Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture . Architectural theory is taught in all architecture schools and is practiced by the world's leading architects . Some forms that architecture theory takes are the lecture or dialogue, the treatise or book, and the paper project or competition entry . Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. It has existed in some form since antiquity , and as publishing became more common, architectural theory gained an increased richness. Books, magazines, and journals published an unprecedented number of works by architects and critics in the 20th century. As a result, styles and movements formed and dissolved much more quickly than the relatively enduring modes in earlier history. It is to be expected that the use of the internet will further the discourse on architecture in the 21st century.
68-547: Remment Lucas Koolhaas ( Dutch pronunciation: [rɛm ˈkoːlɦaːs] ; born 17 November 1944) is a Dutch architect, architectural theorist , urbanist and Professor in Practice of Architecture and Urban Design at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University . He is often cited as a representative of Deconstructivism and is the author of Delirious New York : A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan . He
136-436: A "horizontal skyscraper" in the U.S. The building, popularly called "The Big Pants" by Beijing residents, was designed as a series of volumes which attempt to tie together the numerous departments onto the nebulous site, but also introduce routes (again, the concept of cross-programming) for the general public through the site, allowing them some degree of access to the production procedure. An unfortunate incident that highlighted
204-498: A "return to Nature." Reaction against the dominance of neoclassical architecture came to the fore in the 1820s with Augustus Pugin providing a moral and theoretical basis for Gothic Revival architecture , and in the 1840s John Ruskin developed this ethos. The American sculptor Horatio Greenough published the essay "'American Architecture" in August 1843, in which he rejected the imitation of old styles of buildings and outlined
272-496: A fragile world. How frustrating that the Guggenheim couldn’t force a little more intellectual rigor on this romp." With his Prada projects, Koolhaas ventured into providing architecture for the fleeting world of fashion and with celebrity-studded cachet: not unlike Garnier's Opera, the central space of Koolhaas' Beverly Hills Prada store is occupied by a massive central staircase, ostensibly displaying select wares, but mainly
340-453: A language which can be invented and re-invented every time it is used. This theory influenced the so-called deconstructivist architecture. In contrast, network society innovators, especially Silicon Valley software developers, have embraced Christopher Alexander 's emphasis on The Timeless Way of Building (1979) based on pattern languages that are optimized on-site as construction unfolds. Since 2000, architectural theory has also had to face
408-533: A profound influence on architects of the Renaissance , adding archaeological underpinnings to the rise of the Renaissance style , which was already under way. Renaissance architects such as Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti found in De architectura their rationale for raising their branch of knowledge to a scientific discipline. Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra - literally "science of architecture" are texts on
476-456: A treatise written in Latin and Greek on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. Probably written between 27 and 23 BC, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived. Divided into ten sections or "books", it covers almost every aspect of Roman architecture, from town planning, materials, decorations, temples, water supplies, etc. It rigorously defines
544-468: Is also a notable phenomenologist (especially in Heidegger studies). Others, like Beatriz Colomina and Mary McLeod, expand historical understandings of architecture to include lesser or minor discourses that have influenced the development of architectural ideas over time. Studies in feminism in architecture, and in sexuality and gender as potent cultural expressions, are also considered an integral part of
612-569: Is analysed according to "performance", a criterion involving variables with debatable credibility: density, newness, shape, size, money etc. In 2003, Content , a 544-page magazine-style book designed by &&& Creative and published by Koolhaas, gives an overview of the last decade of OMA projects including his designs for the Prada shops, the Seattle Public Library , a plan to save Cambridge from Harvard by rechanneling
680-619: Is introduced in Doina Petrescu 's and Kim Trogal's edited a volume on the Social (Re)Production of Architecture and in the volume Critical Care. Architecture and Urbanism for a Broken Planet edited by Angelika Fitz and Elke Krasny . Anti-architecture Kunsthal The Kunsthal ( Dutch pronunciation: [ˈkʏnstɦɑl] ; English: Art Hall ) is an art space in Rotterdam . It opened in 1992. The museum
