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168-471: The fall of the monarchy was proclaimed by the country's parliament on 25 March 1924. A relatively small country with a population of 6.2 million in 1928, it covered a total area of 130,199 km (50,270 sq mi). Over its eleven-year history, the Second Republic saw some of the most important historical events in modern Greek history emerge; from Greece's first military dictatorship , to

336-549: A Roman Catholic while most Greek people were Orthodox Christian , and the fact that his marriage to Queen Amalia remained childless. Furthermore, the new kingdom tried to eliminate the traditional banditry , something that in many cases meant conflict with some old revolutionary fighters ( klephtes ) who continued to exercise this practice. The Bavarian Regents ruled until 1837, when at the insistence of Britain and France, they were recalled, and Otto after that appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran most of

504-521: A de facto alliance between the two countries. As part of these treaties, Greece and Turkey agreed that the Treaty of Lausanne would be the final settlement of their respective borders, while they also pledged that they would not join opposing military or economic alliances and to stop immediately their naval arms race . The good relations established by the Republic would last until the 1950s. In 1934,

672-594: A Greco-Turkish rapprochement, alienated him from the Greek authorities and those Ottoman Greeks who aligned themselves with the policies of the Greek kingdom. Disappointed, Karolidis initially thought to return to Athens and resume his university post, but in the event he was convinced to run as a candidate for the Committee of Union and Progress , the party of the Young Turks . This was seen as tantamount to treason by

840-402: A change to republican rule. The flags in particular saw the removal of the crowns, which had been placed in the middle of the white cross since 1863, while the national emblem was stripped of its mantle and pavilion , as well as its supporters , down to a simple escutcheon bearing a Greek cross . The blue and white colours were thought to symbolise the colour of the sky and the waves. During

1008-509: A clear victory for the Republican campaign: 69.9% in favour of a republic and 30.1% in favour of the monarchy; these results were almost identical to the results of the 1974 referendum (69.2% in favour, 30.8% against) which finally abolished the monarchy. Newspapers from a wide range of the political spectrum noted a lack of violence, implying a lack of electoral intimidation in favour of one side or another. The newspaper Forward wrote that

1176-490: A collapse of the banking system, which had occurred in most other European countries as well as the United States . Nevertheless, Greece declared bankruptcy for the fourth time in its history in 1932, ceasing to make payments on its international loans, some of which dated as far back as the 1820s. A compromise with the country's lenders was reached in 1935 and payments resumed thereafter until being suspended again with

1344-546: A coup. When asked by the Minister of the Military whether he was planning to overthrow the government, Pangalos replied "of course I will carry out a coup". His plot was set to motion on 24 June 1925, and soon prevailed throughout the country with little or no resistance from government forces. Following his coup, Pangalos was sworn in as prime minister by the acting governor of Greece ( Pavlos Kountouriotis ) and demanded that

1512-500: A group of Bavarian Regents ruled in his name and made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping most significant state offices away from them. Nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps, him being

1680-549: A major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitution and reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy. French and British military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases were made. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-Turkish War in Libya. Through spring 1912, a series of bilateral agreements among

1848-478: A military rebellion, forcing Otto to accept the inevitable and leave the country. The Greeks then asked Britain to send Queen Victoria 's son Prince Alfred as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other Powers. Instead, a young Danish prince became King George I . George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith. As

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2016-455: A number of Greeks were employed in various positions within the League through its history. The Second Hellenic Republic was subdivided into 10 regions, which we would today call the traditional geographic regions of Greece . These varied widely in size and population. The most populous was Central Greece and Euboea , with 1.6 million people, followed closely by Macedonia (1.4 million), while

2184-591: A peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek . Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament

2352-566: A plan for the re-occupation of Tenedos, which the Greek destroyers used as a base, by an amphibious operation. The operation was scheduled for 4 January. On that day, weather conditions were ideal, and the fleet was ready, but the Yenihan regiment earmarked for the operation failed to arrive on time. The naval staff nevertheless ordered the fleet to sortie, and an engagement developed with the Greek fleet, without any significant results on either side. Similar sorties followed on 10 and 11 January, but

2520-482: A power strong enough to advance, up to a satisfactory point, the prosperity of the other continents as well". Throughout the Second Republic, Greece was a committed member of the League of Nations , Eleftherios Venizelos having played an important role in its creation in 1919. The country contributed over 1.5 million gold francs to the League's budget between 1927 and 1934, an average of 0.6% of each year's budget, and

2688-470: A referendum was held proclaimed for 13 April 1924. Voters were asked whether they "approve of the decision of the National Assembly that Greece be reorganised into a Republic on the parliamentary model". Voting was to be secret , although the requirement that "yes" votes be cast with white ballots and "no" votes with yellow ones defeated the purpose of secrecy. The results of the referendum were

2856-691: A reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British king, Britain ceded the United States of the Ionian Islands to Greece. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Church was a part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . The Ottoman authorities, who were Muslim, did not interfere with the church. With the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, however, the government decided to take control of the church, breaking away from

3024-628: A shortage of 39,000 houses in 1921; to combat this the government spent considerable amounts of money on social housing . The country's principal urban centers in 1928 were: A major step in the creation of a welfare state in Greece was done under the Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos which passed Law 5733 on 11 October 1932, creating the Social Insurance Institute (Ἵδρυμα τῶν Κοινωνικῶν Ἀσφαλίσεων, IKA). This unified

3192-519: A simple blue field with a white cross for use as a national flag on land, and a more complex design featuring nine blue and white stripes with a white cross on a blue field in the canton , for use on ships ( ensign ) and on land when displayed abroad. Those flags were first adopted in 1822 during the Greek War of Independence . With the collapse of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic, all national symbols of Greece were modified to reflect

3360-663: Is made up of 120 senators of which 92 were directly or indirectly elected by the people, 10 were elected by a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate and 18 were elected by 8 unions representing various vocations including merchants (1), industrialists (3), workers (5) and academics (1). Of the 92 senators directly or indirectly elected by the people, 90 were allocated to parliamentary constituencies of varying size for direct election and two were given to ethnic minorities for election through an electoral college : 1 for

3528-612: Is of particular importance as it was one of the rare studies on the historical method written in Greek until then. He is also notable as the editor of the revised edition of Paparrigopoulos' History of the Greek Nation , published in 1902–1903. In 1909 he published the work "The Ethnic Ancestry of the Orthodox Christians of Syria and Palestine" which was translated and published in English in 2024. The period after

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3696-578: The 1928 legislative elections , Greece was faced with significant obstacles in its foreign policy: growing claims by Yugoslavia on Thessaloniki , bad relations with Bulgaria and Turkey , while relations with the Great Powers were at their lowest point since Greece was established in 1832. In co-operation with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , as well as İsmet İnönü 's government, a series of treaties were signed between Greece and Turkey in 1930 which, in effect, restored Greek-Turkish relations and established

3864-636: The Asia Minor Campaign . A military coup d'état restored the monarchy in 1935 and Greece became a kingdom again until 1973. The kingdom was finally dissolved in the aftermath of a seven-year military dictatorship (1967–1974) and the Third Hellenic Republic was established following a referendum held in 1974. The Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire , also known as the Byzantine Empire, which ruled most of

