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117-569: In Tamil folklore, Kannagi has been deified as the symbol – sometimes as a goddess – of chastity, with sculptures or reliefs in Hindu temples iconographically reminding the visitor of her breaking her anklet or tearing her bleeding breast and throwing it at the city. The Kannagi story first appears in the Sangam era poem Narrinai 312 . A more extended version appears in the Cilappatikāram . Kannagi

234-421: A Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi . She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā ( Chamunda ), i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda . Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit. The goddess has two depictions: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In both, she is described as being black in colour, though she

351-539: A japa mala or rosary for repetition of mantras ) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari . Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism , and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras . She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond

468-591: A talai , while the line is referred to as the ati . The sutras of the Tolkappiyam – particularly after sutra 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry. The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by Kuruntokai : Traditional ciṟuveḷ ḷaravi ṉavvarik kuruḷai kāṉa yāṉai aṇaṅki yāaṅ kiḷaiyaṇ muḷaivā ḷeyiṟṟaḷ vaḷaiyuṭaik kaiyaḷem maṇaṅki yōḷē – Kuruntokai 119 , Author: Catti Nataanr The prosodic pattern in this poem follows

585-453: A Khadga (crescent-shaped sword or a giant sickle), a trishul (trident), a severed head, and a bowl or skull-cup ( kapāla ) collecting the blood of the severed head. This is the form of Bhima Kali. Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain moksha . The other two hands (usually

702-741: A corpse and holds a freshly cut head and a plate to collect the dripping blood. She is worshipped by warriors, tantrics – the followers of Tantra . Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include Raksha Kali (form of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali, Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, Siddhi Kali , Dakshina Kali, Rakta Kali , Bhadra Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali. In Gujarat , Khodiyar

819-531: A description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Vishnu , Murugan and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in

936-553: A different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she is greatly offended. Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden one. Her dark sheath becomes Kaushiki , who while enraged, creates Kali. In the Devi Bhagavata Purana , Kali turns black out of rage, while battling the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha . In Kāli's most famous legend, Durga and her assistants,

1053-637: A fine edition of Tirukkuṟaḷ by 1860. Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize Shaiva Hinduism against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and Shaiva literature to wider attention. He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 ( Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai , one of the Ten Idylls ). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on Tolkappiyam . C.W. Damodaram Pillai , also from Jaffna ,

1170-415: A hair of his Shakti [his energy/female companion] in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant. The Karpuradi-stotra , dated to approximately 10th century CE, clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva . Here, she is identified as the supreme mother of the universe, associated with

1287-463: A lamp lit with sea water. The boys, fearing she was a witch, sought help from the village. When the villagers arrived, Kannagi asked one of the boys to comb her hair, revealing a miraculous sight of 1,000 eyes in her head. She then ascended to heaven, declaring herself as Kannagi of Poompuhar and instructed the villagers to perform the same ritual each year on the day of Vaikasi. This tradition continues today, with both Sinhalese and Tamils participating in

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1404-423: A mudra saying "fear not" ( abhayamudra ), the other conferring boons. Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego ( tamas ), represented by the severed head. One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the rajasic nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing sattvic ) nature of the teeth. Her blackness represents that she

1521-653: A part of Ettuttokai ): These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and Classical literature should be used instead. According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman,

1638-467: A patty on a wall, she stood in the alidha pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was looking for. Krishnananda Agamavagisha was also the guru of the Kali devotee and poet Ramprasad Sen . Samhara Kali, also called Vama Kali, is the embodiment of

1755-452: A scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia. The first has roots in the Hindu deity Shiva , his son Murugan , Kubera as well as 545 sages including the famed Rigvedic poet Agastya . The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and

1872-470: A window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era Ainkurunuru poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households. The Pattinappalai poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints

1989-464: Is nirguna , beyond all qualities of nature, and transcendent. Kali's lolling tongue is interpreted as her being angry, enraged; while many in India interpret it as "biting the tongue" in shame. The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act

2106-542: Is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies ( Ettuthokai ) in the Sangam literature. According to Tolkappiyam , Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love ( akapporul ) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys

