The Piedmontese Republic ( Italian : Repubblica Piemontese ) was a revolutionary , provisional and internationally unrecognized government established in Turin between 1798 and 1799 on the territory of Piedmont during its military rule by the French First Republic .
104-456: Piedmont was the main part of the Kingdom of Sardinia which, despite its name, had its core on the mainland: the densely populated and rich Principality of Piedmont , with the capital city of Turin serving as royal residence. The rulers of Piedmont simply preferred to call themselves 'Kings of Sardinia' because the title 'king' was higher in rank than 'prince'. Starting with Victor Amadeus I ,
208-597: A Viceroy governing the island on the king's behalf. This arrangement continued after the personal union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to form Spain under the Habsburg dynasty . During this time the island became a target for Barbary pirates , due to the frequent wars between Spain and the Ottoman Empire . From the 1570s onward a series of towers, known today as the Spanish Towers, were built around
312-630: A composite state during the Savoyard period, was a country in Southern Europe from the late 13th until the mid-19th century; officially 1297 to 1768 for the Corsican part of this kingdom. The kingdom was a member of the Council of Aragon and initially consisted of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia , sovereignty over both of which was claimed by the papacy , which granted them as
416-447: A belligerent nation are excluded from protection in both locations. On whether the definition of military occupation applies to anywhere else, the 2023 United States Department of Defense (DOD)'s Law of War Manual states "the law of belligerent occupation generally does not apply to (1) mere invasion; (2) liberation of friendly territory; (3) non-international armed conflict; or (4) post-war situations (except for certain provisions of
520-599: A blue border, or using a blue flag with the Savoy cross in one canton. Eventually, King Charles Albert of Savoy adopted the "revolutionary" Italian tricolor , surmounted by the Savoyard shield, as his flag. This flag would later become the flag of the Kingdom of Italy , and the tricolor without the Savoyard escutcheon remains the flag of Italy . References : Military occupation Military occupation , also called belligerent occupation or simply occupation ,
624-635: A conspiracy to prevent the French annexation was planned (probably by the secretive Jacobin Società dei Raggi ), but the plot was discovered by the French, and several people involved were arrested and imprisoned. Meanwhile, Britain and Russia – which were in the process of building the Second Coalition – were negotiating on how to redraw the map of Europe after defeating France in the upcoming war. In September 1798, British Prime Minister William Pitt
728-488: A fief, the regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae ("kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" ), to King James II of Aragon in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia and established de facto their de jure authority. In 1420, after the Sardinian–Aragonese war , the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile , Sardinia became
832-656: A liberal ministry under Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine driving Italian unification . The Kingdom of Sardinia took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire , Britain , and France, and fighting against Russia. In 1859, France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war against Austria , the Austro-Sardinian War . Napoleon III did not keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of
936-484: A military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with the city of Sassari , claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica . In 1353, Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of
1040-544: A military occupation and violates internationally agreed-upon norms runs the risk of censure, criticism, or condemnation. In the contemporary era, the practices of occupations have largely become a part of customary international law , and form a part of the law of war . Since World War II and the establishment of the United Nations , it has been common practice in international law for occupied territory to continue to be widely recognized as occupied in cases where
1144-594: A part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire . In 1720, the island and its kingdom were ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to the Duke of Savoy , Victor Amadeus II . The Savoyards united it with their historical possessions on the Italian mainland, and the kingdom came to be progressively identified with the mainland states, which included, besides Savoy and Aosta , dynastic possessions like
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#17327725484011248-566: A prison in Bologna. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (later, just the "Kingdom of Sardinia" from 1460 ) was a state whose king was the King of Aragon , who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the Crown of Aragon , and united only in
1352-518: A replacement of the Sardinian monarchy on Piedmontese territory on 25 or 26 April 1796. Ranza had been agitating for an independent Piedmontese republic ever since 1793; he saw such a state as a first step towards a republic encompassing all of Italy. Ranza and his fellow rebels then presented an address to French general Napoleon Bonaparte , calling on him to liberate the whole of Italy from 'tyranny'. However, Bonaparte ignored their pleas, and wrote to