748-518: Is often cited anachronistically today as a vehicle for the criticism of the Modern Movement . Also on the topic of artistic notions with regard to urbanism was Louis Sullivan 's The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered of 1896. In this essay, Sullivan penned his famous alliterative adage "form ever follows function"; a phrase that was to be later adopted as a central tenet of Modern architectural theory. While later architects adopted
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#1732783493155816-418: Is plural and multicolored. There are different dominant schools of architectural theory which are based on linguistic analysis, philosophy, post-structuralism, or cultural theory. For instance, there is emerging interest in the re-discovery of the post-modernist project Sam Jacob, in the definition of new radical tendencies of architecture and its implication in the development of cities (Pier Vittorio Aureli), in
884-651: Is seen by some as one of the significant architectural thinkers and urbanists of his generation, by others as a self-important iconoclast. In 2000, Rem Koolhaas won the Pritzker Prize . In 2008, Time put him in their top 100 of The World's Most Influential People . He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2014. Remment Koolhaas was born on 17 November 1944 in Rotterdam , Netherlands, to Anton Koolhaas (1912–1992) and Selinde Pietertje Roosenburg (born 1920). His father
952-804: Is situated in the Museumpark of Rotterdam next to the Natuurhistorisch Museum Rotterdam , and in the vicinity of the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen . Entrance to the Kunsthal is from the Westzeedijk. The building was designed by the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas together with project architect Fuminori Hoshino of the architectural firm OMA ( Office for Metropolitan Architecture ). Wim van Krimpen
1020-726: Is the " Program ": with the rise of modernism in the 20th century the "Program" became the key theme of architectural design. The notion of the Program involves "an act to edit function and human activities" as the pretext of architectural design: epitomised in the maxim form follows function , first popularised by architect Louis Sullivan at the beginning of the 20th century. The notion was first questioned in Delirious New York , in his analysis of high-rise architecture in Manhattan. An early design method derived from such thinking
1088-637: Is usually seen in the context of the Jugendstil , his demand for "the elimination of ornament" joined the slogan " form follows function " as a principle of the architectural so-called Modern Movement that came to dominate the mid-20th century. Walter Gropius , Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier provided the theoretical basis for the International Style with aims of using industrialised architecture to reshape society. Frank Lloyd Wright , while modern in rejecting historic revivalism,
1156-404: Is why university courses on architecture theory may often spend just as much time discussing philosophy and cultural studies as buildings, and why advanced postgraduate research and doctoral dissertations focus on philosophical topics in connection with architectural humanities. Some architectural theorists aim at discussing philosophical themes, or engage in direct dialogues with philosophers, as in
1224-479: The Charles River , Lagos' future as Earth's third-biggest city, as well as interviews with Martha Stewart and Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown . In 2005, Rem Koolhaas co-founded Volume Magazine together with Mark Wigley and Ole Bouman . Volume Magazine – the collaborative project by Archis (Amsterdam), AMO and C-lab ( Columbia University NY) – is a dynamic experimental think tank devoted to
1292-802: The Parc de la Villette , Paris (1982) and the residence for the Prime Minister of Ireland (1979), as well as the Kunsthal in Rotterdam (1992). These schemes would attempt to put into practice many of the findings Koolhaas made in his book Delirious New York (1978), which was written while he was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies in New York, directed by Peter Eisenman . Koolhaas's book Delirious New York set
1360-686: The UK , exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh , and influenced the Vienna Secession . On the Continent, the theories of Viollet-le-Duc and Gottfried Semper provided the springboard for enormous vitality of thought dedicated to architectural innovation and the renovation of the notion of style. Semper in particular developed an international following, in Germany , England , Switzerland , Austria , Bohemia , France , Italy and
1428-501: The United States . The generation born during the middle-third of the 19th century was largely enthralled with the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of a breathtaking historical scope and a methodological granularity. In contrast to more recent, and thus "modern", thematically self-organized theoretical activities, this generation did not coalesce into a "movement." They did, however, seem to converge on Semper's use of
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#17327834931551496-562: The Venice Biennale of 1980, curated by Italian architect Paolo Portoghesi , titled "Presence of the Past". Each architect had to design a stage-like "frontage" to a Potemkin -type internal street; the façades by Costantino Dardi [ it ] , Frank Gehry and OMA were the only ones that did not employ Post-Modern architecture motifs or historical references. Other early critically received (yet unbuilt) projects included
