibre and Trasimène . Following the fall of the First French Empire in 1814, the Congress of Vienna formally restored the Italian territories of the Papal States, but not the Comtat Venaissin or Avignon, to Vatican control. Upon restitution of sovereignty to the Papal States, Pius VII decided to abolish feudalism, transforming all the noble titles (temporarily abolished during

2210-498: The Aegean Sea , where it spent three years in regular combat with the Ottomans. In 1481, four papal galleys - gifted to the Papal Navy by Florence - participated in the successful crusade to liberate Otranto from its recent capture by the Ottomans, ferrying the combined Neapolitan - Hungarian army to Otranto . Although the crusade was a success, the four papal galleys had all abandoned the liberation of Otranto early because of

2340-604: The Arian suzerainty of Odoacer in 473, and in 493, Theodoric , king of the Ostrogoths . The Ostrogothic kings would continue to rule much of Italy until 554. The Roman Church submitted of necessity to their sovereign authority, while asserting its spiritual primacy over the whole of Christendom. Beginning in 535, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched a series of campaigns to wrest Italy from

2470-570: The Black Death , which caused Ferdinand I of Naples to send his ambassador to Civitavecchia to ask the pope to explain the papal fleet's departure and inform the pope that their league was now dissolved ( Pope Sixtus IV had intended for the crusading army, upon liberating Otranto, to sail to and liberate Vlorë as well). In 1486, Pope Innocent VIII commissioned the construction of four triremes in Civitavecchia to protect against piracy. In 1494, Charles VIII captured Civitavecchia , and held

2600-594: The Byzantine emperors as their foremost temporal guardians for reasons such as increased imperial taxes, disagreement with respect to iconoclasm , and failure of the emperors, or their exarchs in Italy , to protect Rome and the rest of the peninsula from barbarian invasion and pillage. During the Renaissance , the papal territory expanded greatly, and the Pope became one of Italy's most important rulers as well as

2730-599: The Campagne and Maritime Province . Other titles like "Papal Vicar ", "Vicar General", and also several titles of nobility , such as "count" or even "prince" were used. However, throughout the history of the Papal States, many warlords and even bandit chieftains controlled cities and small duchies without having received any title from the Pope of the day. Historically the Papal States maintained military forces composed of volunteers , mercenaries (including Corsican Guard ) and Catholic military orders . Between 1860 and 1870

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2860-586: The Duchy of Ferrara in 1598, and the Duchy of Urbino in 1631. At its greatest extent, in the 18th century, the Papal States included most of central Italy – Latium , Umbria , Marche , and the legations of Ravenna , Ferrara , and Bologna extending north into the Romagna . It also included the small enclaves of Benevento and Pontecorvo in southern Italy and the larger Comtat Venaissin around Avignon in southern France. The French Revolution affected

2990-508: The Duchy of Rome was completely cut off from the Byzantine Empire, of which it was theoretically still a part. The popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks . In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Short crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead King Childeric III . Zachary's successor, Pope Stephen II , later granted Pepin the title Patrician of

3120-724: The Egyptian Pasha to the pope. A papal squadron - tartanes San Pietro and San Paolo and the mistico Fedelta - sailed across the Mediterranean, up the Nile, and back to Civitavecchia. On their return in 1841, they were welcomed by Pope Gregory XVI , who expressed interest in reviving the withered Papal Navy. In 1842, this expansion began with the launches of the 12-gun brigs San Gregorio and San Pietro e San Paolo . That same year, Cialdi led three British steamers ( Archimede , Papin , and Blasco de Garay , purchased for

3250-620: The Kingdom of Italy . Only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Pope's temporal control. In 1870, the Pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, except the Leonine City within Rome, which the new Italian state refrained from occupying militarily, despite its annexation. In 1929, the Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini , the head of the Italian government , ended

3380-672: The Manfredi in Faenza , and the Malatesta in Rimini all gave nominal acknowledgment to their papal overlords and were declared vicars of the Church. In Ferrara, the death of Azzo VIII d'Este without legitimate heirs (1308 ) encouraged Pope Clement V to bring Ferrara under his direct rule: however, it was governed by his appointed vicar, King Robert of Naples , for only nine years before

3510-691: The Ordelaffi of Forlì, the Montefeltro of Urbino and the da Polenta of Ravenna , and against the cities of Senigallia and Ancona . The last holdouts against full Papal control were Giovanni Manfredi of Faenza and Francesco II Ordelaffi of Forlì. Albornoz, at the point of being recalled, in a meeting with all the Papal vicars on 29 April 1357, promulgated the Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ , which replaced

3640-569: The Ottoman Empire by the late 15th century. The word beylik denotes a territory under the jurisdiction of a bey , equivalent to a duchy or principality in other parts of Europe. Following the 1071 Seljuk victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert and the subsequent conquest of Anatolia, Oghuz Turkic clans began settling in present-day Turkey . The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum 's central power established in Konya

3770-471: The Ottoman Empire , was situated in the northwest, around Söğüt , and was at that stage relatively small and possessed modest military power. Along the Aegean coast , from North to South, were the principalities of Karasi , Saruhan , Aydin , Menteşe , and Teke . The Candar dynasty (later also known as Isfendiyar) reigned in the Black Sea region around the provinces of Kastamonu and Sinop in what