4032-755: The Asia Minor Disaster , and he became fiercely critical towards the Greek monarchy . He died in Athens on 26 July 1930. Karolidis's initial research, during the 1870s and 1880s, was focused on his home region of Cappadocia, with the publication of Kappadokika, a historical and archaeological dissertation on Cappadocia in 1874 and his studies on the city of Comana and the Cappadocian Greek dialect published in 1882 and 1885 respectively. Although an eminent Orientalist, after his appointment to

4200-632: The Balkan Wars was not very productive for Karolidis, but after 1922 he produced some of his most famous works, dealing with the post- Byzantine period of Greek history ( Ottoman Greece and Modern Greece ): the seven-volume Contemporary History (1922–1929) and the History of Greece (1925). The eighth volume of the Contemporary History was eventually published in 1932, incorporated in the sixth edition of Paparrigopoulos' History of

4368-520: The Chamber of Deputies ( Greek : Βουλή , [vuˈli] ) and the Senate ( Greek : Γερουσία , [ʝeruˈsia] ). Further, the constitution outlines the duties of the two houses and the number of parliamentarians. The lower house was to be made up of between 200 and 250 members elected in their constituency for four-year terms. The Senate had a more complex composition; Article 58 states that it

4536-465: The Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Commission to pay off the country's debtors. Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic . Many of the educated elite saw this as

4704-626: The Crimean War the British occupied Piraeus to prevent Greece declaring war on the Ottomans as a Russian ally. A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Otto's continuing interference in government. In 1862, the King dismissed his prime minister, the former admiral Konstantinos Kanaris , the most prominent politician of the period. This dismissal provoked

4872-579: The Dardanelles campaign , offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views became apparent: Constantine had been educated in Germany , was married to Sophia of Prussia , sister of Kaiser Wilhelm , and was convinced of the Central Powers ' victory. Venizelos, on the other hand, was an ardent anglophile , and believed in an Allied victory. Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose

5040-632: The Dodecanese , which had been occupied by Italy in 1911. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population. In March 1913, an anarchist, Alexandros Schinas , assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox. His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic Greek nationalism (the Megali Idea ), evoking

5208-716: The Eastern Mediterranean . The Great Powers supported Greece to regain its independence and following a decisive battle in the Navarino Bay , a ceasefire was agreed in London (see Treaty of London (1827) ). The autonomy of Greece was ultimately recognised by the London Protocol of 1828 and its full independence from the Ottoman Empire by the Protocol of London of 1830 . In 1831, the assassination of

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5376-478: The Great Depression at –3.23%, and between 1932 and 1935 at an average of 5.24%. By 1935 GDP had risen to $ 32.41 billion (in 2011 value; $ 44 billion in today's value). GDP per capita stood at $ 3,957 in 1924 and $ 4,771 by the end of the republic in 1935, putting Greece in a comparable position to Spain and much better off than its neighbours. Contemporaneous accounts put the gross national income during

5544-521: The Great Depression at ₯41 billion in 1929, ₯37 billion in 1930 (down 10%), and ₯30 billion in 1931 (down 30%). The labour force in the Census of 1928 is shown as overwhelmingly agricultural and male-dominated. Unemployment among men stood at 16.8% according to the census of 1928 while 68% of women stated they did not work. Trade unionism , though legal, was actively discouraged by the government and some 3,000 labour activists were sent to internal exile in

5712-769: The Hellenic Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή), the Cities Police (Ἀστυνομία Πόλεων), the Countryside Police (Ἀγροφυλακή), and the Forests Police (Δασοφυλακή). According to the University of Groningen 's Maddison Project , Greece's GDP in 1924 stood at $ 23.72 billion (in 2011 value; $ 32 billion in today's value). Economic growth between 1924 and 1935 stood at an average of 2.96%. Broken down, between 1924 and 1929 growth stood at 3.52%, during

5880-598: The Hellenic Parliament , March 1932 In 1928 the Venizelos government had a number of economic concerns to worry about, however the government budget and general economic situation gave some hope. Between 1928 and 1931 three consecutive budgets had shown a surplus, unemployment was kept at a safe level and the national debt was reduced by 11%. On 21 September 1931 however the United Kingdom abandoned

6048-633: The High Commissioner being Prince George of Greece . Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s there were constant disturbances in Macedonia . Here the Greeks were in competition not only with the Ottomans but also with the Bulgarians, engaged in an armed propaganda struggle for the hearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called " Macedonian Struggle ". In July 1908,

6216-502: The Turks of Western Thrace and 1 for the Jews of Thessaloniki . Each senator served a nine-year term, while the composition of the Senate was renewed by 1/3 every three years. The salaries of members of parliament in both houses were the same. Between 1924 and 1935, a total of six elections took place. The politics of the Second Republic were dominated by the republican Liberal Party , under

6384-529: The Young Turk Revolution broke out in the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria–Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Bulgaria declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. On Crete, the local population, led by a young politician named Eleftherios Venizelos , declared Enosis , union with Greece, provoking another crisis. The fact that

6552-563: The gold standard and by establishing a central bank to oversee economic policy. A further loan for £4 million (£304 million in today's value) in order to carry out public works was taken in 1928. In May 1928 the Bank of Greece was established, revoking the National Bank of Greece 's rights to print currency much to the dissatisfaction of the NBG. A similar dispute erupted again in 1929, when

6720-562: The gold standard on 14 May 1928 and the Drachma was de facto stabilised at an exchange rate of £ 1 to ₯375 ±₯2.5. This put an end to the spiralling devaluation of the Drachma, whose exchange rate to the Pound had dropped from ₯25 per £1 in 1919 to ₯309 in 1924 and slightly up to ₯247 in 1927. The value of currency in circulation steadily increased during the Second Republic, reaching ₯5.6 billion in 1935. The first series of Banknotes issued by

6888-588: The 50 or so social insurance programmes which were active in Greece at the time, some of which dated back to the 1830s, into a single state-operated system of universal social insurance comparable to those of industrialised nations. It was heavily based on the social security system of Czechoslovakia , and the International Labour Organisation was instrumental in shaping it. It would provide sick pay and workers' compensation to all those insured, but not unemployment benefits due to

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7056-581: The Aegean. By mid-November Greek naval detachments had seized the islands of Imbros , Thasos , Agios Efstratios , Samothrace , Psara and Ikaria , while landings were undertaken on the larger islands of Lesbos and Chios only on 21 and 27 November respectively. Substantial Ottoman garrisons were present on the latter, and their resistance was fierce. They withdrew into the mountainous interior and were not subdued until 22 December and 3 January respectively. Samos , officially an autonomous principality ,

7224-520: The Aegean. It was hoped that the Averof , the only major Greek unit fast enough to catch the Hamidiye , would be drawn in pursuit and leave the remainder of the Greek fleet weakened. In the event, Hamidiye slipped through the Greek patrols on the night of 14–15 January and bombarded the harbor of the Greek island of Syros , sinking the Greek auxiliary cruiser Makedonia which lay in anchor there (it

7392-759: The Allies. In November 1916 the French occupied Piraeus , bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired at them, leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist forces. There were also riots against supporters of Venizelos in Athens (the Noemvriana ). Following the February Revolution in Russia, however, the Tsar's support for his cousin was removed, and Constantine