1564-478: The 1st century BC, with the work of Vitruvius . This does not mean, however, that such works did not exist, given that many works never survived antiquity. Vitruvius was a Roman writer , architect , and engineer active in the 1st century BC. He was the most prominent architectural theorist in the Roman Empire known today, having written De architectura (known today as The Ten Books of Architecture ),
1632-499: The COVID-19 pandemic. Koolhaas was previously married to Madelon Vriesendorp , an artist who is the mother of his two children, Charlie, a photographer, and Tomas, a filmmaker. Koolhaas divorced Vriesendorp in 2012. He has known his current partner Petra Blaisse , an interior and landscape designer, since 1986. Architectural theory There is little information or evidence about major architectural theory in antiquity, until
1700-515: The City"; firstly the 720-page Mutations , followed by The Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping (2002) and The Great Leap Forward (2002). All three books published student work analysing what others would regard as "non-cities", sprawling conglomerates such as Lagos in Nigeria, west Africa, which the authors argue are highly functional despite a lack of infrastructure. The authors also examine
1768-467: The Enlightenment include Julien-David Le Roy , Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier , Giovanni Battista Piranesi , Robert Adam , James Stuart, Georg Friedrich Hegel and Nicholas Revett . A vibrant strain of Neoclassicism , inherited from Marc-Antoine Laugier 's seminal Essai, provided the foundation for two generations of international activity around the core themes of classicism, primitivism and
1836-626: The Enlightenment witnessed considerable development in architectural theory on the European continent. New archaeological discoveries (such as those of Pompeii and Herculaneum ) drove new interest in Classical art and architecture. Thus, the term neoclassicism , exemplified by the writings of Prussian art critic Johann Joachim Winckelmann , arose to designate 18th-century architecture, which looked to these new classical precedents for inspiration in building design. Major architectural theorists of
1904-516: The Indonesian cause for autonomy from the colonial Dutch in his writing. When the war of independence was won, he was invited over to run a cultural programme for three years and the family moved to Jakarta in 1952. "It was a very important age for me," Koolhaas recalls "and I really lived as an Asian." In 1969, Koolhaas co-wrote The White Slave , a Dutch film noir, and later wrote an unproduced script for American soft-porn king Russ Meyer . He
1972-409: The Westzeedijk and gateway to the Museumpark is also a traffic intersection and meeting place for various public flows. Lately the museum had exhibitions featuring artists such as Chuck Close , Andy Warhol and Arne Quinze . And recently the exhibition Drawn: Rotterdam! One-And-A-Half-Metre-Society about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. On October 16, 2012, seven paintings were stolen from
2040-493: The abbreviated phrase "form follows function" as a polemic in service of functionalist doctrine, Sullivan wrote of function with regard to biological functions of the natural order. Another influential planning theorist of this time was Ebenezer Howard , who founded the garden city movement . This movement aimed to form communities with architecture in the Arts and Crafts style at Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City and popularised
2108-497: The alarms had gone off the thieves had left the premises by the time police arrived. According to Rotterdam police, "The alarm system in the Kunsthal is supposed to be state of the art. We've got no reason to believe that it's not but somehow the people responsible for this found a way in and a way out." Director of Art Loss Register suspects that the most valuable paintings were targeted and that they could be worth "hundreds of millions of euros" if legally sold at an auction. However,
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2176-688: The attempt to develop a new formal language. Another trend is the exploration of those computational techniques that are influenced by algorithms relevant to biological processes and sometimes referred to as Digital morphogenesis . Trying to utilize Computational creativity in architecture, Genetic algorithms developed in computer science are used to evolve designs on a computer, and some of these are proposed and built as actual structures. Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism. Contemporary architecture's theoretical world
2244-562: The case of Peter Eisenman 's and Bernard Tschumi 's interest in Derrida 's thought, or Anthony Vidler 's interest in the works of Freud and Lacan , in addition to an interest in Gaston Bachelard 's Poetics of Space or texts by Gilles Deleuze . This has also been the case with educators in academia like Dalibor Vesely or Alberto-Perez Gomez , and in more recent years this philosophical orientation has been reinforced through