3900-765: The San Giuseppe , San Carlo , San Ciriaco , and Nostra Signora di Loreto . In 1715, Pope Clement XI constructed the Pontifical Arsenal near Porta Portese in Ripa Grande on the Tiber. That same year, the papal fleet joined the combined Maltese and Venetian fleet, totally 67 ships, in the unsuccessful defense against the Ottoman reconquest of Morea . In July 1716, the Papal Navy - then consisting of seven galleys , four galleons , two feluccas and seven additional vessels - departed Civitavecchia to break

4030-645: The Sardinian (and later, Italian ) Navy's first steam-powered ship (the three steamers Garibaldi used in his Expedition were all merchant ships his supporters had rented, and the Archimedes was also a civilian merchant ship). In 1856, the separate Navy ( Marina da Guerra ), Finance Navy ( Marina di Finanza ), and Tiber Navy ( Marina del Tevere ) administrations were combined into the Pontifical Navy ( Marina Pontificia ). As part of his break from

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4160-542: The Second French Empire at the Battle of Sedan deprived Rome of its French protector. King Victor Emmanuel II at first aimed at a peaceful conquest of the city and proposed sending troops into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. When the pope refused, Italy declared war on 10 September 1870, and the Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna , crossed the frontier of

4290-672: The State of the Church (Italian: Stato della Chiesa [ˈstaːto della ˈkjɛːza] ; Latin: Status Ecclesiasticus ), were a conglomeration of territories on the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope from 756 to 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th century until the Unification of Italy , which took place between 1859 and 1870, and culminated in their demise. The state

4420-862: The War of the League of Cambrai , both Venetian and Spanish fleets came to Civitavecchia to reinforce Pope Julius II , the Venetian ships flying the Keys of Peter alongside the Lion of St. Mark . Following the loss of Rhodes to the Ottomans, from 1523 to 1530, the Navy of the Knights Hospitaller was stationed in Civitavecchia alongside the Papal fleet, before the Order established itself in Malta . During this time, Rome

4550-484: The close protection of the Pontiff and other dignitaries of Vatican City, as well as providing a uniformed guard of honour across the city-state . Originally protected by the Byzantine navy , the Papal States found themselves in need of a naval force of their own following a Muslim raid on Rome in 843 and the sack of the city's basilicas extra muros in 846. Under the leadership of Caesar , prince of Naples ,

4680-401: The " Prisoner in the Vatican " problem involving a unified Italy and the Holy See by negotiating the Lateran Treaty , signed by the two parties. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of the Holy See over a newly created territorial entity, a city-state within Rome limited to a token territory which became the Vatican City . The Papal States were also known as the Papal State (although

4810-492: The "rule by harlots". In practice, the popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over the extensive and mountainous territories of the Papal States, and the region preserved its old system of government, with many small countships and marquisates, each centred upon a fortified rocca . Over several campaigns in the mid-10th century, the German ruler Otto I conquered northern Italy; Pope John XII crowned him emperor (the first so crowned in more than forty years) and

4940-481: The 12 galleys of the Papal Navy (recently purchased from Venice) fought in the Battle of Lepanto , a desperate naval defense which would prove to be the decisive turning point in Europe's centuries-long naval war with the Ottoman Empire. The battle was a stunning victory for the Christian fleet. Under the command of John of Austria , the Christian fleet of 212 ships defeated the Ottoman fleet of 278 ships, sinking 70 Ottoman ships, capturing 117, and losing only 13 ships in

5070-433: The Anatolian mainland, the Anatolian beyliks spread the Turkic language and Islamic culture in Anatolia. Unlike the Seljuks, whose administrative language was Persian , the Anatolian beyliks adopted spoken Turkic as their formal literary language. The Turkish language thus achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during the Ottoman era. In spite of their limited sources and

5200-443: The Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south were both restored. Popular opposition to the reconstituted and corrupt clerical government led to revolts in 1830 and in 1848 , which were suppressed by the intervention of the Austrian army. The nationalist and liberal revolutions of 1848 affected much of Europe. In February 1849 a Roman Republic was declared, and the hitherto liberally-inclined Pope Pius IX had to flee

5330-402: The Charles V's Holy League , which numbered 398 ships (including the 366-gun Portuguese São João Baptista ) and roughly 30,000 soldiers in total. The League defeated an Ottoman fleet of 84 ships and captured the port city of Tunis . In 1541, eight galleys of the Papal Navy participated in the German-led Algiers Expedition , part of the Christian fleet of 500 ships commanded by Andrea Doria;

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5460-505: The Christian fleet also captured the port city of Smyrna in Anatolia , which remained under Christian control until 1402. After several decades of competing loyalties in Italy (the papacy was in the process of returning to Italy from France and reconstituting its control over the former papal territories) and no recorded papal fleet, in 1431 the Papal Army , led by gonfaloniere Niccolò Fortebraccio , launched an amphibious assault against Civitavecchia and recaptured it. In 1453, after

5590-411: The Christian fleet was superior - nine Ottoman galleys were captured in short order, initially without the loss of any Christian ships. As the battle progressed, a Turkish barge (which the Venetians had captured in a previous encounter) was recaptured by 60 Turkish soldiers in rowboats. The Venetian flagship advanced towards the Ottoman lines, but was struck in its magazine and exploded - the Venetian fleet