7560-621: The Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria , Montenegro and Serbia ) formed the Balkan League , which in October 1912 declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman intelligence had disastrously misread Greek military intentions. In retrospect, it would appear that the Ottoman staff believed that the Greek attack would be shared equally between the two primary avenues of approach, Macedonia and Epirus. The 2nd Army staff had therefore evenly balanced

7728-767: The Balkans. Once this was gone, the defeat of the Ottoman Army became inevitable. To be sure, the Bulgarians and the Serbs played a significant role in the defeat of the main Ottoman armies. Their great victories at Kirk Kilise , Lule Burgas , Kumanovo , and Monastir shattered the Eastern and Vardar armies. However, these victories were not decisive in the sense that they ended the war. The Ottoman field armies survived, and in Thrace, they actually grew stronger day by day. In

7896-408: The Bank of Greece was also introduced in 1935, with colourful banknotes of ₯50, ₯100, and ₯1,000 printed in France . When Britain abandoned the Gold Standard on 21 September 1931, Greece did not follow suit. Instead, the Drachma remained in the Gold Standard but switched pegging from the Pound to the US dollar . Despite this move, the Drachma had already been under pressure and the convertibility

8064-416: The Byzantine emperors of that name. Besides, as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars , his popularity was enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his Prime Minister. When World War I broke out in 1914, despite Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, both leaders preferred to maintain a neutral stance. However, when, in early 1915, the Allied Powers asked for Greek help in

8232-467: The Constitution, and as implemented in practice; over 1,000 political activists, mostly communists were exiled to remote Aegean islands under the Pangalos dictatorship, and the situation did not improve after his fall. A new law targeting trade union activism was passed in 1929, commonly known as the Idionymon , and some 16,000 activists were brought before criminal procedures in the period 1929–1936, with 3,000 exiled to remote islands. Kountouriotis

8400-472: The Dardanelles and their forts. The Ottomans suffered 41 killed and 101 wounded. It was the last attempt of the Ottoman Navy to leave the Dardanelles, thereby leaving the Greeks dominant in the Aegean. On 5 February [ O.S. 24 January] 1913, a Greek Farman MF.7 , piloted by Lt. Moutousis and with Ensign Moraitinis as an observer, carried out an aerial reconnaissance of the Ottoman fleet in its anchorage at Nagara , and launched four bombs on

8568-485: The Dardanelles to Suez was instituted, which disrupted the Ottomans' flow of supplies (only the Black Sea routes to Romania remained open) and left some 250,000 Ottoman troops immobilized in Asia. In the Ionian Sea , the Greek fleet operated without opposition, ferrying supplies for the army units in the Epirus front. Furthermore, the Greeks bombarded and then blockaded the port of Vlorë in Albania on 3 December, and Durrës on 27 February. A naval blockade extending from

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8736-542: The Drachma in 1932. The Statistical Yearbook of 1936 also gives information as to the type of tourism that the Second Republic was experiencing. Of all tourist arrivals in 1935, 61,855 (49%) were there mainly for leisure, 31,690 (25%) were tourists visiting Greek ports, 16,481 (13%) were tourists in transit, 7,124 (6%) were business tourists , 4,591 (4%) were visiting for family reasons, 1,180 (1%) were visiting students, and 887 (0.7%) for other purposes. The total number of people in Greece numbered 6,204,684 people according to

8904-415: The Eastern Mediterranean region for over 1100 years, had been fatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into the Balkan peninsula capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by 1500 most of

9072-404: The Great Depression had a bigger impact in improving the trading position of the country than protectionist policies did. There were three free economic zones in the country, the Port of Thessaloniki (established 1914), the Port of Piraeus (established 1930), and the Serbian free port contained within the Port of Thessaloniki (imposed on Greece by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913). Trends at

9240-438: The Greco-Bulgarian border on 18 October led to the Pangalos dictatorship ordering the III Army Corps to invade Bulgaria. Bulgaria, being unable to defend itself sufficiently, and with the Greek army on the outskirts of Petrich , turned to the League of Nations . Eventually, the League of Nations condemned the Greek invasion and ordered Greece to pay £47,000 (£2.7 million in 2017) to Bulgaria as compensation. Greece complied with

9408-444: The Greek army to continue its advance into northern Epirus , the southern part of modern Albania, which it occupied. There its advance stopped, although the Serbian line of control was very close to the north. On the outbreak of hostilities on 18 October, the Greek fleet , placed under the newly promoted Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis , sailed for the island of Lemnos , occupying it three days later (although fighting continued on

9576-421: The Greek economy, but the loan was denied. Faced with insolvency, Greece abandoned the gold standard and defaulted on its debts on 25 April 1932. The Greek drachma was devalued by 62% against the dollar , foreign trade contracted by 61.5% compared to 1929 and tobacco production was reduced by 81.0%. However, the Venizelos government's policies secured a steady flow of credit for the Bank of Greece and thus averted

9744-401: The Greek fleet's unpreparedness resulting from the premature outbreak of the war, such an early Ottoman attack might well have been able to achieve a crucial victory. Instead, the Ottoman Navy spent the first two months of the war in operations against the Bulgarians in the Black Sea, giving the Greeks valuable time to complete their preparations and allowing them to consolidate their control of

9912-429: The Greek government decided to establish the Agricultural Bank of Greece and revoke the NBG's rights to give out agricultural loans. The reforms brought about by the government changed the face of the Greek banking sector, and although the Agricultural Bank sustained the Greek rural economy through two years of hardship between 1931 and 1932 by issuing loans totalling ₯ 1.3 billion, the National Bank of Greece dominated

10080-403: The Greek government under Theodoros Diligiannis , bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state with

10248-420: The Greek government, led by Dimitrios Rallis , proved unable likewise to take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold, rankled with many Greeks, especially with young officers. These formed a secret society, the " Military League ", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues and seeking reforms. The resulting Goudi coup on 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as

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10416-439: The Greek high schools of Pera and Chalcedon . In 1876 he went to Smyrna to teach at the Evangelical School. There he remained until 1886, when he moved permanently to Athens in the independent Greek kingdom . After teaching in a high school for a few months, he was elected assistant professor of General History at the University of Athens. In 1893, he succeeded the dean of modern Greek historians, Constantine Paparrigopoulos , at

10584-432: The Greek region and the first of them was launched on 6 March 1821, in the Danubian principalities . It was put down by the Ottomans, but the torch had been lit and by the end of the same month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt. In 1821, the Greek-speaking populations of Peloponnesus revolted against the Ottoman Empire . Following a region-wide struggle that lasted several months, the Greek War of Independence led to

10752-412: The Greek throne; however, he turned down the offer. Otto von Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria was chosen as its first king . Otto arrived at the provisional capital, Nafplion , in 1833 aboard a British warship . Otto's reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia , left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his reign,

10920-400: The Greek torpedo boat No. 14 under Lt. Periklis Argyropoulos off Ayvalık . The main Ottoman fleet remained inside the Dardanelles for the early part of the war, while the Greek destroyers continuously patrolled the Straits' exit to report on a possible sortie. Kountouriotis suggested mining the straits, but was not taken up for fear of international reactions. On 7 December, the head of

