133-658: Riding Mountain National Park is a national park in Manitoba , Canada. The park is located within Treaty 2 Territory and sits atop the Manitoba Escarpment . Consisting of a protected area of 2,969 km (1,146 sq mi), the forested parkland stands in sharp contrast to the surrounding prairie farmland. It was designated a national park because it protects three different ecosystems that converge in
266-425: A magnificent park ... A nation's Park , containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!" The first effort by the U.S. Federal government to set aside such protected lands was on 20 April 1832, when President Andrew Jackson signed legislation that the 22nd United States Congress had enacted to set aside four sections of land around what is now Hot Springs, Arkansas , to protect
399-445: A "national park" simply describes a general area that is relatively undeveloped, scenic, and attracts tourists, with some form of planning restrictions to ensure it maintains those characteristics. There may be substantial human settlements within the bounds of a national park. Conversely, parks that meet the criteria may be not be referred to as "national parks". Terms like "preserve" or "reserve" may be used instead. Starting in 1735
532-647: A Publicity Division to promote Canada's parks through guidebooks, lectures, slide presentations, and motion pictures. This successful division would later form the Canadian Government Travel Bureau and National Film Board of Canada . Harkin faced challenges that constricted the Parks Branch's potential for success. In 1914, the National Parks budget was 0.5% of the total federal budget. The popularity of automobiles lead to
665-463: A compiled report of tourist revenue figures for distribution to members of the House of Commons and Senate in 1913. It was in that context, Harkin believed, that the economic value of Canada's national parks was established and would come to later justify his many large expenditures for park development. In addition to Harkin's philosophy on the economic value of parks, Harkin also saw parks as being
798-524: A consequence of designating the area a national park, logging operations were halted. The forest reserve was set aside as a national park in 1929, officially declared Riding Mountain National Park on May 30, 1933. The park opened to visitors on July 26 of that year, with Manitoba Lieutenant-Governor James D. McGregor unveiling a cairn and giving a speech at a dedication ceremony. In attendance were Manitoba Premier John Bracken , Minister of Natural Resources J. S. McDiarmid , and Thomas G. Murphy , Minister of
931-806: A consultation process via The Riding Mountain Liaison Committee (RMNLC) prior to the UNESCO designation. Upon establishment, the Biosphere Reserve included 18 municipalities, several of which were merged in 2015 as a result of the Manitoba Municipal Amalgamation Act enacted in 2013 by the Manitoba provincial government. A Biosphere Reserve Management Committee (BRMC) was created to oversee the area. Biosphere Reserve land outside of Riding Mountain National Park
1064-532: A day while they continued to receive twenty-five cents. The situation escalated beyond Harkin's control and caused him to ask the Department of Defense to take over; the men responded by a failed attempt to dig their way out of the park and escape. Eventually, the camp was closed and the men were released. In 1924, the mine at Brule in Jasper National Park was closed. Alberta asked Ottawa and
1197-529: A decline in railroad support for parks development. From 1915 to 1947, average annual expenditures slid to 0.28% of the federal budget, demonstrating the effects of lost railroad support. Harkin convinced politicians that creating parks would gain the support of constituents through increased enjoyment from park's amenities. As such, he attempted to increase the Parks Branch budget through two allies: politicians seeking park and road development for constituents and small businesses that would benefit from tourism. This
1330-470: A dramatic increase of law enforcement and administrative personnel on indigenous lands, which allowed the federal government to administer a system of wildlife regulations that would include punishments of fines, jail terms, and hard labor if indigenous persons were to stray from the law. The development of parks across Canada was only possible because the male labourers were paid below market wage and had no other job opportunities. Thousands of men worked for
1463-676: A few. John Muir is today referred to as the "Father of the National Parks" due to his work in Yosemite. He published two influential articles in The Century Magazine , which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on 1 July 1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias (later becoming Yosemite National Park ) to
SECTION 10
#17327938610341596-412: A fundamental level, Harkin's philosophy had two dominant components: the economic, which saw park lands in commercial terms, and the humanitarian which saw parks as being integral to the well-being of the human spirit on a physical, mental and moral level. In successfully bringing these two principles together in a symbiotic way, Harkin was able to facilitate the incredible growth of Canadian tourism and, at
1729-481: A further 6 years as Oliver's secretary until receiving an appointment to be the first commissioner of the Dominion Parks Branch in 1911. On the one hand, Harkin's success and longevity as Parks Commissioner can be measured in economic terms, namely in tourism profits. However, Harkin's philosophy of preserving Canada's landscape for the sake of patriotic pride and physical, moral, and mental well-being