1456-586: A secret clause in the Treaty of Anagni . This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore Sicily , then under the rule of James's brother Frederick III of Sicily , to the Angevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded Byzantine imperial rule in
1560-438: Is a specific section covering the issue. Under GCIV, protected civilians in general are: Nationals of an enemy state not a signatory or acceded to GCIV are not protected by it. Neutral citizens who are in the home territory of a belligerent nation if their country of origin has diplomatic ties or elsewhere outside occupied territory are not protected. Nationals of a co-belligerent (allied) state which holds diplomatic ties with
1664-413: Is called military government . There does not have to be a formal announcement of the beginning of a military government, nor is there any requirement of a specific number of people to be in place, for an occupation to commence. Birkhimer writes: No proclamation of part of the victorious commander is necessary to the lawful inauguration and enforcement of military government. That government results from
1768-473: Is temporary hostile control exerted by a ruling power's military apparatus over a sovereign territory that is outside of the legal boundaries of that ruling power's own sovereign territory. The controlled territory is called occupied territory, and the ruling power is called the occupant . Occupation's intended temporary nature distinguishes it from annexation and colonialism . The occupant often establishes military rule to facilitate administration of
1872-424: Is to be carried out. But the laws of war do not imperatively require this, and in very many instances it is not done. When it is not, the mere fact that the country is militarily occupied by the enemy is deemed sufficient notification to all concerned that the regular has been supplanted by a military government. (p. 61) The survey of the case-law regarding Article 42 of the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention reveals that
1976-672: The Statuto Albertino . By the time of the Crimean War in 1853, the Savoyards had built the kingdom into a strong power. There followed the annexation of Lombardy (1859), the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies (1860), Venetia (1866), and the Papal States (1870). On 17 March 1861, to more accurately reflect its new geographic, cultural and political extent, the Kingdom of Sardinia changed its name to
2080-634: The Balearics , commanded by Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī (Latinized as Museto ). The Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicates with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa . Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs. After the Great Schism , Rome made many efforts to restore Latinity to
2184-637: The French Directory that the Piedmontese people were not politically ready, and that 'you should not count on a revolution in Piedmont.' French military commanders at the time had no interest in this project of an Italian sister republic , and it already ended on 28 April 1796 with the Armistice of Cherasco , which gave most of Piedmont (occupying Alessandria , Coni and Tortone ) back to
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#17327725484012288-735: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine ) would be made ruler of the Netherlands instead. However, Tsar Paul I of Russia preferred to restore Piedmont to Sardinia to check Vienna's purported territorial greed. Austrian State Chancellor Thugut was fine with keeping Piedmont as a buffer between France and Austria (save for the return of the Novarese , which the Habsburgs had lost to Sardinia in 1714), and lobbied for Austrian gains elsewhere in Italy, primarily
2392-510: The House of Savoy adopted the tradition of bestowing the title of Prince of Piedmont on the heir apparent . The kingdom suffered a first French Revolutionary invasion in April 1796: the Montenotte campaign . After a string of French victories, Italian patriot Giovanni Antonio Ranza proclaimed a republic in the town of Alba (therefore historically known as the ' Republic of Alba ') as
2496-525: The Houses of Anjou and Aragon , established on paper a Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be a fief of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the Pope offered his newly created fief to James II of Aragon , promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following
2600-511: The Italian Republic . Charles Emmanuel IV abdicated again in 1802 – this time freely – in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I , as he had no children to succeed him. 45°04′N 07°42′E / 45.067°N 7.700°E / 45.067; 7.700 Kingdom of Sardinia The Kingdom of Sardinia , also referred to as the Kingdom of Sardinia - Piedmont , Sardegna and Corsica or Piedmont–Sardinia as
2704-669: The Judicate of Arborea in the course of war with the Republic of Pisa , James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of Cagliari and Gallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the Republic of Genoa , which controlled most of the lands of the former Logudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including
2808-470: The King of Naples attacked the Roman Republic . The King of Sardinia dishonored the alliance his father signed after Cherasco, so France declared war on Piedmont. General Joubert occupied the capital of Turin on 6 December 1798. King Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy signed a document of abdication on 8 December 1798, which also ordered his former subjects to recognise French laws and his troops to obey