11088-460: The Ottoman commander Hasan Tahsin Pasha surrendered Thessaloniki and its garrison of 26,000 men to the Greeks on 9 November [ O.S. 27 October] 1912. Two Corps HQs ( Ustruma and VIII), two Nizamiye divisions (14th and 22nd) and four Redif divisions (Salonika, Drama, Naslic and Serez) were thus lost to the Ottoman order of battle. Additionally, the Ottoman forces lost 70 artillery pieces, 30 machine guns and 70,000 rifles (Thessaloniki

11256-440: The Ottoman fleet Tahir Bey was replaced by Ramiz Naman Bey, the leader of the hawkish faction among the officer corps. A new strategy was agreed, whereby the Ottomans were to take advantage of any absence of the Greek flagship Averof to attack the other Greek ships. The Ottoman staff formulated a plan to lure a number of the Greek destroyers on patrol into a trap. A first such effort on 12 December failed due to boiler trouble, but

11424-407: The Ottoman fleet again sallied from the straits towards Lemnos, it was defeated for a second time in the Naval Battle of Lemnos . This time, the Ottoman warships concentrated their fire on the Averof , which again made use of its superior speed and tried to " cross the T " of the Ottoman fleet. Barbaros Hayreddin was again heavily damaged, and the Ottoman fleet was forced to return to the shelter of

11592-432: The Ottoman fleet suffered heavy damage to the Barbaros Hayreddin and 18 dead and 41 wounded (most during their disorderly retreat) and the Greeks one dead and seven wounded. In the aftermath of Elli, on 20 December the energetic Lt. Commander Rauf Bey was placed in effective command of the Ottoman fleet. Two days later he led his forces out, hoping again to trap the patrolling Greek destroyers between two divisions of

11760-403: The Ottoman fleet, one heading for Imbros and the other waiting at the entrance of the straits. The plan failed as the Greek ships quickly broke contact, while at the same time the Mecidiye came under attack by the Greek submarine Delfin , which launched a torpedo against it but missed; the first such attack in history. During this time, the Ottoman Army continued to press upon a reluctant Navy

11928-414: The Ottomans in 1877 , popular Greek sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece in the context of the Treaty of Berlin , while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete . Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897,

12096-467: The Parliament give him a vote of confidence. Surprisingly, he received the vote of confidence with 185 of the 208 Members of Parliament present voting in favour, including Alexandros Papanastasiou (the prime minister before Pangalos' coup) and Georgios Kondylis . Meanwhile, relations between Bulgaria and Greece were cold, and this escalated into a full-blown conflict by October 1925. A clash along

12264-406: The Parliament. Accordingly, the title of the country's head of state was changed from Governor ( Greek : Κυβερνήτης ) to President of the Republic ( Greek : Πρόεδρος της Δημοκρατίας ). This was done to avoid any confusion as to the meaning of the terms. The word Δημοκρατία (dimokratía), used in the official name to mean Republic, translates as "democracy" as well. In everyday speech the country

12432-467: The Port of Thessaloniki show a big decline in imports between 1926 and 1933, from 69,013 m (2,437,200 cu ft) to 14,223 m (502,300 cu ft), and a large increase in exports during the same period, from 178 m (6,300 cu ft) to 41,322 m (1,459,300 cu ft), peaking at 70,605 m (2,493,400 cu ft) in 1927. The annual Thessaloniki International Fair

12600-533: The Republic eventually paved the way for Greece to become a totalitarian single-party state , when Ioannis Metaxas established the 4th of August Regime in 1936, lasting until the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941. When the Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924, the official name adopted for the country was Hellenic State ( Greek : Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία ). However, the name was changed to Hellenic Republic ( Greek : Ἑλληνικὴ Δημοκρατία ) on 24 May 1924 by vote of

12768-514: The Russian pilot N. de Sackoff, flying for the Greeks, became the first pilot ever shot down in combat, when his biplane was hit by ground fire following a bomb run on the walls of Fort Bizani . He came down near small town of Preveza , on the coast north of the Ionian island of Lefkas , secured local Greek assistance, repaired his plane and resumed flight back to base. The fall of Ioannina allowed

12936-471: The Second Republic borrowed over ₯6.6 billion from within the country in the period 1924–1929, either through loans with Greek banks or through the forced exchange of banknotes for interest-gaining floating rate notes . As of 1933 there were 30 banks in the country, 5 of which were foreign banks. The total capitalisation of the banking sector stood at ₯3.49 billion in the same year; the same banks held ₯18.84 billion in deposits. Gentlemen deputies, since

13104-572: The Serbs. The Greek division, surprised by the presence of the Ottoman Corps, isolated from the rest of Greek army and outnumbered by the now counterattacking Ottomans centred on Bitola , was forced to retreat. As a result, the Serbs beat the Greeks to Bitola. In the Epirus front the Greek army was initially heavily outnumbered, but due to the passive attitude of the Ottomans succeeded in conquering Preveza (21 October 1912) and pushing north to

13272-536: The University of Athens Karolidis largely neglected the field and instead turned to Greek and general history, in conformity with the chairs he held. He published 18 books and 38 articles in the period 1893–1908, including his three volume History of the 19th Century , a three volume-work (plus the introductory Introduction ) which focuses on Greece, and his unfinished Universal or World History , only four of whose projected ten volumes were completed. The latter work

13440-616: The University of Athens only in September 1915. A convinced royalist, he supported King Constantine I during the National Schism , a fact which cost him his post following the victory of Eleftherios Venizelos and the king's abdication in June 1917. He was reinstated in early 1921, after Venizelos' electoral defeat , and kept his post until he was pensioned off in 1923. His political leanings changed abruptly in this period, following

13608-556: The addition of further taxes could reach over 27%, while salaries were taxed at rates between 6% and 21%. Certain commodities were heavily taxed, including sugar (269.0%), coffee (91.7%), tea (79.3%), and wheat (80.8%) among others. Additionally, certain industries were state monopolies whose proceeds went to financing the national debt. These encompassed the production of salt , petrol , matches , playing cards , rolling paper , saccharin (artificial sugar), and narcotics . Together these industries contributed ₯742 million to

13776-513: The administration and the army. But Greece still had no legislature and no constitution. Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in Athens in September 1843. Otto agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November. The new constitution created a bicameral parliament , consisting of an Assembly ( Vouli ) and a Senate ( Gerousia ). Power then passed into

13944-489: The allies". The Treaty of London ended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell out over the partition of Macedonia . In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia, beginning the Second Balkan War , but was beaten back. The Treaty of Bucharest , which concluded the war, left Greece with southern Epirus, the southern-half of Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, except for

14112-404: The anchored ships. Although it scored no hits, this operation is regarded as the first naval-air operation in military history. General Nikola Ivanov , commander of the 2nd Bulgarian Army , acknowledged the role of the Greek fleet in the overall Balkan League victory by stating that "the activity of the entire Greek fleet and above all the Averof was the chief factor in the general success of

14280-507: The battleship squadron moved on north under cover of the forts at Kumkale and engaged the Greek fleet, coming from Imbros, at 9:40. Leaving the older battleships behind, Kountouriotis led the Averof into independent action: utilizing its superior speed, it cut across the Ottoman fleet's bow. Under fire from two sides, the Ottomans were quickly forced to withdraw to the Dardanelles. The whole engagement lasted less than an hour, in which