1862-704: A heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone was put under national control at its establishment six years later. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States' first national park, being also the world's first national park. In some European and Asian countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed - though typically as game reserves and recreational grounds set aside for royalty, such as
1995-615: A limited number of rainbow and brook trout can be found in Lake Katherine and Deep Lake. Riding Mountain National Park is also well known for its wildflowers and wide range of unique vegetation, most of which is not seen anywhere else in the prairie regions of Canada. There are 669 species of plants in the park. Vegetation common to the region includes aspen poplar, balsam poplar, white birch or paper birch, white spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, black spruce, tamarack, American elm, Manitoba maple, and bur oak. Riding Mountain National Park
2128-514: A lower cost basis and a larger geographical coverage (in 1989 when created, it was the largest protected area in Asia). It includes four of the six tallest mountains in the world: Everest , Lhotse , Makalu , and Cho Oyu . The QNNP is contiguous to four Nepali national parks, creating a transnational conservation area equal in size to Switzerland. In 1993, the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park
2261-488: A national park system, with the creation of the Nahuel Huapi National Park in 1934, through the initiative of Francisco Moreno . After World War II , national parks were founded all over the world. The United Kingdom designated its first national park, Peak District National Park , in 1951. This followed perhaps 70 years of pressure for greater public access to the landscape. By the end of
2394-607: A park trail. During World War II Riding Mountain National Park was home to the Whitewater labour camp for German prisoners-of-war . Operating from 1943 to 1945, the camp was built on the northeast shore of Whitewater Lake, approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) north-west of Winnipeg . The camp consisted of fifteen buildings and housed 440 to 450 prisoners of war. The decision to have a prisoner of war labour project in Riding Mountain National Park
2527-546: A part of the Forest of Fontainebleau (France, 1861). Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory . With no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, the federal government took on direct responsibility for the park, the official first national park of the United States. The combined effort and interest of conservationists, politicians and the Northern Pacific Railroad ensured
2660-553: A politically powerful family. Despite the passing of his father, Harkin's upbringing influenced his ability to forge the beginning of his career as a cub reporter with the Montreal Herald at age seventeen. Harkin's route into a political career was generated mostly by his family, in which his father was a Conservative with a seat in the Legislative Assembly and his brother was a highly touted journalist for
2793-529: A professor of Biology and Chemistry at the University of Toronto, became one of the first Canadian explorers to reach the area now encompassed by Riding Mountain National Park during his surveying of present-day Manitoba and Saskatchewan, with the aid of several assistants and First Nations peoples. In 1895, 3,975 square kilometres (1,535 sq mi) of land in Riding Mountain was designated as
SECTION 20
#17327938610342926-649: A significant portion of the Parks budget for years. With no allegiance to the railroad and its dependants, Harkin increased road development and continued to increase accessibility of automobiles into parks. Under Harkin's tenure as commissioner, major roads such as the Banff-Windermere Highway, Edmonton-Jasper-Banff Highway, and the Kicking Horse Trail were built. By 1930, around 400 miles of parks roads were built, with 145 miles servicing
3059-459: A study by Stuart Davies of North/South Consultants Inc. is referenced to describe the experience of elders who were evicted. Elders accounts stated that their houses were burnt to the ground and that undue force was used during the eviction. Davies noted that "Several Elders stated that one woman died of a heart attack during the eviction". In 1994 after the resolution of a specific land claim with The Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,
3192-545: A timber reserve by the Department of the Interior . The Dominion Forest Reserve Act , passed in 1906, and the Dominion Forest Reserve and Parks Act , passed in 1911, were among the first legally binding protection of the area. In 1906 the superintendent of forestry monitored permits for cutting timber, which were issued only to settlers of the region. On October 27, 1927, a meeting of representatives from
3325-400: A way for Canadians to imbue the beauty of Canadian scenery in an accessible manner, be it by car or train to reach park grounds. But, as his annual reports as commissioner show, he also felt there was a higher purpose to exposing more individuals to Canada's scenic beauty beyond mere aesthetics. In Harkin's earlier years as Parks Commissioner, he expressed on many occasions that parks allowed for
3458-553: Is a lower amount of humid days within the park than in the surrounding prairie region. Wasagaming has lighter winds than the rest of the park due to the surrounding forest cover. Elk , porcupines , coyotes , western moose , timber wolves , beavers , lynxes , white-tailed deer , snowshoe hares , and cougars are among the animals that roam around this park. Common loons and Canada geese are some of Clear Lake's bird inhabitants. In total there have been 233 bird species observed by visitors in this park. The park also boasts one of