5720-451: The Crusades and outfitted some squadrons of their own, which participated with Venice and others against the Ottoman Empire . Most of the Frisian fleet en route to the Fifth Crusade wintered in Civitavecchia on their way to Egypt in 1217; 18 ships wintered in nearby Corneto as their fleet was too large to all harbor together. In 1241, amidst the Guelphs and Ghibellines War and the papal election , Emperor Frederick II dispatched

5850-419: The French king Francis I . The Spanish brigantine returned in May to carry Francis off to Madrid, where he would remain in Spanish captivity until the Spanish and the French negotiated terms in March 1526. In May 1526, a mercenary fleet commanded by Andrea Doria arrived in Civitavecchia and offered to join the Papal Navy; when Pope Clement VII and Francis I formed the League of Cognac later that month, Doria

5980-435: The French navy deemed her unserviceable and had her struck. In 1814, papal rule is restored in Rome and the provinces; in Civitavecchia, a garrison of 100 soldiers is raised and the Papal Navy builds and launches small coast guards to defend the city and the coast against resurgent piracy, but the papacy no longer has any ship capable of contesting a naval power. Pontifical ships were protected by international treaty in 1819, but

6110-430: The Great , promulgated in 321, allowed the Christian Church to possess property and restored to it any property formerly confiscated; in the larger cities of this empire the property restored would have been quite considerable, the Roman patrimony not least among them. The Lateran Palace was gifted to the patrimony, most probably from Constantine himself. Other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in

6240-449: The Italian Kingdom, especially any proposal which required the Pope to become an Italian subject. Instead, the papacy confined itself (see Prisoner in the Vatican ) to the Apostolic Palace and adjacent buildings in the loop of the ancient fortifications known as the Leonine City , on Vatican Hill . From there it maintained a number of features pertaining to sovereignty, such as diplomatic relations since in canon law these were inherent in

6370-408: The Italian State and gave rise to the myth of the Breach of Porta Pia , in reality, a tame affair involving a cannonade at close range that demolished a 1600-year-old wall in poor repair. The defence of Rome was not however bloodless, with 12 dead and 47 wounded amongst the Papal forces and 32 dead plus 145 wounded of the Italian troops. Pope Pius IX ordered the commander of the Papal forces to limit

6500-454: The Italian territory recently regained by Byzantium. By the 7th century, Byzantine authority was largely limited to a diagonal band running roughly from Ravenna , where the emperor's vicar, or exarch , was located, to Rome and south to Naples , plus coastal exclaves. North of Naples, the band of Byzantine control contracted, and the borders of the "Rome-Ravenna corridor" became extremely narrow. With effective Byzantine power weighted at

6630-448: The Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks subsequently became the basis for the administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire . In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, mostly situated towards eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) of

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6760-430: The Napoleonic occupation) into honorifics disconnected from territorial privileges. In 1853, Pius IX put an end to the centuries-old duality between the Papal nobility and the Roman baronial families by equating the civic patriciate of the city of Rome with the nobility created by the Pope. From 1814 until the death of Pope Gregory XVI in 1846, the popes followed a reactionary policy in the Papal States. For instance,

6890-417: The Ostrogoths which continued until 554 and devastated Italy's political and economic structures. Justinian established the Exarchate of Ravenna of which the Duchy of Rome , an area roughly coterminous with modern day Lazio , was an administrative division. In 568 the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north, establishing their own Italian kingdom, and over the next two centuries would conquer most of

7020-467: The Ottoman siege of Corfu ; on this occasion, the Catholic fleet was successful in repelling the Ottoman invaders. The timely arrival of four papal galleys and four papal-chartered ships-of-the-line , along with five Spanish, three Tuscan, and two Genoese galleys, prevented the Ottomans from completing their encirclement of Corfu , maintaining a pivot sea line of communication between Corfu and Christendom . In July 1717, four papal galleys fought as part of

7150-459: The Ottomans; after decades of fighting and days of negotiations, Candia fell peacefully to the Ottomans on September 5th 1669, and the war was lost. In 1684, following a visit and a blessing from Pope Innocent XI , the papal fleet of 10 galleys departed Civitavecchia to participate in the Siege of Santa Maura and the capture of Preveza Castle . In 1690, the Papal Navy departs Civitavecchia with three battalions of papal infantry, participating in

7280-533: The Papal Army ( Esercito Pontificio in Italian) comprised two regiments of locally recruited Italian infantry, two Swiss regiments and a battalion of Irish volunteers , plus artillery and dragoons . In 1861 an international Catholic volunteer corps, called Papal Zouaves after a kind of French colonial native Algerian infantry, and imitating their uniform type, was created. Predominantly made up of Dutch, French and Belgian volunteers, this corps saw service against Garibaldi 's Redshirts , Italian patriots, and finally

7410-418: The Papal Navy) to Rome for navigation on the Tiber; these were the first ships to navigate France from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, and the first steamships purchased by an Italian state. A fourth steamer, the Roma , participated during the unrest of 1848 , opposing the Austrian siege of Ancona . A fifth steamer, the San Paolo , would eventually be added, and at the time of its capture in 1860 became