14448-504: The census of 1928. This was an increase from the census of 1920 (5,536,000 people) despite the fact that Greece lost territories with an area of approximately 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) with a population of over half a million people in the Treaty of Lausanne . Additionally, the census of the same year indicates that 1.2 million people (19% of the population of the country) registered as refugees. The census revealed that there were 3.13 million women and 3.08 million men in

14616-495: The chair of Greek History. Initially, Karolidis pursued the idea of occupying a new seat for Oriental Studies, where he was more qualified, but his rivalry with Spyridon Lambros negated this prospect. As he was still an Ottoman citizen, in 1908 Karolidis was elected to the Ottoman Parliament . His independent-mindedness during his tenure, especially with regards to his ardent anti-Slavic feelings and his hopes for

14784-639: The city of Ioannina, and therefore had to wait for reinforcements from the Macedonian front. After the campaign in Macedonia was over, a large part of the Army was redeployed to Epirus, where Crown Prince Constantine himself assumed command. In the Battle of Bizani the Ottoman positions were breached and Ioannina taken on 6 March [ O.S. 22 February] 1913. During the siege, on 8 February 1913,

14952-434: The collapse of prices hit exports such as tobacco hard. While in 1933 the country exported 34,743 tons of tobacco worth ₯738 million (₯20,000 per ton), it exported 50,055 tons worth ₯3.95 billion (₯80,000 per ton) before the crisis. Governments during the Second Republic enacted numerous protectionist policies aimed at reducing Greece's negative balance of trade by £7 million (£559 million in today's value), something which

15120-601: The combat strength of the seven Ottoman divisions between the Yanya Corps and VIII Corps , in Epirus and Macedonia respectively. The Greek Army also fielded seven divisions, but, having the initiative, concentrated all seven against VIII Corps, leaving only a number of independent battalions of scarcely divisional strength in the Epirus front. This had fatal consequences for the Western Group of Armies, since it led to

15288-638: The complexity of unemployment welfare. Its aim was to prevent a deterioration of working conditions in a climate of increased labour unionism as well as the general improvement of working conditions at a time when the state of the labouring class was characterised by the government as "appalling". Additionally, labour legislation was considered to be an important preventive measure against the rise of communism . Kingdom of Greece Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1844–1924; 1935–1941; 1944–1973) The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek : Βασίλειον τῆς Ἑλλάδος [vaˈsili.on tis eˈlaðos] )

15456-539: The constitution for a secret organization in Freemasonic fashion. Its purpose was to unite all Greeks in an armed organization to overthrow Turkish rule. The three founders were Nikolaos Skoufas from the Arta province, Emmanuil Xanthos from Patmos , and Athanasios Tsakalov from Ioannina . Soon after they initiated a fourth member, Panagiotis Anagnostopoulos from Andritsaina . Many revolts were planned across

15624-399: The country by the passing of the new constitution was the overthrow of the monarchy on a de jure level (the monarchy had been de facto abolished in the referendum of 1924). Article 2 established a republic (the word used in the constitution is "Δημοκρατία", which can mean both democracy and republic ). The constitution of 1927 established a bicameral legislature . The two houses were

15792-576: The country lacked international recognition and had no robust alliances in the Western world. Following the recapture of the Greek territories by the Ottoman Empire, the great powers of that time (the United Kingdom , the Russian Empire , and the Kingdom of France ) saw the Greek counter-offensive as an opportunity to weaken the Ottoman Empire further and in essence increase their influence in

15960-467: The country third in the world behind Japan and the Soviet Union . By 1926, Greece's light industry supplied 76.4% of the country's demand, while heavy industry was almost non-existent. Between 1923 and 1932 the Greek government borrowed ₯ 950 million which was channelled to infrastructure projects, while another ₯ 600 million was lent to private enterprises. Overall successive governments under

16128-514: The country. Urban life increased following the exchange of populations. In 1920 26% of people lived in urban centers and 74% in rural areas. In 1928 the figures had changed to 33% and 67% respectively, primarily due to the influx of refugees. Due to immigration, some cities saw tremendous growth between the censuses of 1920 and 1928, including Kavala (118%), Piraeus (85%) and Athens (54%). The rapid growth in urban populations resulted in an increase in housing demand, with Athens and Piraeus showing

16296-470: The creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion of Greek nationalism and the Megali idea . Greece remained a quite impoverished country throughout the 19th century. The country lacked raw materials, infrastructure and capital. Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and

16464-415: The desired results. Apart from an interest in regional stability and friendship, the Second Republic, through Venizelos, supported early initiatives for the creation of a European Union . In October 1929, as prime minister, Venizelos gave a speech outlining his government's support for Aristide Briand 's efforts on the matter, saying that "the United States of Europe will represent, even without Russia,

16632-549: The direction of Ioannina . On 5 November, Major Spyros Spyromilios led a revolt in the coastal area of Himarë and expelled the Ottoman garrison without facing significant resistance, while on 20 November Greek troops from western Macedonia entered Korçë . However, Greek forces in the Epirote front had not the numbers to initiate an offensive against the German-designed defensive positions of Bizani that protected

16800-534: The early loss of the strategic centre of all three Macedonian fronts, the city of Thessaloniki , a fact that sealed their fate. In an unexpectedly brilliant and rapid campaign, the Army of Thessaly seized the city. In the absence of secure sea lines of communications, the retention of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople corridor was essential to the overall strategic posture of the Ottoman Empire in

16968-431: The economy in 1934 alone (8% of total revenues). The agricultural nature of Greece's economy was reflected in its exports. In 1933 over 85% of Greece's exports in terms of value were agricultural, with the largest share of exports being raw tobacco (₯738 million). The Great Depression had a big impact on the prices of luxury products such as tobacco and raisins , which were the bulk of Greece's agricultural exports, and

17136-485: The emblem, symbolising power and glory respectively. This particular emblem was criticised for being inappropriate and violating heraldic rules before being replaced by the simple shield following the fall of Pangalos' dictatorship. The peacetime organisation of the Hellenic Army in 1930 was made up of 10 Divisions organised in 4 Corps , with two of the divisions being independent, while an additional brigade

17304-636: The establishment of the Greek National Tourism Organization (EOT) and the Tourist Police in 1929. The creation of a national statistics agency also aided in the organised collection of reliable tourist information, while efforts by the government to regulate the quality of hotels saw an increase in accommodation standards. The EOT also created the notion of the Greek 'summer season' by offering discounts and allowances to boat, train, and air tickets. A hospitality school

17472-566: The establishment of the first autonomous Greek state since the mid-15th century. In January 1822, the First National Assembly of Epidaurus passed the Greek Declaration of Independence (part of the country's First Constitution ), which affirmed the sovereignty of Greece. However, the new Greek state was politically unstable and lacked the resources to preserve its territoriality in the long term. Most importantly,

17640-403: The first Governor of Greece, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias , created political and social instability that endangered the country's relationship with its allies. To avoid escalation and in order to strengthen Greece's ties with the great powers, Greece agreed to become a kingdom in 1832 (see London Conference of 1832 ). Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially the first candidate for