3591-462: Is accessible by car and bus from two municipalities. Dauphin lies 13 kilometres to the north and Brandon lies 95 kilometres to the south, connected by Manitoba Highway 10 with Wasagaming . Both of these cities have commercial airports, as does the community of Erickson . Manitoba Highway 19 enters the park through the escarpment region from the east. A permit is needed to enter Riding Mountain National Park by vehicle, and can be purchased at
3724-527: Is also evident and well-documented in his writings and departmental reports. In fact, some historians argue that it is in great part his ability to have both his commercial and preservationist goals merge and play off each other that determines his success as commissioner. But whether Harkin used commercial reasons of building national parks to justify the humanitarian reasons or vice versa is an open-ended question that some Harkin biographers continue to debate. Harkin's success in securing appropriations to finance
3857-591: Is an area of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that is protected and owned by a government. Although governments hold different standards for national park designation, the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride is a common motivation for the continued protection of all national parks around the world. National parks are almost always accessible to the public. Usually national parks are developed, owned and managed by national governments, though in some countries with federal or devolved forms of government, "national parks" may be
3990-541: Is available at all campgrounds within the park. Whirlpool Lake campground is designated as a tenting only campground. There are also 22 wilderness campsites located in the back country of the park. These sites are equipped with firewood, pit privies, picnic tables and food storage containers. There are 15 picnic sites in the park, usually along major roads and trails, such as Wasgaming, Lake Audy, and Moon Lake. These sites are equipped with barbecue pits, pit privies, and most have access to drinking water. Clear Lake Golf Course
4123-545: Is based on a very thin collection of sources, leading to skepticism about his duty and achievements as commissioner. Harkin's personal archival papers say little about his involvement with the national parks; they focus almost entirely on his notes and correspondence on Vilhjalmur Stefansson ’s expedition to the Arctic in 1921. The limited information about Harkin's life has led biographers to create several sizable assumptions about him, one being that everything written by Harkin
Riding Mountain National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue
4256-878: Is both privately and publicly owned and managed. In 1998 the Senior Officials Forum Agreement between Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation and Parks Canada Agency was signed. The Coalition of First Nations with Interest in Riding Mountain National Park was established later for dialogue with all First Nations adjacent to the park, consisting of members of treaties 2, 4, and 1. These include Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation, Ebb and Flow First Nation, Waywayseecappo First Nation, Rolling River First Nation, Tootinaowaziibeeng First Nation, Gambler First Nation, and Sandy Bay Ojibway First Nation. The coalition entered into an agreement with Parks Canada to share and put ideas into action, creating in 2006
4389-503: Is credited to him alone. Parks Branch papers show that what is attributed to Harkin was actually first drafted by others, especially his assistant, F.H.H. Williamson. Harkin also adapted many of his policies from the American National Park Service , because of the familiarity of geographic location and goal at improving the development of the parks through tourism. One of the first controversies that Harkin
4522-531: Is now Royal National Park was established just south of Sydney , Colony of New South Wales , on 26 April 1879, becoming the world's second official national park. Since Mackinac lost its national park status, the Royal National Park is, by some considerations, the second oldest national park now in existence. Banff National Park became Canada's first national park in 1885. New Zealand established Tongariro National Park in 1887. In Europe,
4655-411: Is perceived as a brand name that is associated with nature-based tourism and it symbolizes a "high quality natural environment with a well-designed tourist infrastructure". The duties of a park ranger are to supervise, manage, and/or perform work in the conservation and use of park resources. This involves functions such as park conservation; natural, historical, and cultural resource management; and
4788-595: Is preventing the introduction of zebra mussels to Clear Lake. In 1986 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated Riding Mountain National Park and the surrounding area Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve, as part of its Man and the Biosphere Programme. A non-profit volunteer organization was created and is managed by representatives from the surrounding area. Eleven communities participated in
4921-433: Is some 300 km northwest of Winnipeg, Manitoba. The local climate is cool and moist due to a higher elevation than the surrounding area. Due to these unique conditions, several different ecosystems are present in the vicinity of the park, including the deciduous forest, boreal forest, and grassland. During the last ice age most of the vegetation in the Riding Mountain region was eliminated, and it remained this way after