7540-479: The Papal Navy. In 1597, Clement VIII visited Civitavecchia, and went on an excursion to the sea aboard the naval flagship. Upon returning to Rome, Clement VIII instructed that a lighthouse be built in Civitavecchia; in 1608, the Faro lighthouse was completed in Civitavecchia, standing 31m tall and illuminated by a tallow- and tar-fuelled fire. In 1624, three papal galleys were part of a combined Neapolitan-Tuscan-Roman fleet totaling 15 galleys, which in October surprised

7670-399: The Papal States, along with the rest of the Italian principalities, were effectively independent. From 1305 to 1378, the popes lived in the papal enclave of Avignon , surrounded by Provence and under the influence of the French kings. This period was known as the "Avignonese" or "Babylonian Captivity". During this period the city of Avignon itself and the surrounding Comtat Venaissin

7800-426: The Papal States, and in February 1798 General Louis-Alexandre Berthier declared a Roman Republic . Pope Pius VI fled from Rome to Siena and died in exile in Valence in 1799. In October 1799, Neapolitan troops under King Ferdinant invaded the newfound republic and restored Papal States, ending the republic. French quickly drove the Neapolitans out and reoccupied the Papal States, but didn't bother restoring

7930-418: The Papal fleet as the San Pietro and San Paolo . These corvettes were the first vessels in the Papal Navy to be completely propelled by sails rather than oars. Just over one month after receiving these frigates, they were sent on patrol, where they surprised and routed a band of Barbary xebecs and pinks who were preparing to attack a merchant fleet. Several months later, San Paolo intercepted and captured

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8060-401: The Papal territory expanded greatly, notably under Popes Alexander VI and Julius II . The Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers as well as the head of the Church, signing treaties with other sovereigns and fighting wars. In practice, though, most of the Papal States were still only nominally controlled by the Pope, and much of the territory was ruled by minor princes. Control

8190-447: The Pope as their sovereign ruler, or a part of the Frankish Empire over which the popes had administrative control, as suggested in the late-9th-century treatise Libellus de imperatoria potestate in urbe Roma , or whether the Holy Roman emperors were vicars of the Pope ruling Christendom , with the Pope directly responsible only for the environs of Rome and spiritual duties. The Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed when it

8320-454: The Protestants, troops loyal to Emperor Charles V brutally sacked Rome and imprisoned Pope Clement VII , as a side effect of battles over the Papal States. Thus Clement VII was forced to give up Parma , Modena , and several smaller territories. A generation later the armies of King Philip II of Spain defeated those of Pope Paul IV in the Italian War of 1551–1559 fought to prevent growing Spanish dominance in Italy. This period saw

8450-442: The Romans . Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, defeated the Lombards, thus taking control of northern Italy, and made a gift of the lands formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. In 781, Charlemagne codified the regions over which the pope would be temporal sovereign: the Duchy of Rome, Ravenna, the Duchy of the Pentapolis , parts of the Duchy of Benevento , Tuscany , Corsica , Lombardy , and

8580-437: The Seljuks in return for their fealty. However, Mongol invasions from the East saw a decline in Seljuk power which gradually deteriorated. The Ilkhanate commanders in Anatolia then gained strength and authority which encouraged the beys , who had until then been vassals to the Sultanate of Rum , to declare sovereignty over their dominions. With the fall of Seljuk centralized power in Konya, many beys joined forces with

8710-435: The Seljuks were still used, however with the influence of the pursuit for new spaces and its reflections in other arts as well. Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture are İlyas Bey Mosque at Balat (Milet) (1404), İsabey Mosque at Selçuk (1375), Ulucami Mosque at Birgi (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in

8840-441: The Spanish Duke of Alba . In 1560, the Papal Navy participated in a campaign to capture Tripoli and fought in the Battle of Djerba , part of the Christian fleet of roughly 120 commanded by Gianandrea Doria , the great-nephew of Andrea Doria. The Christian fleet lost the battle, which ended the Tripoli campaign; half of the fleet was sunk, thousands of sailors perished, and thousands of soldiers who had been landed and entrenched on

8970-418: The administration of the church from imperial interference, the independence of the Papal States increased in importance. After the extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty , the German emperors rarely interfered in Italian affairs. In response to the struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines , the Treaty of Venice made official the independence of the Papal States from the Holy Roman Empire in 1177. By 1300,

9100-421: The centralized power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum based in Konya are listed. A second group beyliks emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under the Mongol blow with the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, which had the indirect consequence of extending Turkic territory in Western Anatolia toward the end of the 13th century. Combined with the Seljuks and the migration of Turkic tribes into

9230-452: The citizens recalled the Este from exile (1317). Interdiction and excommunications were in vain because in 1332, John XXII was obliged to name three Este brothers as his vicars in Ferrara. In Rome itself, the Orsini and the Colonna struggled for supremacy, dividing the city's rioni between them. The resulting aristocratic anarchy in the city provided the setting for the fantastic dreams of universal democracy of Cola di Rienzo , who

9360-478: The city for several months until Charles reached terms with Pope Alexander VI and returned the city. In 1496, a fleet of Venetian galleys and three Spanish ships commanded by Cesare Borgia (Alexander VI's son) arrive in Civitavecchia to reinforce the papacy during a period of pro-French unrest. Alexander VI soon ordered the Papal Navy too be revived, commissioning a modest fleet to engage in coastal patrol. In 1501, six galleys were constructed at Civitavecchia. During