17808-509: The gold standard and the crisis hit Greece. By 27 September 1931 the run on the banks had caused the Bank of Greece to lose $ 3.6 million of its foreign reserves ($ 72 million in today's value). The following couple of years were grim for the Greek economy as it entered recession along with the rest of the global economy. In early 1932 Venizelos asked the League of Nations for a loan of $ 50 million ($ 1117 million in today's value) in order to help

17976-514: The government of Panagis Tsaldaris signed, in Athens , the Balkan Pact (or Balkan Entente ), a military alliance between Greece, Romania , Turkey and Yugoslavia, which further improved the Republic's relations with its Balkan neighbours, although the exclusion of Bulgaria and Albania left some matters unsettled. Eventually, however, Great Power politics derailed the Pact, which never brought

18144-708: The hands of a group of politicians, most of whom had been commanders in the War of Independence against the Ottomans. Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the national question. Greeks dreamed of liberating all the Greek lands and reconstituting a state embracing them all, with Constantinople as its capital. This was called the Great Idea ( Megali Idea ), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, notably Crete , Thessaly and Macedonia . During

18312-450: The individual leaders, often bearing their names, two broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by Eleftherios Venizelos , and the conservatives, led initially by Theodoros Deligiannis and later by Thrasivoulos Zaimis . Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century, alternating in office. Trikoupis favoured cooperation with Great Britain in foreign affairs,

18480-425: The industrial and manufacturing sectors. One of the main electoral promises made by Venizelos during his campaign for the premiership in 1928 was to change the face of Greece in four years by funding large-scale infrastructure projects aimed at increasing production. This was largely achieved by his government, and between 1929 and 1938 Greece had industrial growth rates that averaged between 5.11% and 5.73%, ranking

18648-412: The island until 27 October) and establishing an anchorage at Moudros Bay . This move was of major strategic importance, as it provided the Greeks with a forward base in close distance to the Dardanelles, the Ottoman fleet's main anchorage and refuge. In view of the Ottoman fleet's superiority in speed and broadside weight, the Greek planners expected it to sortie from the straits early in the war. Given

18816-572: The islands and was eased only by large-scale emigration to the United States. There was little education in the countryside. Nevertheless, there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and elegant public buildings were erected in Athens. Despite the bad financial situation, Athens staged the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, which proved a great success. The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during

18984-532: The issue of a special " Tomos " decree which brought it back to a normal status. As a result, it retains certain special links with the " Mother Church ". There were only four bishops, and they had political roles. In 1833 Parliament dissolved 400 small monasteries having fewer than five monks or nuns. Priests were not salaried; in rural areas he was a peasant farmer himself dependent for his livelihood on his farm work and from fees and offerings by his parishioners. His ecclesiastical duties were limited to administering

19152-525: The lack of coordination between the Greek and Serbian HQs cost the Greeks a setback in the Battle of Vevi on 15 November [ O.S. 2 November] 1912, when the Greek 5th Infantry Division crossed its way with the VI Ottoman Corps (a part of the Vardar Army consisting of the 16th, 17th and 18th Nizamiye divisions), retreating to Albania following the Battle of Prilep against

19320-419: The leadership of Eleftherios Venizelos , and the moderately conservative-monarchist People's Party under Panagis Tsaldaris . These parties were the primary means by which Greeks participated in the political life and they were not parties built on principles or class consciousness , but rather "parties of personalities" relying on charismatic leaders around which the base coalesced. The traditional Greek café

19488-540: The mighty British navy , and citing the need for a respite after two wars, King Constantine favoured continued neutrality, while Venizelos actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next elections , and again formed the government. When Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally in October 1915, Venizelos invited Entente forces into Greece (the Salonika front ), for which he

19656-493: The military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser. Venizelos quickly established himself as an influential political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections . Venizelos became Prime Minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his personality would dominate Greek politics. Venizelos initiated

19824-622: The monarchy is one which divided Greek society, as even some Liberal Party supporters, including the Party's founder, Eleftherios Venizelos , spoke out in favour of retaining the monarchy as a safety net against instability. After the defeat of Greece by the Turkish National Movement (the " Asia Minor Catastrophe ") of 1922, the defeated army revolted against the royal government . Under Venizelist officers like Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas , King Constantine I

19992-434: The month of October of the year 1929 [...] the whole world has been beset by an economic crisis, the extent and intensity of which has perhaps never been seen before. Until the month of September 1931, Greece, without anyone of course being able to claim that she did not feel the repercussion of this crisis at all, was going ahead with the task of its economic reconstruction with a firm step [...] Eleftherios Venizelos in

20160-614: The nationalist Greek press, with rumours even spreading that he had converted to Islam. Karolidis was elected to the Parliament and remained in Constantinople until September 1912. As war between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League , to which Greece had acceded in May, became inevitable, he left for Germany. He returned to Greece only towards the end of the First Balkan War in May 1913. Karolidis resumed his teaching at

20328-414: The only important export commodities were currants , raisins and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and Piraeus became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses. By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and public insolvency was declared in 1893. Poverty was rife in the rural areas and

20496-548: The outbreak of the Second World War . Capital controls were also implemented in that period. Under the Second Republic, the Greek drachma (sign: ₯, Δρ or Δρχ) continued to exist as the national currency. As part of the government's efforts to reform the banking system ( see above ), the Bank of Greece was established in 1928. Following this move, Greece's largest commercial bank, the National Bank of Greece , could no longer print currency. In addition, Greece joined

20664-582: The outcome of the battle of Yenidje, the Bulgarian high command urgently dispatched their 7th Rila Division from the north in the direction of the city. The division arrived there a week later, the day after its surrender to the Greeks. Until 10 November, the Greek-occupied zone had been expanded to the line from Lake Dojran to the Pangaion hills west to Kavalla . In southern Yugoslavia however,

20832-519: The patriarch in Constantinople. The government declared the church to be autocephalous (independent) in 1833 in a political decision of the Bavarian regents acting for King Otto , who was a minor. The decision roiled Greek politics for decades as royal authorities took increasing control. The new status was finally recognised as such by the Patriarchate in 1850, under compromise conditions with

21000-598: The period 1929–1936. The complexity of the tax code of the era made it difficult to determine the average tax rate imposed on income, however the Great Greek Encyclopedia notes that the tax burden in Greece was the highest in the Balkans , approaching the levels seen in wealthy western European nations, bringing in the estimated equivalent of 25.66% of total gross national income in tax revenue in 1932–1933. Property tax ranged from 4% to 11%, but with

21168-534: The plains and islands of Greece were in Ottoman hands; while in contrast, the mountains and highlands of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. In the context of an ardent desire for independence from Turkish rule, and with the explicit influence of similar secret societies elsewhere in Europe, three Greeks came together in 1814 in Odesa to decide

21336-405: The plebiscite, in the closing chapter of his History of the Greek Nation from Antiquity until 1930 , Pavlos Karolidis notes that although the question of the form of government had been settled formally, it remained unresolved in the national consciousness. He goes on to add that "the regime change was carried out by men who imposed their preferred form of government posthaste as representatives of

21504-443: The pre-war Greek border to Vlorë was also instituted on 3 December, isolating the newly established Provisional Government of Albania based there from any outside support. Lieutenant Nikolaos Votsis scored a major success for Greek morale on 31 October: he sailed his torpedo boat No. 11, under the cover of night, into the harbor of Thessaloniki , sank the old Ottoman ironclad battleship Feth-i Bülend and escaped unharmed. On