2912-481: The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles of Magenta and Solferino , both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded. Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cede Lombardy to Napoleon, who in turn then ceded
3016-651: The Kingdom of Naples , Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance , Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy and King of Sicily, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century,
3120-747: The Maddalena archipelago in the Strait of Bonifacio from the Republic of Genoa and claimed it as part of Sardinia. Since then the archipelago has been a part of the Sardinian region. In 1792, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the other states of the Savoy Crown joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic , but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris (1796) , giving
3224-459: The Republic of Genoa . Following Geneva 's accession to Switzerland , the Treaty of Turin (1816) transferred Carouge and adjacent areas to the newly created Swiss Canton of Geneva . In 1847–48, through an act of Union analogous to the one between Great Britain and Ireland , the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system with their capital in Turin, and granted a constitution,
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3328-526: The Treaty of Stupinigi , the Kingdom of Sardinia extended its protectorate over the Principality of Monaco . In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I (1802–21), Charles Felix (1821–31) and Charles Albert (1831–49), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at the Battle of Trocadero , which set the reactionary Ferdinand VII on
3432-420: The U.S. are not signatory to this additional protocol. In the situation of a territorial cession as the result of war, the specification of a "receiving country" in the peace treaty merely means that the country in question is authorized by the international community to establish civil government in the territory. The military government of the principal occupying power will continue past the point in time when
3536-671: The 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the Judicate of Cagliari (the so-called Carta Volgare ), issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in the Romance Sardinian language , albeit with the Greek alphabet . The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of Cagliari , Arborea , Gallura and Logudoro , perfectly organized as
3640-648: The 5th century when it was occupied by the Vandals , who had also settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire . It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used
3744-538: The 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Anagni treaty. Genoa had also ruled Corsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before ( c . 1133). There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the Ghibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and
3848-586: The Arborean army led by Brancaleone Doria again swept most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri . After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for
3952-460: The Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy . In 1420, Alfonso V of Aragon , king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins of
4056-524: The Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms, communes and signorie , the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterile feudalism , as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local noble Leonardo Alagon , marquess of Oristano , who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat
4160-465: The French army free passage through Piedmont. On 6 December 1798 Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799 the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with the Battle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of
4264-492: The French army with the king's consent. Finally, Thugut insisted that liberated/conquered territories had to remain under military occupation for duation of the war to prevent interference with the war effort. The issue of what to do with Piedmont led to rising tensions inside the Second Coalition, and was one of the reasons for the fatal Austrian decision to order the army of Archduke Charles out of Switzerland and into
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4368-584: The GC [IV])." The DOD's statement is consistent with the definitions provided by Article 42 of the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention and Article 4 of the Fourth Geneva Convention. Article 6 of GCIV restricts the length of time that most of the convention applies: The present Convention shall apply from the outset of any conflict or occupation mentioned in Article 2. In the territory of Parties to
4472-760: The Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the Latin Church , but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture. In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII , intervening between
4576-406: The Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved to Florence . But many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy, and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. The House of Savoy ruled Italy until 1946, when Italy was declared a republic by referendum . The result was 54.3% in favor of
4680-487: The Judicate of Arborea in the 1420 from the last judge, William III of Narbonne , and the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ) that was stolen from the Doria in 1448, and renamed Castillo Aragonés ( Aragonese Castle ). Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with