9490-635: The city of Rome maintained the last Jewish ghetto in Western Europe. Italian nationalism had been stoked during the Napoleonic period but dashed by the settlement of the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which sought to restore the pre-Napoleonic conditions: most of northern Italy was under the rule of junior branches of the Habsburgs and the Bourbons . The Papal States in central Italy and

9620-592: The city. The revolution was suppressed with French help in 1849 and Pius IX switched to a conservative line of government. Until his return to Rome in 1850, the Papal States were governed by a group of cardinals known as the Red Triumvirate . As a result of the Second Italian War of Independence , Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy , while Giuseppe Garibaldi overthrew the Bourbon monarchy in

9750-452: The close of the century, the early Ottoman leaders had conquered large parts of land from Karamanids and other less prominent beyliks. These had a short respite when their territories were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered against Tamerlane in 1402 in the Battle of Ankara . But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II , who reincorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in

9880-520: The defence of the city in order to avoid bloodshed. The city was captured on 20 September 1870. Rome and what was left of the Papal States were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy as a result of a plebiscite the following October. This marked the definitive end of the Papal States. Despite the fact that the traditionally Catholic powers did not come to the Pope's aid, the papacy rejected the 1871 " Law of Guarantees " and any substantial accommodation with

10010-415: The defenses of their main port city. Between 1792 and 1794, a total of 250 artillery pieces are emplaced along the city walls and manned by a greatly enlarged city garrison. By 1793, the Papal squadron at Civitavecchia consisted of three galleys, two galleots , two coast guards , four launches , eight gunboats , and a sailboat . Over the next five years, two 20-gun corvettes and a bombard were added to

10140-734: The diplomatic policies of Pope Pius IX , Leo XIII sold off the last ship in the Papal Navy, the corvette Immacolata Concezione , during his first year in office. As the papacy had already been confined to Vatican City following the capture of Rome , it had been docked at Toulon , France. Its flag and a scale model of the vessel are in the Vatican Historical Museum in the Lateran Palace , Rome. Papal States#Papal military The Papal States ( / ˈ p eɪ p ə l / PAY -pəl ; Italian : Stato Pontificio ; Latin : Dicio Pontificia ), officially

10270-556: The disastrous end of his Egyptian campaign, Napoleon donated two 16-gun brigs to Pope Pius VII and the restored Papal Navy: the somewhat aged Saint Paul , and the brand-new Saint Pierre . Under the names San Paolo and San Pietro they sat in the arsenal at Civitavecchia until 1806, when San Paolo was struck and San Pietro recaptured by Napoleon, who returned it to the French navy; it remained at Civitavecchia under French control (and under its former French name) until 1813, when

10400-642: The eastern two-thirds of the Papal States, cementing its hold on the south. Bologna, Ferrara, Umbria, the Marches, Benevento and Pontecorvo were all formally annexed by November of the same year. While considerably reduced, the Papal States nevertheless still covered the Latium and large areas northwest of Rome. A unified Kingdom of Italy was declared and in March 1861 the first Italian parliament , which met in Turin ,

10530-567: The ecstatic victory of Lepanto. 750 Christian soldiers died in the fight for Navarino, and only 1 Ottoman ship was destroyed, but - unlike in Algiers and in Djerba - the Christian fleet had remained intact, and were able to evacuate their entire landing force without abandoning anyone. At the beginning of his pontificate, Sixtus V ordered the construction of a permanent fleet of 10 triremes for

10660-607: The evening of the third day, the Ottomans withdrew; the Venetian-led fleet spent the next three months searching for their Ottoman adversary, only to learn that the Ottomans had already returned to the Dardanelles. At the beginning of Clement XI's pontificate, the papal navy is ordered to expand its patrol area to run from the Strait of Messina to Montecristo . Under Clement XI's pontificate, four new galleys were constructed:

10790-549: The expedition managed to land several thousand soldiers outside of Algiers , but severe weather sunk 150 of the fleet's ships and the expedition ended in miserable failure, with thousands killed and thousands more abandoned and enslaved in Algiers. In September 1556, the Spanish invaded and occupied the Papal States - the occupation ended one year later, with the September 1557 signing of a peace treaty between Pope Paul IV and

10920-438: The final actions of the liberation of Morea . In 1696, the Papal Navy participated in the Battle of Andros , sending a number of ships to support the combined Venetian and Maltese fleet. Over the course of three days, sporadic winds meant that both fleets spent agonizingly long interludes in clear view of the enemy fleet but unable to maneuver into a firing position, only able to attack their foes in short, opportunistic bursts. In

11050-617: The first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A second and more extensive period of establishment took place as a result of the decline of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm in the latter half of the 13th century. One of the beyliks , that of the Osmanoğlu of the Kayı branch of Oghuz Turks , from its capital in Bursa completed its incorporation of the other beyliks to form

11180-484: The fleet. In 1798, Napoleon conquered the Papal States , capturing the entire Papal fleet and pressing its ships into French service for his Egyptian campaign , where they would all be lost in the Battle of the Nile (along seventy Civitavecchian sailors). In 1799, the Sanfedismos invaded Napoleonic Rome , liberating the Papal States and restoring pontifical sovereignty over the papacy's ports. In 1802, following