21672-802: The premier Greek institutions of the Ottoman Empire , the Great School of the Nation in Constantinople and the Evangelical School of Smyrna . In 1867 he enrolled in the School of Philosophy of the University of Athens , and in 1870 he went to Germany on a scholarship. He studied at the universities of Munich , Strasbourg and Tübingen and was awarded his doctorate in 1872. On his return from Germany, he initially taught in

21840-553: The prospect of the return of the monarchy became more likely, Venizelist officers launched a coup in March 1935, which was suppressed by General Georgios Kondylis . On 10 October 1935, the chiefs of the Armed Forces overthrew the government of Panagis Tsaldaris and forced President Zaimis to appoint Kondylis prime minister in his place. Later that day, Kondylis forced Zaimis himself to resign, declared himself regent and abolished

22008-644: The rationalistic and materialistic ideas that had seeped in from secular Western Europe. It promoted catechism schools, and circles for the study of the Bible. At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted a much more democratic constitution in 1864. The powers of the king were reduced and the Senate was abolished, and the franchise was extended to all adult males. Nevertheless, Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it had always been. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis repeatedly occurred as prime ministers. Although parties were centered around

22176-464: The referendum, then-Prime Minister Alexandros Papanastasiou defended government plans to pass such a decree, saying that the government must be allowed to move forward with its reforms without any sort of hindrance for a limited amount of time. The fragile nature of the young Greek republic became evident from the first year of its existence. While the Parliament was still debating the new constitution ( see below ), General Theodoros Pangalos organised

22344-492: The reign of George I. Initially, the royal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental instability, until the introduction of the dedilomeni principle of parliamentary confidence in 1875 by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis . Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals, however, remained the norm in Greek politics and frustrated the country's development. Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like

22512-519: The republic. A heavily rigged plebiscite occurred on 3 November which resulted in an implausible 98% supporting the return of the monarchy. King George II returned to Athens on 23 November, with Kondylis as prime minister. The Constitution of 1927 is considered a progressive one for its time. Written to replace the Constitution of 1926, which was never implemented, it was passed in the parliament on 3 June 1927. The most profound change brought upon

22680-520: The results of these "cat and mouse" operations were always the same: "the Greek destroyers always managed to remain outside the Ottoman warships' range, and each time the cruisers fired a few rounds before breaking off the chase." In preparation for the next attempt to break the Greek blockade, the Ottoman Admiralty decided to create a diversion by sending the light cruiser Hamidiye , captained by Rauf Bey, to raid Greek merchant shipping in

22848-495: The ruling and withdrew from Bulgaria, but not before 50 people had died in the short conflict. Further, Greece protested at the double standards that existed for dealing with such incidents, ones for small countries and ones for Great Powers like Italy , which occupied Corfu in the Corfu Incident just two years prior. Moreover, there was a growing democratic deficit in Greece between liberal democracy as enshrined in

23016-468: The sacraments, supervising funerals, the blessings of crops, and exorcism. Few attended seminaries. By the 1840s, there was a nationwide revival, run by travelling preachers. The government arrested several and tried to shut down the revival, but it proved too powerful when the revivalists denounced three bishops for purchasing their office. By the 1880s the "Anaplasis" ("Regeneration") Movement led to renewed spiritual energy and enlightenment. It fought against

23184-586: The same day, Greek troops of the Epirus Army seized the Ottoman naval base of Preveza . The Ottomans scuttled the four ships present there, but the Greeks were able to salvage the Italian-built torpedo-boats Antalya and Tokat , which were commissioned into the Greek Navy as Nikopolis and Tatoi respectively. On 9 November, the wooden Ottoman armed steamer Trabzon was intercepted and sunk by

23352-415: The same year indicated that, on average, foreign nationals stayed in Greece for 18 days, compared with 101 days for Greek nationals living permanently abroad, for a total average of 31 days stay. Greeks went abroad as tourists at a much lesser frequency, with 15,562 Greeks exiting the country for tourism elsewhere, of which only a third were going abroad primarily for leisure. This was due to the devaluation of

23520-507: The second try two days later resulted in an indecisive engagement between the Greek destroyers and the cruiser Mecidiye . The war's first major fleet action, the Naval Battle of Elli , was fought two days later, on 16 December [ O.S. 3 December] 1912. The Ottoman fleet, with four battleships, nine destroyers and six torpedo boats, sailed to the entrance of the straits. The lighter Ottoman vessels remained behind, but

23688-444: The short-lived democratic form of governance that followed, the normalisation of Greco-Turkish relations which lasted until the 1950s, and to the first successful efforts to significantly industrialise the nation. The Second Hellenic Republic was abolished on 10 October 1935, and its abolition was confirmed by referendum on 3 November of the same year which is widely accepted as having been mired with electoral fraud . The fall of

23856-560: The short-lived dictatorship of Theodoros Pangalos four symbols were added to the national emblem in the four quarters created by the cross: the head of Athena , symbolising the ancient Greek period ; a helmet and spear , symbolising the Hellenistic period ; a double-headed eagle , symbolising the Byzantine period ; and a Phoenix rising from its ashes, symbolising the modern Greek period. A wreath of oak and laurel surrounded

24024-561: The smallest were the Cyclades with 129,702 people. The largest in total area was Macedonia at 34,892.8 km (13,472.2 sq mi), while the smallest were the Ionian Islands , at 1,921.5 km (741.9 sq mi). The Ionian Islands were also Greece's most densely populated region, with a population density of 110.93/km (287.3/sq mi). For most of its history, Greece had two distinct national flags which co-existed:

24192-540: The sovereign people so as to educate them, but this is considered by many not to be a true expression of the national conscience and will". The Republic was proclaimed on 25 March 1924 by the Parliament; the chosen date was very significant as the Greek War of Independence is traditionally celebrated on 25 March. Following the proclamation of the change in form of government from constitutional monarchy (βασιλευομένη δημοκρατία, literally crowned republic ) to republic (αβασίλευτη δημοκρατία, literally uncrowned republic ),

24360-535: The strategic point of view these victories were enabled partially by the weakened condition of the Ottoman armies brought about by the active presence of the Greek army and fleet. With the declaration of war, the Greek Army of Thessaly under Crown Prince Constantine advanced to the north, successfully overcoming Ottoman opposition in the fortified Straits of Sarantaporo. After another victory at Giannitsa on 2 November [ O.S. 20 October] 1912,

24528-478: The vote was "historic for the order which prevailed during the voting time", Skrip commented that people refrained from "any action which could be seen as a provocation" and that "the military measures [taken] made this easier", while the Communist Party 's Rizospastis commented on the "relative calm" that prevailed in the electoral district of Athens. Makedonia added that so many people disregarded

24696-448: The war became known, was partially reflected in the military coup which followed it. The coup, orchestrated by army officers, took the name The Revolution . Although The Revolution itself did not abolish the monarchy, one of its first acts was to shut down all the royalist newspapers as well as use the Armed Forces to prosecute known royalists (including Ioannis Metaxas , who was forced to flee abroad). The decision whether or not to abolish