4784-466: The Kingdom of Italy , and its capital was eventually moved first to Florence and then to Rome . The Savoy-led Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was thus the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, which in turn is the predecessor of the present-day Italian Republic . In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire . The Romans ruled the island until the middle of
4888-660: The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the Archons (ἄρχοντες) or, in Latin, judices , who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δού λού σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δού ληςσου Γετιτ ), even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουριου βασιλικου προτοσπαθαριου και Σαλουσιου των ευγενεστατων άρχωντων), who probably ruled in
4992-401: The Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done through the Treaty of Turin , which also called for referendums to confirm the annexation. Subsequently, somewhat controversial referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer
5096-542: The Ligurian Republic. The Piedmontese–Sardinian regular army pursued the republican rebels into Ligurian territory, causing the Ligurian Republic to go to war against the Piedmontese monarchy in June 1798. In early July 1798, France intervened in favour of its Ligurian sister republic , and conquered Piedmont in the course of the following months under the leadership of Barthélemy Catherine Joubert . On November,
5200-774: The Papal Legations. By December 1798 and January 1799, the Russians and British agreed on several war aims, including the reduction of France to its pre-Revolution borders, and the restoration of the pope to the Papal States and king of Sardinia to Piedmont. During the Italian and Swiss expedition , the Austro–Russian troops commanded by Marshal Alexander Suvorov entered Piedmont in May 1799, and occupied Turin on 26 May 1799. Following instructions given to him by Paul I, without
5304-405: The Principality of Piedmont and the County of Nice , over both of which the Savoyards had been exercising their control since the 13th century and 1388, respectively. The formal name of this composite state was the " States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia ", and it was and is referred to as either Sardinia – Piedmont , Piedmont–Sardinia , or erroneously the Kingdom of Piedmont , since
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#17327725484015408-414: The Republic. When the Duchy of Savoy acquired the Kingdom of Sicily in 1713 and the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, the flag of Savoy became the flag of a naval power. This posed the problem that the same flag was already in use by the Knights of Malta . Because of this, the Savoyards modified their flag for use as a naval ensign in various ways, adding the letters FERT in the four cantons, or adding
5512-405: The Sardinian Parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy , so ratifying the annexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The institutions and laws of the kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained
5616-471: The Sardinian church, politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by Catholic Normans . Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches ( Massacre of the Latins , 1182, Siege of Constantinople (1204) , Recapture of Constantinople , 1261). Before
5720-459: The Sardinian king, who had to withdraw from the First Coalition . The final peace Treaty of Paris on 15 May 1796 led to loss of the duchy of Savoy , Nice , Tende and Beuil to France, and guaranteed military access to French troops crossing Piedmontese soil. The ultrashort-lived Republic of Alba would serve as the later Piedmontese Republic's predecessor. When Napoleon conquered the neighbouring Republic of Genoa in June 1797 and turned it into
5824-404: The Second Coalition. Although the Piedmontese Republic was briefly reincorporated into the Kingdom of Sardinia on paper, one year later, it was reestablished as the Subalpine Republic , after Napoleon took back all of northern Italy after the victorious Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800). The Subalpine Republic lasted until 11 September 1802, when it was divided between the French Republic and
5928-438: The Spanish throne. Victor Emmanuel I disbanded the entire Code Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Sardinia. The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the Statuto Albertino , was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848 under liberal pressure. In
6032-401: The Younger argued to grant Piedmont to Austria as a reward for its participation in the upcoming war, and to act as a barrier to French expansionism in Italy. In November, Foreign Secretary William Grenville added to this that Austria would get all of Piedmont, the king of Sardinia would be compensated with Tuscany and the Papal Legations ( Romagna ), while the Grand Duke of Tuscany (from
6136-544: The basis for armed conflicts in and of themselves. A dominant principle that guided combatants through much of history was "to the victory belong the spoils". Emer de Vattel , in The Law of Nations (1758), presented an early codification of the distinction between annexation of territory and military occupation, the latter being regarded as temporary, due to the natural right of states to their "continued existence". According to Eyal Benvenisti's The International Law of Occupation, Second Edition (2012), "The foundation upon which
6240-592: The benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory. Article 49 prohibits the forced mass movement of protected civilians out of or into occupied state's territory: Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to