11310-661: The forces of the newly united Italy. The Papal Army was disbanded in 1870, leaving only the Palatine Guard , which was itself disbanded on 14 September 1970 by Pope Paul VI ; the Noble Guard , which also disbanded in 1970; and the Swiss Guard , which continues to serve both as a ceremonial unit at the Vatican and as the Pope's protective force. A small Papal Navy was also maintained, based at Civitavecchia on

11440-514: The harbor of Modon , which failed because of the strength of the Ottoman's defenses, especially in the overlooking castle of Navarino . John of Austria then landed 5,000 soldiers and made several attempts to capture Navarino castle, but to no avail. After two weeks of sieging with no success, and learning that 20,000 Ottoman cavalry were coming to relieve Navarino, the Holy League withdrew from Navarino on October 7th 1572 - exactly one year after

11570-420: The head of Western Christianity . At their zenith, the Papal States covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio (which includes Rome ), Marche , Umbria , Romagna and portions of Emilia . The popes' reign over these lands was an exemplification of their temporal powers as secular rulers, as opposed to their ecclesiastical primacy. By 1860, much of the Papal States' territory had been conquered by

11700-571: The increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of the courtyards and minarets . Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such as Ulucami Mosque in Ermenek (1302), Hatuniye Madrassa in Karaman (1382), Akmedrese Madrassa in Niğde (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of

11830-523: The island of Djerba were besieged by the Ottomans for three months before being captured during an unsuccessful attempt to break out of the siege. None of the papal ships survived the battle. In 1571, Pope Pius V , determined to break the Ottoman fleet's grip on the Mediterranean, organized the Holy League - a military alliance between the Papal States, Spain, Venice, Genoa , the Knights of St. John, Tuscany , Savoy , Urbino , and Parma . In October 1571,

11960-569: The island, employing the ships of the Papal Navy in this effort. Pope Victor III , the immediate predecessor of Urban II , organized a fleet of 300 ships to fight the Saracens at sea; this naval war begun by Victor III would soon become a core part of the Crusades first inaugurated by Urban II, and the fight at sea between Christian and Muslim navies would continue with little reprieve for centuries. The Papal States subsidized various fleets during

12090-413: The mosaic of local law and accumulated traditional 'liberties' with a uniform code of civil law. These Constitutiones Aegidianae (as they are informally known) mark a watershed in the legal history of the Papal States; they remained in effect until 1816. Pope Urban V ventured a return to Italy in 1367 that proved premature; he returned to Avignon in 1370 just before his death. During the Renaissance ,

12220-645: The name used varied with the preferences and habits of the European languages in which it was expressed. For its first 300 years, within the Roman Empire , the Church was persecuted and unable to hold or transfer property. Early congregations met in rooms set aside for the purpose in the homes of wealthy adherents, and a number of titular churches located on the outskirts of Rome were held as property by individuals, rather than by any corporate body. Nonetheless,

12350-569: The navy only slowly recovered from the seizure of its vessels during the Napoleonic Wars . One was captured by Muslim pirates in 1826, but following a show of force by two frigates and a sloop-of-war from Piedmont under Captain Arnous, the Bey of Tripoli freed the ship with 10,600 francs compensation. By 1823, the navy comprised the newly-built 12-gun schooner San Pietro , a cutter ,

12480-524: The northeast end of this territory, the pope, as the largest landowner and most prestigious figure in Italy, began by default to take on much of the ruling authority that the Byzantines were unable to exercise in the areas surrounding the city of Rome. While the popes legally remained "Roman subjects" under Byzantine authority, in practice the Duchy of Rome became an independent state. Popular support for

12610-534: The old capital of Piedmont, declared Rome the capital of the new kingdom. However, the Italian government could not take possession of the city because a French garrison in Rome protected Pope Pius IX. The opportunity for the Kingdom of Italy to eliminate the Papal States came in 1870; the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July prompted Napoleon III to recall his garrison from Rome and the collapse of

12740-594: The papacy. In the 1920s, the papacy – then under Pius XI – renounced the bulk of the Papal States. The Lateran Treaty with Italy (then ruled by the National Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini ) was signed on 11 February 1929, creating the State of the Vatican City , forming the sovereign territory of the Holy See , which was also indemnified to some degree for loss of territory. As

12870-468: The papal territory on September 11 and advanced slowly toward Rome. The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on September 19 and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although the Pope's tiny army was incapable of defending the city, Pius IX ordered it to put up more than token resistance to emphasize that Italy was acquiring Rome by force and not consent. This incidentally served the purposes of

13000-467: The people of Acre to Cyprus . In 1334, four papal galleys fought as part of the Holy League's fleet of 34 ships at the Battle of Adramyttion , where the League ultimately sank roughly 150 Turkish ships. Ten years later, papal galleys fought as part of another Christian fleet of 24 ships in the 1344 Battle of Pallene , where they destroyed roughly 52 Turkish ships. Several months after that battle,

13130-854: The plural is usually preferred, the singular is equally correct as the polity was more than a mere personal union ). The territories were also referred to variously as the State(s) of the Church , the Pontifical States , the Ecclesiastical States , the Patrimony of St Peter or the Roman States ( Italian : Stato Pontificio , also Stato della Chiesa , Stati della Chiesa , Stati Pontifici , and Stato Ecclesiastico ; Latin : Status Pontificius , also Dicio Pontificia "papal rule"). To some extent