2223-909: Is a corpse—unable to act. Kali could be considered a general concept, like Durga, and is primarily worshipped in the Kali Kula sect of worship. The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or Bhadrakali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). Kali is worshipped as one of the 10 Mahavidya forms of Adi Parashakti. One mantra for worship to Kali is: सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥ ॐ जयंती मंगला काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा क्षमा शिवा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तु‍ते ॥ Sarvamangal-māngalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē. Śaraṇyē tryambakē Gauri nārāyaṇi namō'stu tē. Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . Durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stu‍tē. ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी । सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।। In fact, chanting of Mahishasura Mardhini

2340-497: Is a daily ritual in all Hindu Bengali homes especially during Navratri / Durga Pujo as it is called. The chant of the first chapter of Durga Saptashati is considered a very important hymn to Sri Mahakali as Devi Mahatmyam / Durga Saptashati dates back to the Upanishadic Era of Indological literature. Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning

2457-427: Is a devotional view. According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee who falls at [Kali's] feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in hopes of gaining moksha by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in reverence. The popularity of

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2574-689: Is a major goddess in Hinduism , primarily associated with time, death and destruction. The origins of Kali can be traced to the pre-Vedic and Vedic era Goddess worship traditions in Ancient India . Kali is the first of the ten Mahavidyas in the Hindu tantric tradition and is the supreme deity in the Kalikula worship tradition. The first major appearance of Kali in the Sanskrit literature

2691-464: Is a regional form of Mahakali . Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion. There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing, one in

2808-453: Is an example of mutual love poetry. Similar tiṇai s pertain to puram poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: vetchi (cattle raid), vanchi (invasion, preparation for war), kanchi (tragedy), ulinai (siege), tumpai (battle), vakai (victory), paataan (elegy and praise), karanthai , and pothuviyal . The akam poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves

2925-517: Is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set. These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), pastoral forests; marutam (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; neytal (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; pālai (பாலை) arid. In addition to the landscape based tiṇai s, for akam poetry, ain-tinai (well matched, mutual love), kaikkilai (ill matched, one sided), and perunthinai (unsuited, big genre) categories are used. The Ainkurunuru – 500 short poems anthology –

3042-451: Is because Kali likes devotees who have childlike qualities in them. The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia. Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva

3159-519: Is broadly classified into akam ( அகம் , inner), and puram ( புறம் , outer). The akam poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. The puram poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life. Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is akam themed, and about one fourth is puram . Sangam literature, both akam and puram , can be subclassified into seven minor genre called tiṇai (திணை). This minor genre

3276-420: Is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes, wearing a tiger skin sari and a garland of human heads . She immediately defeats the two asuras. Later in the same battle, the asura Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach

3393-545: Is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva. The Kalika Purana describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful". Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows: Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously

3510-408: Is distinct from kāla (black), but these became associated through popular etymology . Kali is then understood as "she who is the ruler of time", or "she who is black". Kālī is the goddess of time or death and the consort of Shiva. She is called Kali Mata ("the dark mother") and also kālī , which can be read here either as a proper name or as a description: "the dark (or black) one". Although

3627-597: Is identified as the month of Mariamman's veneration in Tamil Nadu . However, several temples, like Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvottiyur , still commemorate the goddess as Kannaki Amman. Mathura Kaliamman Temple, Siruvachur and the Mangala Devi Kannagi Temple in Idukki district are the other few temples where their connection with Kannaki is still remembered. The Kannaki cult, perhaps initiated by

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3744-417: Is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius." The Sangam literature offers

3861-401: Is often seen as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and rage. Her hair is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads . Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger skin. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on

3978-649: Is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman . It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali, signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time (which is interpreted also as Death ), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of

4095-405: Is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face. She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of Aum from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken on. There are several interpretations of

4212-473: Is the acai (metreme ), itself of two types – ner and nirai . The ner is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the nirai is the unstressed/short syllable combination ( pyrrhic (dibrach) and iambic ) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition. The acai in the Sangam poems are combined to form a cir (foot), while the cir are connected to form

4329-606: Is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to Sanskrit , and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient Madurai (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil. On their significance, Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan , "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there

4446-400: Is the prevalent interpretation among Odia Hindus . The biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of lajja or modesty, an expression that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali. In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common among Bengalis." The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This

4563-594: Is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the Mahabharata into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam". According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of

4680-419: Is typically shown with her right foot on Shiva 's chest—while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by non-householders. The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons. Vishnu confronted Kali in an attempt to cool her down. She was unable to see beyond