6344-405: The city of Alghero and the semiautonomous Republic of Sassari , and added them to its direct domains. The Judicate of Arborea , the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of Marianus IV , started
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#17327725484016448-413: The city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ), which had been stolen from the Doria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrested from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the kingdom. Under the Crown of Aragon Sardinia continued to be governed as a semi-independent kingdom, retaining its own parliament and
6552-431: The conflict, the application of the present Convention shall cease on the general close of military operations. In the case of occupied territory, the application of the present Convention shall cease one year after the general close of military operations; however, the Occupying Power shall be bound, for the duration of the occupation, to the extent that such Power exercises the functions of government in such territory, by
6656-449: The conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom. A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued and, in 1382,
6760-412: The duration of effective control by the occupying power and its encounter with insurgents, terrorists or guerrillas that are able to exercise control over certain areas of the country are immaterial to the applicability of the law of occupation and do not alter the legal status of the occupied territory. For example, in 1948 the U.S. Military Tribunal in Nuremberg held that: In belligerent occupation
6864-446: The entire [modern] law of occupation is based is the principle of inalienability of sovereignty through unilateral action of a foreign power, [and from this principle] springs the basic structural constraints that international law imposes upon the occupant." The Hague Convention of 1907 codified these customary laws, specifically within "Laws and Customs of War on Land" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: "Section III Military Authority over
6968-490: The exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily. Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem , as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem , although both had long been under Ottoman rule. In 1767–1769, Charles Emmanuel III annexed
7072-411: The fact that the former sovereignty is ousted, and the opposing army now has control. Yet the issuing such proclamation is useful as publishing to all living in the district occupied those rules of conduct which will govern the conqueror in the exercise of his authority. Wellington, indeed, as previously mentioned, said that the commander is bound to lay down distinctly the rules according to which his will
7176-486: The hostile army." This definition does not rely on a subjective perception, but rather on the "territory's de facto submission to the authority" of the occupant. Article 2 of the Geneva Conventions indicates that the definition applies to "all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting party", even if no armed resistance is encountered. The form of administration by which an occupying power exercises government authority over occupied territory
7280-416: The island of Sardinia had always been of secondary importance to the monarchy. Under Savoyard rule, the kingdom's government, ruling class, cultural models and center of population were entirely situated in the mainland. Therefore, while the capital of the island of Sardinia and the seat of its viceroys had always been de jure Cagliari , it was the Piedmontese city of Turin , the capital of Savoy since
7384-413: The island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172. The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, Emperor Frederick II in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in
7488-683: The island's coast to guard against pirate raids. The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession . By the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan , while Charles VI (the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria ), received the Spanish Netherlands ,
7592-550: The king and his prime minister, wanted to conquer Rome as well. Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province, Nice , to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946. On 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of
7696-626: The knowledge or consent of Austria, 'Suvorov issued proclamations calling on the Piedmontese people and army to rise and serve under him (Suvorov) in the name for their king, Charles Emmanuel,' who was still on the island of Sardinia. The Austro–Russian troops defeated the Franco-Polish forces under Macdonald and Dąbrowski in the Battle of Trebbia (17–20 June 1799), affirming their hold of Piedmont. Suvorov made another statement on Paul's orders in July 1799, requesting Charles Emmanuel to return to
7800-670: The liberated territory of Piedmont and resume his royal reign. Thugut denounced Suvorov's declarations and subjected Suvorov to his control through the Hofkriegsrat instead of Suvorov being only responsible to Emperor Francis II personally. The Russians and British regarded this move as a confirmation of the Austrians' territorial greed, and grew more suspicious of their allies. The anti-French revolts that occurred following Suvorov's call in May were mostly right-wing peasant movement from rural Piedmont, led by priests or former officers of