5054-655: Is within park boundaries along the shores of Clear Lake. The course has received recognition in several North American golf publications. There are six professional tennis courts in the park at the Wasagaming townsite. Riding Mountain National Park is managed by the Parks Canada Agency , a branch of the Government of Canada. Over the years an increased emphasis was placed on wilderness conservation and commercial expansion within Riding Mountain National Park
5187-570: The 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 -storey interpretive centre and several other buildings were built of log, many featuring a rustic architectural style. A lot of this early construction survives. In 1936, the Keeseekoowenin Ojibway Band was forced to leave the park area. The Department of Indian Affairs agreed because living in the rich wilderness was contrary to its concept of assimilation through farm labor. The Keeseekoowenin were forced to watch as park employees burned their homes. In
5320-735: The Ottawa Journal . These early family influences would play a large role in the development of Harkin's political career and would shape his early affiliations. It was through the mentorship of his brother, William Harkin, that he gained employment with the Montreal Herald , but shortly afterwards with the Ottawa Journal under the guidance of P.D Ross. P.D Ross was the proprietor of the Ottawa Journal . He became an influential person in Harkin's career as he saw him develop his knack for clear, concise journalism. Ross recommended Harkin to
5453-568: The American frontier and were meant to be monuments to America's true history. Yet, in some instances, the lands that were to be set aside and protected in formerly colonized lands were already being inhabited by native communities, who were then removed off of these lands to create pristine sites for public consumption. Critics claim that the removal of people from national parks enhances the belief that nature can only be protected when humans do not exist within it, and that this leads to perpetuating
Riding Mountain National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue
5586-610: The Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1881. His father was a staunch advocate for the Conservatives in which he held a seat in the Legislative Assembly for the district of Prescott. After the death of his father, Harkin remained with his mother and sister until his high school years when he left to live with his brother who had become a doctor in Marquette, Michigan. Harkin was born into general affluence and
5719-517: The Naples government undertook laws to protect Natural areas, which could be used as a game reserve by the royal family; Procida was the first protected site; the difference between the many previous royal hunting preserves and this one, which is considered to be closer to a Park rather than a hunting preserve, is that Neapolitan government already considered the division into the present-day wilderness areas and non-strict nature reserves. In 1810,
5852-712: The Ojibwe , the latter of whom still live in the area today. The Okanese Band, now called the Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation , lived in the area around Wasagaming, in the valley of the Little Saskatchewan River. The band hunted and fished on the land surrounding Clear Lake. They also used the land south-west of the mountain for the buffalo chase and making of pemmican. A trading post was first established on Lake Dauphin north of present-day Riding Mountain National Park by
5985-682: The Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve (in what is now Trinidad and Tobago; established in 1776) and the area surrounding Bogd Khan Uul Mountain (Mongolia, 1778), which were restricted from cultivation to protect surrounding farmland, are considered the oldest legally protected areas . Parks Canada , established on May 19, 1911, is the world's oldest national park service. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) have defined "National Park" as its Category II type of protected areas . According to
6118-475: The "virile and efficient manhood so noticeable in Canadian military training camps." Also, in post-war years, Harkin's philosophy again adapted to the context in which he felt national parks were most needed. For many at the time, life consisted of long hours of laborious work in factories and living in big cities, which according to Harkin brought out the animal in man and deteriorated both the body and mind of
6251-572: The 431 sites managed by the National Park Service of the United States, only 63 carry the designation of National Park. Countries with a large ecotourism industry, such as Costa Rica, often experience a huge economic effect on park management as well as the economy of the country as a whole. Tourism to national parks has increased considerably over time. In Costa Rica for example, a megadiverse country , tourism to parks has increased by 400% from 1985 to 1999. The term national park
6384-515: The American Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund recognized Canada as the first country to create a fenced preserve for antelope. In 2012, the pronghorn antelope can be found in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta. Before the 1970s, Harkin was viewed as a visionary conservationist and creator of Canada's national park system. Since then, many critiques of Harkin have cast him in a darker light. When Harkin
6517-606: The Caribou, Birch Uplands, the Alberta plateau, Slave River Lowlands, and the Peace-Athabasca Delta. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 was first passed in 1916, and sought to preserve migrating birds from extinction as a result of slaughter by suppliers to the milliner 's trade, market hunters, and spring shootings. In response, the Canadian government suggested to draft a similar bill to protect and preserve