2312-458: The classical orders of architecture . It also proposes the three fundamental laws that architecture must obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, venustas , translated in the 17th century by Sir Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness, commodity, and delight (meaning structural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty). The rediscovery of Vitruvius' work in 1414 had
2380-526: The concept of Realismus , and they are thus labelled proponents of architectural realism. Among the most active Architectural Realists were: Georg Heuser, Rudolf Redtenbacher, Constantin Lipsius , Hans Auer , Paul Sédille , Lawrence Harvey (architect)|Lawrence Harvey, Otto Wagner and Richard Streiter. In 1889 Camillo Sitte published Der Städtebau nach seinem künstlerischen Grundsätzen (translated as City Planning According to Artistic Principles ) which
2448-433: The creative artist as unique genius. This limited the relevance of his theoretical propositions. Towards the end of the century postmodern architecture reacted against the austerity of High Modern (International Style) principles, viewed as narrowly normative and doctrinaire. In contemporary architectural discourse theory has become more concerned with its position within culture generally, and thought in particular. This
2516-532: The embrace of the idea of discipline and in a new formalist approach to architecture through the appropriation of concepts from the Object Oriented philosophy. It is too early, however, to say whether any of these explorations will have widespread or lasting impact on architecture. In the second decade of the twenty-first century, there is the emergence of architectural theory based on the frameworks of social reproduction theory and care ethics. This approach
2584-465: The folly of the circulation scheme (no effective fire egress for people on the upper floors), was the construction fire that nearly destroyed the building and a nearby hotel in 2009. In February 2020, his exhibition Countryside, The Future opened at the Guggenheim in New York City. The exhibition closed within a month, after New York City closed all its major art institutions in connection with
2652-427: The functional relationship between architecture and decoration. These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture . Towards the end of the century, there occurred a blossoming of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskin's ideals underpinned the emergence of the Arts and Crafts movement exemplified by the writings of William Morris . This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in
2720-459: The influence of shopping habits and the recent rapid growth of cities in China. Critics of the books have criticised Koolhaas for being cynical, – as if Western capitalism and globalization demolish all cultural identity – highlighted in the notion expounded in the books that "In the end, there will be little else for us to do but shop". Perhaps such caustic cynicism can be read as a "realism" about
2788-482: The laborious nature of transcription, few examples of architectural theory were penned during this time. Most written works during this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the Bible. Since the architectural theories were on structures, fewer of them were transcribed. The Abbot Suger 's Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis was an architectural document that emerged with Gothic architecture . Another
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2856-828: The late nineties he worked on the design for the new headquarters for Universal. Indeed, online marketing and propaganda has been a hallmark of OMA 's rise in the current century. It has also led to pointed criticism, such as the critique by New York Magazine critic Justin Davidson, who found the 2020 Guggenheim exhibition Countryside, the Future "mildly amusing if it weren’t such terrible waste — of attention, of gallery square footage, of resources, talent, and expertise. Bored with being an architect and building things, Koolhaas lets his fingertips graze important topics, genuine insights, and actual lives. He treats them all as ironic bric-a-brac, meaningless souvenirs of his meanderings through
2924-401: The latter 20th-century theoretical discourse, and are associated with such persons as Dolores Hayden, Catherine Ingraham, Jennifer Bloomer and Sylvia Lavin. The notion that theory entails critique also stemmed from post-structural literary studies in the work of many other theorists and architects, such as Mark Wigley and Diana Agrest, among others. In their theories, architecture is compared to
2992-594: The modern ages. From Alberti, good architecture is validated through the Vitruvian triad , which defines its purpose. This triplet conserved all its validity until the 19th century. A major transition into the 17th century and ultimately to the Age of Enlightenment was secured through the advanced mathematical and optical research of the celebrated architect and geometer Girard Desargues , with an emphasis on his studies on conics, perspective and projective geometry. The Age of
3060-533: The most costly and celebrated OMA projects of the new century were the massive Central China Television Headquarters Building in Beijing, China, and the new building for the Shenzhen Stock Exchange . In his design for the new CCTV Headquarters in Beijing (2009), Koolhaas did not opt for the stereotypical skyscraper, often used to symbolise and landmark such government enterprises; he patented