7904-801: The mid 16th century, which was the de facto seat of power. This situation would be conferred official status with the Perfect Fusion of 1847, when all the kingdom's governmental institutions would be centralized in Turin. When the mainland domains of the House of Savoy were occupied and eventually annexed by Napoleonic France , the king of Sardinia temporarily resided on the island for the first time in Sardinia's history under Savoyard rule. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which restructured Europe after Napoleon's defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria , taken from
8008-520: The middle Rhine area in July 1799. That move is commonly regarded by historians as '[triggering] a series of military and political disasters' which would lead to the decisive French victory in the Second Battle of Zurich , motivate Russia to withdraw from the Coalition, force Austria and then the other allies to sign separate piece treaties with France and thus lead to the defeat and collapse of
8112-493: The occupant attempts to alter—with or without support or recognition from other powers—the expected temporary duration of the territory's established power structure, namely by making it permanent through annexation (formal or otherwise) and refusing to recognize itself as an occupant. Additionally, the question of whether a territory is occupied or not becomes especially controversial if two or more powers disagree with each other on that territory's status; such disputes often serve as
8216-560: The occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country. In 1949 these laws governing the occupation of an enemy state's territory were further extended by the adoption of the Fourth Geneva Convention (GCIV). Much of GCIV is relevant to protected civilians in occupied territories and Section III: Occupied territories
8320-711: The occupied territory, though this is not a necessary characteristic of occupation. The rules of occupation are delineated in various international agreements—primarily the Hague Convention of 1907 , the Geneva Conventions , and also by long-established state practice. The relevant international conventions, the International Committee of the Red Cross , and various treaties by military scholars provide guidelines on topics concerning
8424-438: The occupying power does not hold enemy territory by virtue of any legal right. On the contrary, it merely exercises a precarious and temporary actual control. According to Eyal Benvenisti , occupation can end in a number of ways, such as: "loss of effective control, namely when the occupant is no longer capable of exercising its authority; through the genuine consent of the sovereign (the ousted government or an indigenous one) by
8528-507: The orders of the French high command. He went into exile in Parma, then in Tuscany, and finally moved to Cagliari on the island of Sardinia. There, he issued a statement protesting his treatment by the French, and alleging that he had not signed the document of abdication out of his own free will. The Piedmontese Republic was declared on 9 December 1798. It was heavily dependent on France and
8632-473: The peace treaty comes into force, until it is legally supplanted. "Military government continues until legally supplanted" is the rule, as stated in Military Government and Martial Law , by William E. Birkhimer, 3rd edition 1914. Article 42 under Section III of the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention specifies that a "[t]erritory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of
8736-402: The person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of Ferdinand II of Aragon from that of Isabella I of Castile when they married in 1469. The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII , as a hypothetical entity created for James II of Aragon under
8840-417: The population of the coastal cities. Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century Tharros was abandoned in favor of Oristano , after more than 1800 years of occupation; Caralis , Porto Torres and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from
8944-556: The principle of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine Empire , a monarchical republic , as it had been since Roman times. Starting from 705 to 706, Saracens from north Africa (recently conquered by Arab armies) harassed
9048-492: The pro-French Ligurian Republic , democratic revolutionaries inside Piedmont began agitating for the overthrow of the Sardinian monarchy. In April 1798, these Piedmontese revolutionaries launched a democratic uprising, aided by various armed bands from outside in the spring of 1798, but they were all defeated, and the Sardinian royal army executed over a hundred prisoners of war in reprisal. The Piedmontese democratic revolutionaries had to retreat, and many were forced into exile in
9152-644: The provisions of the following Articles of the present Convention: 1 to 12, 27, 29 to 34, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 61 to 77, 143. GCIV emphasised an important change in international law. The United Nations Charter (June 26, 1945) had prohibited war of aggression (See articles 1.1, 2.3, 2.4) and GCIV Article 47 , the first paragraph in Section III: Occupied territories, restricted the territorial gains which could be made through war by stating: Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of
9256-515: The reach of the French for the rest of the war and was, for the first time in centuries governed directly by its king instead of a viceroy. In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa , now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna , which returned the region of Savoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792. By