24864-427: The yellow "no" ballots, that the floors inside the electoral centers and the streets around were littered with them. Meanwhile, the decree of 1924 "on the safeguard of the republican regime" introduced the jail sentence for a minimum of six months for advocating in public the return of the monarchy, disputing the results of the referendum or publishing slander against the founders of the republic. In an interview following

25032-489: Was a Greek historian who lived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Karolidis was born in 1849 in the village of Androniki ( Turkish : Endürlük , now a suburb of Kayseri ) in Cappadocia . His father Konstantinos Karolidis or Karloglou was a wealthy landowner and wheat merchant. Like many Cappadocian Greeks , Karolidis' first language was Ottoman Turkish , but he was educated at Greek schools, including two of

25200-580: Was again dismissed by Constantine. In August 1916, after several incidents where both combatants encroached upon the still theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled Thessaloniki, and Venizelos established a separate government there. Constantine was now ruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars ("Old Greece"), and his government was subject to repeated humiliations from

25368-456: Was again forced to abdicate, and died in exile in 1923. His eldest son and successor, King George II , was soon after asked by the parliament to leave Greece so the nation could decide what form of government it should adopt. In a 1924 plebiscite , Greeks voted to create a republic. These events marked the culmination of a process that had begun in 1915 between King Constantine and his political nemesis, Eleftherios Venizelos. However, and despite

25536-526: Was also inaugurated in 1927, with over 1,600 participating companies from numerous countries in 1933, and great economic benefit to Northern Greece . In the early years of the Republic, the government of Alexandros Zaimis took a loan from British banks that totalled £ 9 million (£679 million in today's value) intended for land reclamation and improvement (primarily in the northern regions). The conditions for this loan, however, stipulated that Greece had to stabilise its currency (the Greek drachma ) by adopting

25704-550: Was established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic . It was internationally recognised by the Treaty of Constantinople , where Greece also secured its full independence from the Ottoman Empire after nearly four centuries. The Kingdom of Greece was dissolved in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was established following Greece's defeat by Turkey in

25872-557: Was established in 1930 to consolidate the Air Force, and in 1933 the Hellenic Air Force was made up of 5 air bases , each with 2 squadrons (usually), and utilised Breguet 19 , Potez 25 , Hawker Horsley , Greek-built Velos , and Fairey III planes. Military expenditures accounted for ₯2.04 billion in 1935; 18.8% of total government expenditures. Law enforcement was handled by a series of different bodies, including

26040-554: Was forced to leave the country, without actually abdicating in June 1917. His second son Alexander became king, while the remaining royal family and the most prominent royalists followed into exile. Venizelos now led a superficially united Greece into the war on the Allied side, but underneath the surface, the division of Greek society into Venizelists and anti-Venizelists, the so-called National Schism , became more entrenched. Pavlos Karolidis Pavlos Karolidis or Karolides ( Greek : Παύλος Καρολίδης , c. 1849 – 26 July 1930)

26208-459: Was founded, with staff educated in Switzerland, as well as a school for interpreters and tour guides. Data from the year 1932 indicates that 72,102 tourists visited the country, of which approximately 18,000 were Greek nationals, who were living permanently in another country. The number continued to rise, and in 1935, the last year of the republic, tourist arrivals stood at 126,218. Data from

26376-564: Was later raised and repaired). The Hamidiye then left the Aegean for the Eastern Mediterranean, making stops at Beirut and Port Said before entering the Red Sea . Although providing a major morale boost for the Ottomans, the operation failed to achieve its primary objective, as Kountouriotis refused to leave his post and pursue the Hamidiye . Four days later, on 18 January [ O.S. 5 January] 1913, when

26544-519: Was not attacked until 13 March 1913, out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearby Dodecanese . The clashes there were short-lived as the Ottoman forces withdrew to the Anatolian mainland so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March. At the same time, with the aid of numerous merchant ships converted to auxiliary cruisers , a loose naval blockade on the Ottoman coasts from

26712-445: Was partially extended to women, who were now allowed the right to vote, but not stand for election, in local elections. The first opportunity to do so was given to them in the same year in Thessaloniki , where 240 women exercised their right. Nationwide the turnout of women remained low, with only approximately 15,000 participating in the local elections of 1934. The inclusion of women as candidates for election in numerous electoral lists

26880-443: Was reinstated and reelected to the office in 1929, but was forced to resign for health reasons later that year. He was succeeded by Alexandros Zaimis , who served until the restoration of the monarchy in 1935. Despite a period of stability and sense of well-being under the government of Eleftherios Venizelos on 4 July 1928 – 6 March 1933, the effects of the Great Depression were severely felt, and political instability returned. As

27048-442: Was simply known as Greece. In the official variant of Greek that was the language of state, known as Katharevousa , this was Ἑλλάς ( Ellás ). In Demotic , or 'popular Greek', it was Ἑλλάδα ( Elláda ). Sometimes, the name Hellas was used in English as well. The collapse of the Hellenic Army in Asia Minor was quickly followed by the collapse of the government . Public outrage at the Asia Minor disaster, as Greece's defeat in

27216-484: Was stationed in the Archipelago. The organisation of the Army differed from its wartime composition; not all divisions had artillery support units during peacetime, for example. In 1933 the Hellenic Navy was made up of 2 battleships ( Kilkis and Lemnos ; both docked permanently), 1 armoured cruiser ( Georgios Averof ), 1 cruiser ( Elli ), 12 destroyers , 9 torpedo boats , 6 submarines , 2 fast attack craft , and 9 auxiliary support vessels. A Ministry of Aviation

27384-402: Was struck down by the courts with the argument that the law had only given women "a limited franchise". The table below illustrates the performance of the two major political parties in the parliamentary and senate elections that took place under the Second Republic. The Republic's foreign policy was largely shaped by the Premiership of Eleftherios Venizelos . Before his re-ascention to power in

27552-404: Was suspended in April 1932, when the Drachma was devalued and Greece left the Gold Standard. Following its devaluation, the Drachma was the second least-valued currency in Europe, marginally beating the Romanian leu . For the rest of the Second Republic, Greece showed interest in joining the Gold bloc . The systematic development of the Greek tourism industry began under the Second Republic, with

27720-471: Was the battleground for everyday political discussions, and the high degree of personal involvement in political discussions set Greece apart from other constitutional countries. This created both positive and negative side effects; on the one hand the population was politically involved on a personal level, and therefore incentivised, but on the other this political involvement made the country highly critical. In 1930, after five years of deliberation, suffrage

27888-518: Was the central arms depot for the Western Armies). The Ottoman forces estimated that 15,000 officers and men had been killed during the campaign in Macedonia, bringing total losses up to 41,000 soldiers. Another direct consequence was that the destruction of the Macedonian Army sealed the fate of the Ottoman Vardar Army, which was fighting the Serbs to the north. The fall of Thessaloniki left it strategically isolated, without logistical supply and depth to manoeuvre, ensuring its destruction. Upon learning of

28056-427: Was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka ). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s. All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete , a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and

28224-448: Was ultimately achieved and greatly benefited the domestic industrial economy. When the Republic was established, more than two thirds of the country's wheat requirement had to be imported from abroad; by the fall of the Republic this had reverted and Greece was practically self-sustaining in terms of wheat thanks to tariffs established by the government and incentives given for the cultivation of wheat. Ultimately however falling prices during

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