3128-535: The most important issue was not the architectural shape or form of a building but the quality of the urban spaces that buildings collectively enclose, the whole being more than the sum of its parts. The Modern Movement rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier energetically dismissed the work. Nevertheless, Sitte's work was revisited by post-modern architects and theorists from the 1970s, especially following its republication in 1986 by Rizzoli, in an edition edited by Collins and Collins (now published by Dover ). The book
3196-596: The museum. The paintings were Monet 's Waterloo Bridge and Charing Cross Bridge, London , Picasso 's Tete d'Arlequin , Gauguin 's Femme devant une fenêtre ouverte , Matisse 's La Liseuse en Blanc et Jaune , De Haan's Autoportrait , and Lucian Freud 's Woman with Eyes Closed . At the time the museum was showing avant-garde art work by more than 150 artists from the Triton Foundation as part of their 20th anniversary celebrations. The theft took place that morning at around 3:00 AM. Even though
3264-461: The office he founded in 1975 together with architects Elia Zenghelis , Zoe Zenghelis and (Koolhaas's wife) Madelon Vriesendorp in London. They were later joined by one of Koolhaas's students, Zaha Hadid – who would soon go on to achieve success in her own right. An early work which would mark their difference from the then dominant postmodern classicism of the late 1970s, was their contribution to
3332-406: The omnipotent forces of urbanism into unique design forms and connections organised along the lines of present-day society. Koolhaas continuously incorporates his observations of the contemporary city within his design activities: calling such a condition the ‘culture of congestion’. Again, shopping is examined for "intellectual comfort", whilst the unregulated taste and densification of Chinese cities
3400-523: The pace for his career. Koolhaas analyzes the "chance-like" nature of city life: "The City is an addictive machine from which there is no escape" "Rem Koolhaas...defined the city as a collection of 'red hot spots'." ( Anna Klingmann ). As Koolhaas himself has acknowledged, this approach had already been evident in the Japanese Metabolist Movement in the 1960s and early 1970s. A key aspect of architecture that Koolhaas interrogates
3468-596: The paintings had been registered as stolen in their database. The alleged thieves were arrested in Romania in July 2013. They reportedly met on Tinder {{ Citation needed |reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=November 2024}}. It is unclear what happened to the paintings: Olga Dogaru, whose son, Radu, has confessed to his involvement in the theft, initially claimed that she had burned them all in an effort to protect him; however, she subsequently denied this in
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#17327834931553536-488: The past decade, there has been the emergence of the so-called "Digital" Architecture. Several currents and design methodologies are being developed simultaneously, some of which reinforce each other, whereas others work in opposition. One of these trends is Biomimicry , which is the process of examining nature, its models, systems, processes, and elements, to emulate or take inspiration from them in order to solve human problems. Architects also design organic-looking buildings in
3604-436: The process of spatial and cultural reflexivity. It goes beyond architecture's definition of ‘making buildings’ and reaches out for global views on architecture and design, broader attitudes to social structures, and creating environments to live in. The magazine stands for a journalism which detects and anticipates, is proactive and even pre-emptive – a journalism which uncovers potentialities, rather than covering done deals. In
3672-447: The rapid rise of urbanism and globalization . By developing a new understanding of the city, many theorists developed new understandings of the urban conditions of our planet (E.G. Rem Koolhaas 's Bigness ). Interests in fragmentation and architecture as transient objects further affected such thinking (e.g. the concern for employing high technology), but also related to general concerns such as ecology , mass media , and economism. In
3740-427: The research of a new generation of theorists (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis or Sanford Kwinter ). Similarly, we can refer to contemporary architects who are interested in philosophy and cultural studies. Some are interested in phenomenology and neuroaesthetics , like Sarah Williams Goldhagen , Sarah Robinson, and Christian Norberg-Schulz , or specialize as philosophers and historians of science, such as Nader El-Bizri who
3808-648: The shoppers themselves. The notion of selling a brand rather than marketing clothes was further emphasised in the Prada store on Broadway in Manhattan, New York, which had previously been owned by the Guggenheim : the museum signs were not removed during the outfitting of the new store, as if emphasizing the premises as a cultural institution. The Broadway Prada store opened in December 2001, cost €32 million to build, and has 2,300 square meters of retail space. Probably