6650-590: The English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a "sort of national property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy." The painter George Catlin , in his travels through the American West , wrote during the 1830s that Native Americans in the United States might be preserved "(by some great protecting policy of government) ... in
6783-497: The Father of National Parks , was a Canadian journalist turned bureaucrat with a passion for conservation but also widely renowned for his commodification of the Canadian landscape. Harkin began his career as a journalist under the umbrella of the Ottawa Journal and Montreal Herald , two conservative newspapers at the time, but soon through his persistence and prowess gained entry into civil service during his mid-twenties. Under
SECTION 50
#17327938610346916-658: The Hudson Bay Company in 1741. Pierre de la Verendrye and sons explored the region and traded with First Nations, who hunted and fished in the area for many years. The Ojibway participated in the fur trade at Riding Mountain House and Fort Ellice. The Hudson's Bay Company established Riding Mountain House for trading with the Ojibwe people led by Chief Okanase and then by Chief Keeseekoowenin . After Chief Okanese's death in 1870, his son Mekis became chief. In 1871, Mekis signed Treaty Number 2. In 1858 Henry Youle Hind ,
7049-599: The IUCN definition. In many countries, including Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, national parks do not adhere to the IUCN definition, while some areas which adhere to the IUCN definition are not designated as national parks. As many countries do not adhere to the IUCN definition, the term "national park" may be used loosely. In the United Kingdom , and in some other countries such as Taiwan ,
7182-506: The IUCN, 6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006. IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. The largest national park in the world meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park , which was established in 1974 and is 972,000 km (375,000 sq mi) in area. In 1969, the IUCN declared a national park to be a relatively large area with
7315-557: The Interior. The Clear Lake site was designated Wasagaming. Much of the public infrastructure in Riding Mountain National Park was created during the 1930s by labourers participating in Canada's Great Depression relief programs. Ten relief camps were supervised by James Wardle. Funding for these relief programs was provided by the 1930 Unemployment Relief Act and the 1934 Public Works Construction Act . In 1932 most relief workers were British and over half were from Winnipeg. At this time
7448-695: The Keeseekoowenin Objiway First Nation in 1930 by the Department of the Interior was returned to them after a land claim. In 2013, Riding Mountain National Park celebrated the 80th anniversary of the creation and opening of the park. It was the first National Park in Manitoba, and one of the first in western Canada. Anniversary celebrations included a re-enactment of the official park opening ceremony, along with year-long arts, culture and wildlife programs. Riding Mountain National Park rises more than 457 metres (1,499 ft) over
7581-504: The Liberal Party and Harkin's employment under them dictated much of his later appointments in which he worked tirelessly for Sifton until 1905, at which point Sifton fell out of favour with Wilfrid Laurier over educational rights. Frank Oliver was appointed as the new Minister of the Interior, and sought to be a supporter of parks and wildlife. Despite Oliver's distaste for Sifton, Harkin retained his position with Oliver and worked
7714-418: The Liberal Party's Minister of Interior and Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Clifford Sifton . This recommendation allowed Harkin to enter the government service in 1896 at the age of twenty-six. Harkin's acceptance of this appointment by Clifford Sifton surprised many Conservatives that saw their leader, Sir Charles Tupper , defeated by Wilfrid Laurier in the same year as Harkin's appointment. The rise of
7847-557: The Parks Branch for aid to go towards the newly unemployed. Harkin responded by telling the park superintendent to provide groceries if conditions were desperate, but not cash as he did not want to encourage further demands. By 1929, the Jasper Parks superintendent was desperately seeking financial support and asked Harkin for $ 20,000 to go towards work-for-relief projects, but Harkin refused. The declining conditions in Jasper presaged
7980-588: The Parks Branch's first Annual Report, he stated the value of Canadian scenery at $ 13.88/acre, while wheat land was worth $ 4.91/acre. He recognized that unlike most natural resources, large sales of scenery could be sold in perpetuity without any decline in value or capital stock. The National Parks of Canada were established largely to stimulate traffic on the Canadian Pacific Railway . The railway attracted tourists to Rocky Mountain National Park . Harkin further developed national parks with
8113-512: The Parks Branch's initial marketing tool. In the 1920s, Harkin appointed Mabel Williams to author guidebooks and literature that promoted parks as a Canadian birthright that made one physically stronger, psychologically renewed, and spiritually fulfilled. With increased tourism, the Branch could afford printing the guidebooks. Their spending in the government printing department jumped from $ 2000 to almost $ 13,000 in one year. The Parks Branch created
SECTION 60