4797-541: The Devi Mahatmyam , Kali is depicted as being fierce, clad in a tiger's skin and armed with a sword and noose. She has deep, red eyes with tongue lolling out as she catches drops of Raktabīja's blood before they fall to the ground and create duplicates. Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain. In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as

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4914-758: The Chera dynasty of Kerala , is still preserved in the form of the Bhagavati cult. The famous Bhagavati Temple at Kodungallur , which was the former capital of Cheras, remembers its ancient interaction with the Kannaki cult in its Sthala Puranam. Though the deity of the temple is still observed as Bhadra Kali , she is often praised by the devotees as Kannaki and Muthumari in Kodungallur. Attukal Bhagavati Temple , Moothanthara Karnaki Amman Temple and so many Goddess Bhagavati temples are believed to be located on

5031-692: The Cilappatikāram and see her as an avatar of the Buddha . She was born as a mango in the garden of the Pandyan king. She was neglected by him and kept in a boat at sea and grew up in Chola country . She eventually slew the evil Pandyan king and was hired as one of the guardian gods of Lanka by the Buddha. The grant festival of Sri Lanka, the Esala Perahera , initially included only Kannaki, Vishnu , Kataragama , and Natha . The holy tooth relic of Buddha

5148-460: The Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept:

5265-599: The Mahabharata , Kama, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India. One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of Benares ", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets. Some of the Paripaatal love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals ( Magh Mela ) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming

5382-613: The Mahadevi . In the Mahanirvana-tantra , Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial ṥakti , and in one passage Shiva praises her: At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla [Time] Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [an epithet of Lord Shiva], and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli,

5499-458: The Matrikas , wound the demon Raktabīja , in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that drips from Raktabīja, he reproduces a duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates. Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons. This episode is described in

5616-560: The South Indian state of Kerala . Keralites believe Kannaki to be an incarnation of the goddess Bhadrakali , who reached Kodungallur and attained salvation in the Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple . the Cilappatikāram , and its sequel, Maṇimēkalai , offer evidence that Kannaki was praised as a goddess even during the lifetime of Maṇimēkalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. Cilappatikāram tells about

5733-479: The Velir . The evidence on the early history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data. The fourfold Vedic system of caste hierarchy did not exist during the Sangam period. The society was organised by occupational groups living apart from each other. The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. According to Nilakanta Sastri,

5850-587: The 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work. Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. One of the early loan words, for example, is acarya– from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as aciriyan (priest, teacher, scholar), aciriyam or akavar or akaval or akavu (a poetic meter). The Sangam poetry focuses on

5967-412: The 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to akaval , also called aciriyam , Sangam meter rule:  = – / = – / – = / = –  – – / – – / = – / – –  = – / = – / = –  = = / – = / = – / – – Note: "=" is a ner , while "–" is a nirai in Tamil terminology. A literal translation of Kuruntokai 119 : little-white-snake of lovely-striped young-body jungle elephant troubling like

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6084-585: The Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections"), the Pathuppaattu anthology (the "Ten Songs"). The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, after c.  250 CE but before c.  600 CE – is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature. This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of

6201-549: The Kali meter in Kalittokai and the mixed Paripatal meter in Paripatal . The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as Arumuka Navalar (1822–1879), C.W. Damodaram Pillai (1832–1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar (1855–1942). Arumuka Navalar from Jaffna first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing

6318-508: The Kannaki worship of another Pandyan King "Vetrivel Cheliyan", for relieving the land from the drought and curse of her on Pandya Nadu . Kannaki Amman's worship involves her identification with the Dravidian folk religion 's rain goddess, Mariamman . Cilappatikāram states that Mariamman is none other than Kannaki by stating that Kannaki burnt Madurai on the Friday of the Ādi month. which

6435-400: The Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza. The metrical patterns within the akaval meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations. The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4). The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as

6552-469: The Sanskritic traditions. Her most well-known appearance is on the battlefield in the sixth century text Devi Mahatmyam . The deity of the first chapter of Devi Mahatmyam is Mahakali, who appears from the body of sleeping Vishnu as goddess Yoga Nidra to wake him up in order to protect Brahma and the world from two asuras (demons), Madhu-Kaitabha . When Vishnu woke up he started a war against

6669-401: The Supreme god of Tamils where as Skanda was considered young and a personal god of Tamils . Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam . Tolkappiyar Mentions Mayon first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions. The Paripādal ( Tamil : பரிபாடல் , meaning the paripadal-metre anthology )