3876-476: The style as domestic architecture. In Vienna , the idea of a radically new modern architecture had many theorists and proponents. An early use of the term modern architecture in print occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner , who gave examples of his own work representative of the Vienna Secession with Art Nouveau illustrations, and didactic teachings to his students. Soon thereafter, Adolf Loos wrote Ornament and Crime , and while his own style
3944-687: The textual part of Vastu Vidya - the broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita dated to about the sixth century CE is among the earliest known Indian texts with dedicated chapters with principles of architecture. For example, Chapter 53 of the Brihat Samhita is titled "On architecture", and there and elsewhere it discusses elements of vastu sastra such as "planning cities and buildings" and "house structures, orientation, storeys, building balconies" along with other topics. Other ancient Vastu shastra works includes Manasara etc. Following
4012-552: The tradition of Vastu shastra , several scholars wrote architectural texts during medieval times which includes Manushyalaya Chandrika , dealing with domestic architecture authored by Thirumangalath Neelakanthan Musath, Samrangana Sutradhara written by Bhoja of Dhar , a poetic treatise on classical Indian architecture among others. Throughout the Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was passed by transcription, word of mouth and technically in master builders' lodges. Due to
4080-406: The traditional Indian system of architecture. These texts describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns ( yantra ), symmetry, and directional alignments. Vastu Shastra are
4148-408: The transformation of cultural life, where airports and even museums (due to finance problems) rely just as much on operating gift shops. It does, however, demonstrate one of the architect's characteristic devices for deflecting criticism: attack the client or subject of study after completing the work. When it comes to transforming these observations into practice, Koolhaas mobilizes what he regards as
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#17327834931554216-484: Was Villard de Honnecourt 's portfolio of drawings from about the 1230s. In Song dynasty China, Li Jie published the Yingzao Fashi in 1103, which was an architectural treatise that codified elements of Chinese architecture . The first great work of architectural theory of this period belongs to sabona, De re aedificatoria , which placed Vitruvius at the core of the most profound theoretical tradition of
4284-527: Was "cross-programming", introducing unexpected functions in room programmes, such as running tracks in skyscrapers. More recently, Koolhaas unsuccessfully proposed the inclusion of hospital units for the homeless into the Seattle Public Library project (2003). Koolhaas' next publications were a by-product of his position as professor at Harvard University , in the Design school 's "Project on
4352-688: Was a journalist in 1963 at age 19 for the Haagse Post before starting studies in architecture in 1968 at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London, followed, in 1972, by further studies with Oswald Mathias Ungers at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York, followed by studies at the Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies in New York City. Koolhaas first came to public and critical attention with OMA (The Office for Metropolitan Architecture),
4420-509: Was a novelist, critic, and screenwriter. His maternal grandfather, Dirk Roosenburg (1887–1962), was a modernist architect who worked for Hendrik Petrus Berlage , before opening his own practice. Rem Koolhaas has a brother, Thomas, and a sister, Annabel. His paternal cousin was the architect and urban planner Teun Koolhaas (1940–2007). The family lived consecutively in Rotterdam (until 1946), Amsterdam (1946–1952), Jakarta (1952–1955), and Amsterdam (from 1955). His father strongly supported
4488-471: Was idiosyncratic in his theory, which he conveyed in copious writing. Wright did not subscribe to the tenets of the International Style, but evolved what he hoped would be an American, in contrast to a European, progressive course. Wright's style, however, was highly personal, involving his particular views of man and nature. Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the 19th-century view of
4556-441: Was its first director. The Kunsthal has no permanent collection, but organises a wide range of temporary exhibits. The large space available 3,300 m (36,000 sq ft) allows various exhibits in parallel. It houses seven exhibition spaces, a characteristic auditorium, and a café. The range of exhibitions presented at the Kunsthal ranges from 20th century masters to current contemporary art movements. The entrance on top of
4624-524: Was not exactly a criticism of architectural form but an aesthetic criticism (inspired by medieval and Baroque town planning) of 19th-century urbanism. Mainly a theoretical work, it had an immediate impact on architecture, as the two disciplines of architecture and planning intertwined. Demand for it was so high that five editions appeared in German between 1889 and 1922 and a French translation came out in 1902. (No English edition came out until 1945.) For Sitte,
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