#17327938610348246-573: The Parks Department from 1914 to 1915. These men included relief workers during the Great Depression and prisoners of both World Wars . Harkin was satisfied with his new work force because he was able to pay them twenty-five cents a day, while the daily wage in an isolated camp was two dollars. This labour wage differential caused a protest at Yoho Park, where the men refused to work as market wages had increased to twelve dollars
8379-502: The Riding Mountain Forum. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a free content work ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from UNESCO - MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory , UNESCO, UNESCO. National park A national park is a nature park designated for conservation purposes because of unparalleled national natural, historic, or cultural significance. It
8512-476: The Riding Mountain region is similar to that of other regions of southwestern Manitoba. Under the Köppen classification it has a continental climate. It includes grasslands, upland boreal and eastern deciduous forest ecosystems. The park has hot summers and cold winters, with annual rainfall ranging from 40.6 to 50.8 cm. Around 80 percent of rainfall occurs between the months of April and October, with June being
8645-474: The Rocky Mountain Parks. After World War I , low priced automobiles and suitable roads made parks more accessible. Automobiles increased Canadian attendance to national parks: 100,000 in 1921, 250,000 in 1925, and 550,000 in 1928. This stimulated business for small tourist shops, service stations, grocery stores, and motels along Canadian highways. The small business sector in Canada grew with
8778-576: The Tilson Lake Trail. The Central, Baldy Lake and Strathclair trails are easy cycling trails while the Packhorse, Jet and Baldy Hill trails are more difficult On most back-country trails horse use is allowed, equipment being provided by local outfitters. During the winter months trails are open to cross-country skiing, which are not patrolled daily. Lakes suitable for swimming include Clear Lake, Lake Katherine, Lake Audy and Moon Lake. Most of
8911-455: The amount of grassland species in general decreased and boreal forests migrated into the Riding Mountain region. It was at this moment that ecosystems began to resemble those of today, with species such as tamarack , fir , alder , pine and spruce becoming more common. Several streams that run through the park have headwaters in Riding Mountain's lakes. Clear Lake's water comes from underground springs rather than from streams. The climate in
9044-513: The area; grasslands, upland boreal and eastern deciduous forests. It is most easily reached by Highway 10 which passes through the park. The south entrance is at the townsite of Wasagaming , which is the only commercial centre within the park boundaries. For several thousand years, First Nations peoples have lived in the region. It has been home to the Cree , the Assiniboines , and later to
9177-514: The beavers and Belaney were unhappy with the situation, causing Belaney to search, with the support of the Dominion Parks Branch, for better living conditions. He later relocated to Prince Albert National Park , where there was a greater sized waterway and a lower risk of the lakes freezing to the bottom in the winter. Despite his eventual departure, the park now has an abundant beaver population partially because of his efforts. His former living quarters, now known as "Grey Owl's Cabin", are reachable via
9310-544: The best idea we ever had. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic, they reflect us at our best rather than our worst." The first area to use "national park" in its creation legislation was the U.S.'s Mackinac National Park , in 1875. (The area was later transferred to the state's authority in 1895, thus losing its official "national park" status. ) Following the idea established in Yellowstone and Mackinac, there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, what
9443-406: The birds. In August 1917, the legislation was established by Harkin and the government. It was a landmark in the evolution of the Canadian government's role in wildlife protection. It created greater clarification of the government's responsibilities for wildlife and established the emergence of a wildlife protective policy for Canada. The goal of this new conservation act was to protect and regulate
9576-509: The building and expansion of national parks was largely due to his ability to convey the commercial value of dominion parks to Parliament. At the onset of his Parks Branch career, Harkin and his staff had sought to find out how much revenue was generated by tourism in both American states and European countries. His findings, which included tens of millions of dollars for just the American state of Maine, were astounding and he went on to publish
9709-613: The conference began with Arthur Meighen , then Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, emphasizing the complete dependence that the northern Native people have on wildlife, and how prohibiting the Native from hunting buffalo would greatly and negatively affect their livelihood. Harkin stated his own views and discussed how wildlife preserves prohibiting Indigenous peoples from hunting was crucial for conservation. He argued that indigenous peoples should respect this, since they have wholesome respect for park boundaries. Wood Buffalo National Park
9842-499: The creation of Yellowstone, Yosemite, and nearly 37 other national parks and monuments, another 44 years passed before an agency was created in the United States to administer these units in a comprehensive way – the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). The 64th United States Congress passed the National Park Service Organic Act , which President Woodrow Wilson signed into law on 25 August 1916. Of