6786-468: The area known as southern India today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of Tamil Nadu , Kerala , parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka . Sri Lanka is distinguished from it and is known as Ilam or Eelam , although also influenced by the Sangam Period. In Indian history, the Sangam period or age ( Tamil :  சங்ககாலம் , caṅkakālam ) is the period of

6903-431: The beginning of Christ era. The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the monasteries of Hinduism , near Kumbakonam , by colonial-era scholars in the late nineteenth century. The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises an Urtext of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam),

7020-431: The calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular dakṣiṇācāra ("right-hand path"), as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive vamachara ("left-hand path"). These serpents and jackals are shown to drink Raktabīja 's blood as it drips out of his head while the goddess carries the head in her hand, preventing it from falling on the ground. In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she

7137-573: The consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the Pancatattva ritual, the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation. This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi-stotra , short praise of Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her, performed on cremation grounds . ( Samahana-sadhana ); He, O Mahākāli who in

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7254-401: The context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their oral tradition . The puram poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi. The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse. The two meters found in the early poetry are akaval and vanci . The fundamental metrical unit in these

7371-500: The covering of Maya since she is pure ( nirguna ) being-consciousness-bliss and far above Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her. Mahakali ( Sanskrit : Mahākālī, Devanagari : महाकाली, Bengali : মহাকালী, Gujarati : મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali",

7488-401: The cremation-ground, who wear skull garland and skirt of bones and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. Oh Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of

7605-509: The culture and people. It is religious as well as non-religious, as there are several mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of Paripaatal in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu , Durga and Murugan . Similarly, the 150 poems of Kalittokai – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Krishna, Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of

7722-450: The damage she had done, her blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by receiving her foot on his chest. There are many different interpretations of the pose held by Dakshinakali, including those of the 18th and 19th-century bhakti poet-devotees such as Ramprasad Sen . Some have to do with battle imagery and tantric metaphysics. The most popular

7839-410: The distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the sadhaka of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death. Kali is a central figure in late medieval Bengal devotional literature, with such notable devotee poets as Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (1769–1821), Ramprasad Sen (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva 's consort, Kāli

7956-528: The eighth century CE – describes this legend. The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in Tirupputtur Tantakam by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century Tiruvilaiyatal puranam by Perumparrap Nampi. The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later

8073-522: The festival by offering Pongal and lighting sea water lamps. King Gajabahu I recognized Kannagi as Pattini, making her a guardian deity of Sri Lanka for both communities. Sri Lankan beliefs on Kannaki are intermediate to Cilappatikāram and common Sri Lankan Beliefs. Eastern Sri Lankan and Vanni Tamils praises her as "Kannakai Amman". There are so many evidences in Yalpana Vaipava Malai , chronicle of Jaffna Kingdom confirms that Kannaki

8190-618: The festival. The festival days differ from temple to temple from three days to seven days. At the end of the festival, the sanctum of Kannaki temple is closed and it will be only opened when the nest Cadangu begins. Although the hierophant of Kannaki is fully transformed into the Bhagavati and Mariamman cult in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, respectively, Sri Lanka still preserves the Kannaki cult in its own form. The [Sinhalese praise her as Pattini. Their stories of that goddess also differ from those of

8307-523: The first episode of the Devi Mahatmya . Here, she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti . Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored. Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which varies in different accounts, but each of these represents the power of one of

8424-456: The five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation. In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer

8541-536: The fragrance; among the stones, you are the diamond; in speech, truth; among virtues, you are love; in valour—strength; in the Veda, you are the secret; among elements, the primordial; in the burning sun, the light; in moonshine, its sweetness; you are all, and you are the substance and meaning of all. To Seyyon ( Skandha ): We pray you not for wealth, not for gold, not for pleasure; But for your grace, for love, for virtue, these three, O god with

8658-488: The gift given to a priest before performing a ritual or to one's guru. Such gifts are traditionally given with the right hand. Dakshinakali's two right hands are usually depicted in gestures of blessing and giving of boons. One version of the origin of her name comes from the story of Yama , lord of death, who lives in the south ( dakshina ). When Yama heard Kali's name, he fled in terror, and so those who worship Kali are said to be able to overcome death itself. Dakshinakali