9360-443: The rights and duties of the occupying power, the protection of civilians, the treatment of prisoners of war , the coordination of relief efforts, the issuance of travel documents , the property rights of the populace, the handling of cultural and art objects, the management of refugees, and other concerns that are highest in importance both before and after the cessation of hostilities during an armed conflict. A country that engages in
9464-505: The royal army. Due to pressure from the Austrians, Suvorov disbanded these rebel groups in order to allow the Austrians a free hand in making a territorial settlement in northern Italy. Moreover, Thugut argued to the Russians and British that Charles Emmanuel and the Piedmontese army were very unreliable allies, having abandoned Austria in 1796 and again in 1798 by concluding separate peace treaties with France. He pointed out that at that moment, Piedmontese generals and troops were even serving in
9568-449: The same year the island of Sardinia, a Piedmontese dependency for more than a century, lost its own residual autonomy to the mainland through the so-called Perfect fusion issued by Charles Albert; as a result, the kingdom's fundamental institutions were deeply transformed, assuming the shape of a constitutional and centralized monarchy on the French model; under the same pressure, Charles Albert declared war on Austria. After initial success,
9672-520: The signing of a peace agreement; or by transferring authority to an indigenous government endorsed by the occupied population through referendum and which has received international recognition". Some examples of military occupation came into existence as an outcome of World War I and World War II: A number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than 20 years, such as those of Namibia by South Africa, of East Timor by Indonesia, of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. One of
9776-466: The southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching from Abruzzo and Naples on the mainland to Messina and Palermo on Sicily. He then marched to Gaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification, while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for
9880-618: The territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive. ... The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies. Protocol I (1977): "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts" has additional articles which cover occupation but many countries including
9984-402: The territory of the hostile State". The first two articles of that section state: Art. 42. Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. Art. 43. The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of
10088-438: The territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid "embarrassing" the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement. On 5 March 1860, Piacenza , Parma , Tuscany, Modena , and Romagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon III, who feared a strong Savoyard state on his south-eastern border and he insisted that if
10192-477: The viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at the Battle of Macomer in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks from north African pirates and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation. Although the " Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica " could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary de jure state in 1297, its de facto existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of
10296-542: The war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated by Marshal Radetzky at the Battle of Custozza (1848) . Like all the various duchies and city-states on the Apennine peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on 23 March 1849 in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II . In 1852,
10400-675: The world's longest ongoing occupations is Israel's occupation of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem (1967–present) and the Gaza Strip (1967–present), both Palestinian territories , as well as the Syrian Golan Heights , which was occupied in 1967 and effectively annexed in 1981. Other prolonged occupations that have been alleged include those of the Falkland Islands /Malvinas, claimed by Argentina, by
10504-668: Was in question. Some Piedmontese Jacobins favoured the development of an independent Piedmontese Republic, others wanted to unite it with the Ligurian or Cisalpine Republic , and still others including Ranza argued that the inhabitants would be best off as citizens of the French Republic rather than as citizens of a French satellite state occupied by foreign troops. In the end, France decided to annex Piedmont in February 1799. Jacobins opposed to annexation were dismayed by this, and
10608-520: Was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea. That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles. Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to Barisone II of Arborea and Enzio of Sardinia . The first could not reunify
10712-409: Was never really independent as it was under French military occupation . The state did not claim to be recognized , as its goal was the French annexation. The structure of administration was a provisional government . The republic used the motto Libertà, Virtù, Eguaglianza , echoing the French motto Liberté, égalité, fraternité , on its coins. Right from the start, however, its political future
10816-440: Was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the papacy , which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the Italian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa
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