9975-582: The decade a further nine national parks had been designated in the UK. Europe has some 359 national parks as of 2010. The Vanoise National Park in the Alps was the first French national park, created in 1963 after public mobilization against a touristic project . In 1971, Lahemaa National Park in Estonia was the first area to be designated a national park in the former Soviet Union . In 1973, Mount Kilimanjaro
10108-519: The development and operation of interpretive and recreational programs for the benefit of the visiting public. Park rangers also have fire fighting responsibilities and execute search and rescue missions. Activities also include heritage interpretation to disseminate information to visitors of general, historical, or scientific information. Management of resources such as wildlife, lake shores, seashores, forests, historic buildings, battlefields, archaeological properties, and recreation areas are also part of
10241-549: The dichotomy between nature and humans (also known as the nature–culture divide ). They see the creation of national parks as a form of eco- land grabbing . Others claim that traveling to national parks to appreciate nature there leads people to ignore the nature that exists around them every day. Still others argue that tourism can actually negatively impact the areas that are being visited. James Bernard Harkin James B. Harkin (30 January 1875 – 27 January 1955), also known as
10374-524: The dominion parks under the administration of the Dominion Park Branch (now Parks Canada ), within the Department of the Interior. The branch was established to "protect sites of natural wonder" to provide a recreational experience, centred on the idea of the natural world providing rest and spiritual renewal from the urban setting. Canada now has the largest protected area in the world with 450,000 km of national park space. Even with
10507-475: The early days of Riding Mountain National Park, Parks Branch Commissioner James Harkin offered Archibald Belaney (September 18, 1888 – April 13, 1938) a job in the region. Belaney, who adopted the name Grey Owl when he took upon a First Nations identity as an adult, was a writer and became one of Canada's first conservationists. On April 17, 1931, Grey Owl arrived with his two beavers at a secluded lake several kilometres north of Wasagaming which had been selected by
10640-620: The excessive practice of bird hunting. With the Migratory Birds Convention Act, Harkin was able to achieve his goal of receiving complete authority for game protection in Canada. The act led to boundary revisions of Rocky Mountain Park and the re-inclusion of the Kananaskis Valley, which Harkin believed was necessary to protect game. The pronghorn antelope was another large Canadian mammal believed to be on
10773-493: The existing habitat of about 1500 Wood Buffalo . During the early 1830s, there were millions of bison. However, the progress to civilization and modernity created a decline in the bison population from the estimated 40 million in 1830 to less than 1000 by 1900. Today, the land consists of 44,807 square kilometers and is located in northern Alberta, with overlaps into the Northwest Territories. The land serves as
10906-752: The first national parks were a set of nine parks in Sweden in 1909, followed by the Swiss National Park in 1914. Africa's first national park was established in 1925 when Albert I of Belgium designated an area of what is now Democratic Republic of Congo centred on the Virunga Mountains as the Albert National Park (since renamed Virunga National Park ). In 1895, the Groenkloof Nature Reserve
11039-614: The following defining characteristics: In 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include: While the term national park is now defined by the IUCN, many protected areas in many countries are called national park even when they correspond to other categories of the IUCN Protected Area Management Definition, for example: While national parks are generally understood to be administered by national governments (hence
11172-457: The fostering of what he coins the "play spirit", which is the rejuvenation of the human spirit from the daily stresses of life through outdoor recreation. This need not be physical recreational activity; however, breathing in fresh air and being within close proximity of nature is an important part of this rejuvenation process. This aspect of Harkin's philosophy in viewing parks as national recreational grounds for therapeutic and rejuvenating effects
11305-551: The goal of economic prosperity. Parks would increase tourism and profitability for the government, railroads, and small businesses. In order to garner political support for parks development, Harkin communicated the profitable opportunities they could provide Canada. Initially, the Parks Branch focused on enticing foreign visitors to Canada. Canadian national parks were largely accessible by wealthy American tourists who stayed at hotels and travelled by railway: 95% of people travelling to Canada were American. Thus, Harkin's initial goal
11438-446: The hardworking business man. Responding to the increased use of automobiles, Harkin redefined the Branch's goals from servicing a foreign and local "recreationist" to the broader "Canadian". Harkin relied on free publicity to promote tourism. The Parks Branch Annual Report outlined the commercial and humanitarian benefits of parks. These mandatory publications were sent to Members of Parliament and newspapers across Canada. They became