8775-573: The ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury". Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The Linga Purana describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura Daruka , who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body, reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The Vamana Purana has

8892-405: The historical Sangam literature era, also called the Sangam period , spanned from c.  300 BCE to 300 CE, while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil , a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on

9009-425: The history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala (then known as Tamilakam ), and parts of Sri Lanka from c.  300 BCE to 300 CE. It was named after the literature of poets and scholars of the legendary Sangam academies centered in the city of Madurai . In the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of Pandya , Chola and Chera , and a few independent chieftains,

9126-597: The journey of Kannaki to Chera Nadu ( Kerala ) after the burning of Madurai. According to folklore, after the burning of Madurai, Kannagi traveled to Kerala and eventually arrived at the island of Pungudutheevu, near the ancient Manipallavam, now known as Nainativu. She visited approximately 25 sites in Sri Lanka, mostly along the east coast, and finally reached Vattapalai. Disguised as an old woman, she asked some boys herding buffaloes for food. They offered her Pongal made from buffalo milk instead of cow milk. She then requested

9243-493: The king who established just rule; the king was warned by priests that royal injustice would lead to divine punishment; and handing over of a royal scepter , Sengol denoting decree to rule fairly, finds mention in texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai. Kali Traditional Kali ( / ˈ k ɑː l iː / ; Sanskrit : काली , IAST : Kālī ), also called Kalika ,

9360-479: The king's court, broke open the anklet seized from Kovalan and showed that it contained rubies , as opposed to the queen's anklets which contained pearls . Realizing the error, the king committed suicide in shame, after having caused such a huge miscarriage of justice. Kannagi uttered a curse that the entire city of Madurai be burnt. The capital city of the Pandyas was set ablaze, resulting in huge losses. However, at

9477-625: The known Sangam literature, with Kapilar – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus. These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long. The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love ( akam ) and war ( puram ), with the exception of the shorter poems such as in Paripaatal which is more religious and praise Vishnu and Murugan . The Sangam literature also includes Buddhist and Jainist epics. Sangam literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman,

9594-516: The leadership of Navalar . Kannaki is mainly praised once in a year during the Vaikasi month (May–June) of Tamil Calendar in Batticaloa and Ampara Districts. The Festival is called Catangu and Katavu Tirattal. Kalyanak Kāl Naduthal (Planting Wedding Pillar), Vaḻakkurai Pāduthal (Reciting the verses of " Kannaki Vaḻkkurai "), Kulirthi Paaduthal ("Singing Cooling verses") are common rituals of

9711-459: The limitless power of her rage and Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless destruction. Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for

9828-400: The linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the colophons . But such an early dating was heavily called into question by scholars such as Herman Tieken and David Schulman and several others as they argue that there is no strong evidence for such an earlier dating and sangam literature most likely was composed somewhere around 5th century CE and after rather than at

9945-861: The monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted. There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature. Aiyar published his first print of the Ten Idylls in 1889. Together, these scholars printed and published Kalittokai (1887), Tholkappiyam , Nachinarkiniyar Urai (1895), Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai (1868), Manimekalai (1898), Silappatikaram (1889), Pattuppāṭṭu (1889), Patiṟṟuppattu (1889). Puṟanāṉūṟu (1894), Aiṅkurunūṟu (1903), Kuṟuntokai (1915), Naṟṟiṇai (1915), Paripāṭal (1918) and Akanāṉūṟu (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems. The Sangam literature

10062-891: The most mentioned god in the Sangam literature. Cēyōṉ "the red one", who is identified with Murugan , whose name is literally Murukaṉ "the youth" in the Tolkāppiyam ; Extant Sangam literature works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils." There are no Mentions of Shaivism in Tolkappiyam . Shiva and Brahma are said to be forms Of Maha Vishnu and considers Vishnu as The Supreme god in Paripāṭal . There are two poems depicted as example of Bhakti in Ancient Tamil Nadu , one in

10179-483: The nature of reality as are the male deities. Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva 's wisdom in the form of Tantras , it is Kali who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals. In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The Nirvana-tantra says the gods Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in

10296-487: The noble ones' ( Tamil : சான்றோர் செய்யுள், Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ ), connotes the early classical Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India . The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three legendary literary gatherings around Madurai and Kapāṭapuram: the first lasted over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years. Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical. Most scholars suggest

10413-740: The original form of all things, and because of Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [the Primordial One]. Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art. The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and