13260-462: The plural name Papal States indicates, the various regional components retained their identity under papal rule. The Pope was represented in each province by a governor, who bore one of a number of titles. These included " papal legate ", as in the former principality of Benevento , or at Bologna , in Romagna , and the March of Ancona ; and " papal delegate ", as in the former Duchy of Pontecorvo and in

13390-660: The political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably forming the basis for Ottoman art . Although the artistic style of the Anatolian beyliks can be considered as representatives of a transition period between Seljuks and Ottomans, new trends were also acquired. Especially wandering traditional crafts artists and architects helped spread these new trends and localized styles to several beyliks across Anatolia, which resulted in innovative and original works particularly in architecture. Wood and stone carving, clay tiles and other similar decorative arts of

13520-550: The pope accepted terms and was released - one of the conditions of this release was the pope's surrender of the ports of Ostia and Civitavecchia to the Germans. From May, the Papal Navy had been leaderless - now, with the surrender of Civitavecchia, the papal fleet was German property. Later negotiations between Clement VII and Charles V resulted in Charles V returning Civitavecchia to the Papal States on March 23rd 1529, in return for

13650-531: The pope crowning Charles V as "King of Italy" on February 22nd 1530 and "Holy Roman Emperor" two days later; these negotiations also resulted in Charles V giving Malta to the Knights of St. John, beginning Hospitaller rule in Malta . In 1532, the papal navy sent its 12 galleys to the Aegean Sea to support a Spanish-Genoese fleet of 48 galleys and 35 vessels. In 1535, the papal navy again supplied its 12 galleys to

13780-605: The pope relied mainly on diplomacy to achieve as much. In practice, these papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch and Ravenna. A climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries contained in the Lombardic King Liutprand 's Donation of Sutri (728) to Pope Gregory II . When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751,

13910-529: The popes in Italy enabled several to defy the will of the Byzantine emperor: Pope Gregory II excommunicated Emperor Leo III during the Iconoclastic Controversy . Nevertheless, the Pope and the exarch still worked together to limit the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the papacy assumed an ever-larger role in protecting Rome from the Lombards, but lacking direct control over sizable military assets,

14040-494: The process. Roughly 10,000 Christian soldiers and sailors were killed, compared to roughly 20,000 Ottomans. Though the Ottoman fleet was fully rebuilt within half a year of the battle, the Ottomans never again threatened European control of the western Mediterranean. After almost a year of internal squabbling, the Holy League attempted to repeat their success in September 1572 by besieging the new Ottoman fleet at Navarino . The Christian fleet made several unsuccessful attempts to enter

14170-552: The property held nominally or actually by individual members of the Roman churches would usually be treated as a common patrimony handed over successively to the legitimate "heir" of that property, often its senior deacons , who were, in turn, assistants to the local bishop. This common patrimony became quite considerable, including as it did not only houses etc. in Rome or nearby but also landed estates, such as latifundia , whole or in part, across Italy and beyond. A law of Constantine

14300-611: The provinces of the Roman Empire. However, the Roman Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, not as a sovereign entity. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the papacy found itself increasingly placed in a precarious and vulnerable position. As central Roman authority disintegrated throughout the late 5th century, control over the Italian peninsula repeatedly changed hands, falling under

14430-512: The rebirth of ancient Rome was one that would not prevail." The Rienzo episode engendered renewed attempts from the absentee papacy to re-establish order in the dissolving Papal States, resulting in the military progress of Cardinal Albornoz , who was appointed papal legate, and his condottieri heading a small mercenary army. Having received the support of the archbishop of Milan, Giovanni Visconti , he defeated Giovanni di Vico , lord of Viterbo , moving against Galeotto Malatesta of Rimini and

14560-547: The republic, as they continued their invasion to Naples, where they established another republic . In June 1800, French Consulate formally concluded the occupation and restored the Papal States, with the newly elected Pope Pius VII taking residence in Rome. Yet, in 1808 the French Empire under Napoleon invaded again, and this time on 17 May 1809 the remainder of the States of the Church were annexed to France, forming

14690-468: The south. Afraid that Garibaldi would set up a republican government, the Piedmontese government petitioned French Emperor Napoleon III for permission to send troops through the Papal States to gain control of the south. This was granted on the condition that Rome be left undisturbed. In 1860, with much of the region already in rebellion against Papal rule, Piedmont-Sardinia invaded and conquered

14820-658: The temporal territories of the Papacy as well as the Roman Church in general. In 1791 an election in Comtat Venaissin and Avignon was followed by occupation by Revolutionary France. Later, with the French invasion of Italy in 1796, the Legations (the Papal States' northern territories ) were seized and became part of the Cisalpine Republic . Two years later, French forces invaded the remaining area of

14950-641: The threat of Ottoman raiders. After the death of Innocent X, the conclave decided to increase the papal fleet and dispatch it to defend the Kingdom of Candia on Crete , which was then in the midst of war with the Ottomans and at serious risk of collapse. In 1657, another papal fleet was sent to Candia, where it fought in the Fourth Battle of the Dardanelles alongside the Venetians and the Maltese. 67 Christian ships faced 47 Ottoman ships, and initially