10530-419: The poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers. At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions. The available literature from this period

10647-507: The power of destruction. The chief goddess of Tantric texts, Samhara Kali is the most dangerous and powerful form of Kali. Samhara Kali takes form when Kali steps out with her left foot holding her sword in her right hand. She is the Kali of death, destruction and is worshipped by tantrics. As Samhara Kali she gives death and liberation. According to the Mahakala Samhita, Samhara Kali is two armed and black in complexion. She stands on

10764-421: The powers of the various Gods come only through her grace . The name Mahakali , when kali is rendered to mean "black", translates to Japanese as Daikoku (大黒) . Dakshinakali is the most popular form of Kali in Bengal. She is the benevolent mother, who protects her devotees and children from mishaps and misfortunes. There are various versions for the origin of the name Dakshinakali . Dakshina refers to

10881-413: The praise of Maha Vishnu and other of Murugan To Tirumal ( Maha Vishnu ): தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ; பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ; கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ; சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ; அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ; மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ; வேதத்து மறை நீ; பூதத்து முதலும் நீ; வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ; திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ; அனைத்தும் நீ; அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ; In fire, you are the heat; in blossoms,

10998-413: The precious anklet of Kannagi. Madurai was ruled by the Pandyan king Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ I . When Kovalan tried to sell the anklet, it was mistaken for a stolen anklet of the queen. Kovalan was accused of having stolen the anklet and was immediately beheaded by the king without trial. When Kannagi was informed of this, she became furious, and set out to prove her husband's innocence to the king. Kannagi came to

11115-408: The prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry". The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as caṅka ilakkiyam or "Sangam age poetry". In Old Tamil language , the term Tamilakam ( Tamiḻakam , Purananuru 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area, corresponding roughly to

11232-631: The request of the goddess Meenakshi , she calmed down and later attained salvation. The story forms the crux of the Cilappatikāram . As Kannaki Amman , she is eulogized as the epitome of chastity and is worshiped as a goddess in select regions. She is worshiped as a goddess Pattini in Sri Lanka in Sinhalese Buddhism , and as Kannaki Amman by the Sri Lankan Tamil people , and as Kodungallur Bhagavati and Attukal Bhagavati in

11349-461: The rich garland of kaṭampu flowers with rolling clusters! – Pari. v.: 78–81 The other gods also referred to in the Tolkappiyam are Vēntaṉ "the sovereign" (identified with Indra ) and Korravai "the victorious" (identified with Durga ) and Varunan "the sea god". The Sangam literature also emphasized on fair governance by Kings, who were often described as Sengol-valavan,

11466-402: The right) are in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras , which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter. This is the form of Dakshina Kali. She wears a garland of human heads , variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on

11583-594: The sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini-tantra , Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas (manifestations of Mahadevi , or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form ( svarupa ) of

11700-565: The significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture. Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil Literature . Ancient Tamils Primarily followed Vaishnavism (Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) and Kaumaram (who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According to Kamil Zvelebil , Vishnu was considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and

11817-690: The symbolism behind the commonly represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes purusha , the universal unchanging aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents Prakriti , nature or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life. The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality. A tantric interpretation sees Shiva as consciousness and Kali as power or energy. Consciousness and energy are dependent upon each other, since Shiva depends on Shakti, or energy, in order to fulfill his role in creation, preservation, and destruction. In this view, without Shakti, Shiva

11934-493: The two asuras. After a long battle with Vishnu, the two demons were undefeated and Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras. When Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them. In later chapters, the story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be found. Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Kaushiki . Kaushiki responds with such anger that it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing out of her forehead. Kali's appearance

12051-549: The ultimate reality or Brahman . She is also seen as the divine protector and bestower of moksha (liberation). Worshipped throughout South Asia but particularly in Nepal, Southern India, Bengal, and Assam, Kali is a central figure in the goddess-centric traditions of Hinduism as well as in Shaivism . The term Kali is derived from Kala , which is mentioned quite differently in Sanskrit . The homonym kālá (time)

12168-590: The universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of Tamilakam .The Earliest verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the Supreme god of Tamils . He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma ) during the Sangam age . He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature and considered as

12285-704: The word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda , the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7). Kali originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably connected to the Pre-Aryan period. According to Indologist Wendy Doniger , Kali's origins can be traced to the deities of the Pre-Vedic village, tribal, and mountain cultures of South Asia who were gradually appropriated and transformed by

12402-470: The worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is often attributed to Krishnananda Agamavagisha . He was a noted 17th-century Bengali Tantra thinker and author of Tantrasara . Devi Kali reportedly appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties. While placing

12519-496: The young-girl sprouts-brightness toothed-female bangle(s) possessing hand(s)-female" – Translator: Kamil Zvelebil English interpretation and translation of Kuruntokai 119 : As a little white snake with lovely stripes on its young body troubles the jungle elephant this slip of a girl her teeth like sprouts of new rice her wrists stacked with bangles troubles me. – Creative translator: A.K. Ramanujan (1967) This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives

12636-755: Was also popular during the rule of the Aryacakravarti dynasty (1215–1624) in Northern Sri Lanka . The author of the Sri Lankan epic on Kannaki equivalent to the Cilappatikāram , the Kannaki Vaḻakkurai , recited in eastern Kannaki Amman temples, is believed to be written by the Jaffna king Jeyaveera Cinkaiariyan (1380–1410). The Kannagi cult was especially popular among the coastal folk who considered her as their guardian deity since she

12753-545: Was annexed in the procession during the period of Kirti Sri Rajasinha of Kandy Kingdom. (1747 - 1782) according to the request of Upali Thera, a Buddhist monk from Konbaung Burma . Polkeliya "coconut fight", Gammaduwa "village rituals", and ankeliya "horn play" are the main three aspects of the Pattini cult. There are well-known devales at Kandy , Nawagamuwa and Panama for Pattini Deviyo. A Tamil epic film Kannagi directed by R. S. Mani released in 1942. This

12870-622: Was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku ("Eighteen Greater Texts") comprising Ettuthogai (or Ettuttokai , "Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppāṭṭu ("Ten Idylls") and Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku ("Eighteen Lesser Texts"). According to Takanobu Takahashi , the compilation of Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku poems are as follows: The compilation of poems from Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku are as follows: Sangam literature

12987-528: Was in the sixth-century CE text Devi Mahatmya . Kali appears in numerous stories, with her most famous being when she sprang from the goddess Durga 's fury to defeat the demon Raktabija . She is stated to destroy evil and defend the innocent. Kali is worshipped as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, and Divine feminine energy . Shakta and Tantric sects additionally worship Kali as

13104-518: Was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman. The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the Akattiyam and the Tolkāppiyam survived and guided the third Sangam scholars. A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about

13221-511: Was removed in December 2001 citing reasons that it hindered traffic. The statue was reinstalled in June 2006. A Sinhala film called Paththini was released on 5 May 2016 in Sri Lanka . The role of the goddess Paththni or Kannagi was played by Pooja Umashankar . Sangam era The Sangam literature ( Tamil : சங்க இலக்கியம், caṅka ilakkiyam ), historically known as 'the poetry of

13338-551: Was the daughter of a rich sea trader of Kaveripattinam . Since most of the coastal folk were converted to Catholicism during the Portuguese rule , most of the Kannaki shrines became churches of Our Lady . The remaining temples of Kannaki were transformed into Agamic Raja Rajeshwari and Bhuvaneshvari Temples as Kannaki was considered as a ln incarnation of Shakti by the activists of Saiva movement of 19th Century in Jaffna in

13455-598: Was the daughter of the merchant and ship captain Manayakan from Puhar . She marries the son of Macattuvan, Kovalan , whose family were sea traders and had the sea goddess Manimekalai as patron deity . Later, Kovalan met a dancer Madhavi and had an affair with her, which prompted him to spend all his wealth on the dancer. At last, penniless, Kovalan realized his mistake and returned to his wife, Kannagi. Kovalan hoped to recoup his fortunes by trading in Madurai and selling

13572-526: Was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism. These included: Aiyar – a Tamil scholar and a Shaiva pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam , he reached out to

13689-420: Was the first Tamil film based on the epic Silapadhigaaram. A similar movie named Poompuhar released in 1964. A Malayalam film Kodungallooramma directed by Kunchacko starring Prem Nazir , K. R. Vijaya , Adoor Bhasi and Thikkurissy Sukumaran Nair was released in 1968. A statue of Kannagi holding her anklet, depicting a scene from Cilappatikaram was installed on Marina Beach , Chennai . It

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