15080-604: The time were thought to be the strongest. Towards the end of the 14th century, the Ottomans advanced further into Anatolia either through the acquisition of towns or by cementing marriage alliances. Meanwhile, wary of an increase in Ottoman regional power, the Karamanids repeatedly engaged in conflict with the Ottomans with the help of other beyliks, Mamluks , Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans"), Byzantines , Pontics and Hungarians , failing and losing power every time. By

15210-609: The two of them ratified the Diploma Ottonianum , by which the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the Papal States. Yet over the next two centuries, popes and emperors squabbled over a variety of issues, and the German rulers routinely treated the Papal States as part of their realms on those occasions when they projected power into Northern and Central Italy. As the Gregorian Reform worked to free

15340-505: The west coast and Ancona on the east. With the fall of the Papal States in 1870, the last ships of the flotilla were sailed to France, where they were sold after the death of Pius IX. Anatolian beyliks Anatolian beyliks ( Turkish : Anadolu beylikleri , Ottoman Turkish : Tavâif-i mülûk , Beylik ; Turkish pronunciation: [bejlic] ) were small principalities (or petty kingdoms ) in Anatolia governed by beys ,

15470-521: Was acclaimed Tribune of the People in 1347, and met a violent death in early October 1354 as he was assassinated by supporters of the Colonna family. To many, rather than an ancient Roman tribune reborn, he had become just another tyrant using the rhetoric of Roman renewal and rebirth to mask his grab for power. As Guido Ruggiero states, "even with the support of Petrarch , his return to first times and

15600-691: Was added to the Papal States; it remained a papal possession for some 400 years even after the popes returned to Rome, until it was seized and incorporated into the French state during the French Revolution . During the Avignon Papacy , local despots took advantage of the absence of the popes to establish themselves in nominally papal cities: the Pepoli in Bologna, the Ordelaffi in Forlì ,

15730-411: Was always contested; indeed it took until the 16th century for the Pope to have any genuine control over all his territories. Papal responsibilities were often in conflict. The Papal States were involved in at least three wars in the first two decades of the 16th century. Julius II, the "Warrior Pope", fought on their behalf. The Reformation began in 1517. In 1527, before the Holy Roman Empire fought

15860-471: Was beset with violence and tumult due to the ongoing Italian Wars , with Germany , France , Spain , the Italian states , and other powers all vying for control over Italy and the central Mediterranean. In February 1525, a Spanish brigantine departed from Civitavecchia for mainland France to negotiate terms with the French; the Spanish and the Germans had just defeated the French in the Battle of Pavia days earlier, capturing several French nobles, including

15990-402: Was confined to coastal patrol. In 1786, the Papal States created the "Truppa di Finanza," the nascent "Guardia di Finanza Pontificia" (Papal Finance Guard), and launched four feluccas in Civitavecchia that same year for the Finance Guard to use for maritime enforcement. In 1791, two prison revolts are attempted in Civitavecchia; both are suppressed, but they cause the Papal government to consider

16120-461: Was largely as a result of using these clans under appointed beys called uç bey or uj begi (especially in border areas to ensure safety against the Byzantines); uç is a Turkish term that denotes a border or frontier territory equivalent to marches , with the similar term margrave used in other parts of Europe. These clans, led by beys , would receive military and financial support from

16250-419: Was legally established in the 8th century when Pepin the Short , king of the Franks , gifted Pope Stephen II , as a temporal sovereign, lands formerly held by Arian Lombards , adding them to lands and other real estate formerly acquired and held by the bishops of Rome, as landlords , from the time of Constantine onward. This donation came about as part of a process whereby the popes began to turn away from

16380-559: Was made commander of the League's (mostly French) naval forces until June 1528, when he defected and was made the grand admiral of Charles V 's Imperial Navy - though by this time the Papal Navy was no longer involved in the war. On May 6th 1527, the Imperial Army sacked Rome and besieged Clement VII in Castel Sant'Angelo , capturing him one month later on June 5th. The pope was a prisoner of Charles V until November 26th, when

16510-472: Was sent to Candia, where it participated in the alliance's seizure of the island fort St. Marina - which would turn out to be the alliance's last victory of the war. In 1669 another papal fleet of seven galleys was sent to Candia, to support a final Franco-Maltese fleet attempting to lift the siege of the Realm. On August 27th, Francesco Morosini decided that the city could no longer be held, and sought terms from

16640-407: Was subdivided among Charlemagne 's grandchildren. Imperial power in Italy waned and the papacy's prestige declined. This led to a rise in the power of the local Roman nobility, and the control of the Papal States during the early 10th century passed to a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti . This period was later dubbed the Saeculum obscurum ("dark age"), and sometimes as

16770-415: Was the Beylik of Candar. Under its eponymous founder, Osman I , the Beylik of Osman expanded at Byzantine expense westwards and southwards of the Sea of Marmara in the first decades of the 14th century. With their annexation of the neighboring Beylik of Karasi and their advance into Rumelia starting in 1354, they soon gained strength to emerge as the principal rivals of the Beylik of Karaman , who at

16900-414: Was totally demoralized, and immediately withdrew. The day after the defeat, the Venetian fleet withdrew to Bozcaada ; the Maltese and the Romans withdrew three days later, sailing back to their home ports. In May 1667, Candia was brought under intense siege by the Ottomans, and the situation grew even more dire; more papal ships were sent to Candia to assist the Venetian-led fleet. In 1668 another papal fleet

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