11571-493: The increased tourism to national parks. As a result of Harkin's contribution, the Wood Buffalo National Park was established on December 18, 1922. The park was created to protect the last remaining herds of bison in northern Canada during the early 1900s. Today, the park is known for its preservation of the bison that reside there. The park was initially created by Harkin and his branch members to protect
11704-755: The job of a park ranger. Since the establishment of the National Park Service in the US in 1916, the role of the park ranger has shifted from merely being a custodian of natural resources to include several activities that are associated with law enforcement. They control traffic, manage permits for various uses, and investigate violations, complaints, trespass/encroachment, and accidents. National parks in former European colonies have come under criticism for allegedly perpetuating colonialism . National parks were created by individuals who felt that pristine, natural sections of nature should be set aside and preserved from urban development. In America, this movement came about during
11837-477: The lake for environmental reasons. The ban is enforced by Parks Canada and the RCMP . Canoeing and kayaking are permitted in the park. Ice fishing is allowed on Clear Lake during the winter months. Snowmobiling is allowed on Clear Lake for the aforementioned activity only. All watercraft within the park must undergo inspection for aquatic invasive species . Of particular concern within Riding Mountain National Park
11970-533: The land to the First Nation. In 1965 the Winnipeg Tribune reported half a million visitors were entering the park annually. In 1970 Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Philip , Prince Charles and Princess Anne visited the park during their tour of Manitoba. In 1983 on the fiftieth anniversary of the park's opening a monument was erected south of the interpretive centre. In the 1990s land removed from
12103-596: The land was returned to the Keeseekoowenin First Nation and a settlement of $ 4.9 million dollars was made under the Specific Claims Policy. In a separate claim case, the construction of a rail line in 1904 through the main reserve, IR 61, by Canadian National (CN), permanently cut off a section of land from IR 61. The First Nation voluntarily surrendered this portion of land so the government could sell it, with an understanding that
12236-663: The largest free-roaming and self-regulated bison herd park in the world and the world's only natural nesting site of the whooping crane . The whooping crane is officially classified as an endangered species. In 1941, there were 15 and with the assistance of the park, the population increased to 133 by 1994. The whooping crane is the tallest North American bird, with a height of about 1.5 metres. Whooping crane have white colored bodies with black wing tips, face, and legs. The landscape of this natural park can be divided into four primary sections, each with its own unique geological features, wildlife habitats, and vegetation. Some of which include
12369-572: The largest populations of black bears in North America. The black bear is one of sixty species of mammals inhabiting the forest within this park. The Lake Audy Bison Enclosure has a herd of about forty bison . Twenty bison were originally reintroduced from Alberta in 1931. Freshwater lakes within the park including Clear Lake, Lake Audy, Moon Lake and Whirlpool Lake among others. Walleye, white fish and perch are found in Clear Lake, and
12502-499: The market minimum wage were quite controversial. Moreover, the creation of the Wood Buffalo National Park sparked huge debate with local indigenous groups and the rippling effects of that debate are still being dealt with today. James Bernard Harkin, nicknamed "Bunny", was born January 30, 1875, in the town of Vankleek Hill in eastern Ontario. His parents were Dr. William Harkin and Elizabeth (McDonnell). He
12635-451: The modern Canadian subject. But a feasible way to counteract these oppressive effects, Harkin wrote, was through the almost mystical rejuvenation that national park lands offered on a physical, mental, and even moral level. Despite appearing so though, Harkin's philosophy was not a critique of industrial life and urbanism. Rather, it was his belief that national parks were a way for civilization and economic growth in Canada to continue "with
12768-565: The name), in Australia, with the exception of six national parks, national parks are run by state governments and predate the Federation of Australia ; similarly, national parks in the Netherlands are administered by the provinces. In Canada, there are both national parks operated by the federal government and provincial or territorial parks operated by the provincial and territorial governments, although nearly all are still national parks by
12901-554: The natural, thermal springs and adjoining mountainsides for the future disposal of the U.S. government. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation , but no legal authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877. The work of important leaders who fought for animal and land conservation were essential in the development of legal action. Some of these leaders include President Abraham Lincoln, Laurance Rockefeller, President Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson to name
13034-555: The other lakes in the park have muddy bottoms, so swimming is difficult but possible. Wasagaming campground is a full service campground located near the Wasagaming townsite and Clear Lake. All sites in the Wasagaming campground contain a fire box, picnic table, and access to washrooms at the unserviced camp sites, and full service sites are equipped with all modern amenities including sewer, electricity, water, picnic table, and fire box. Other campgrounds suitable for car camping are located at Lake Audy, Moon Lake and Deep Lake. Tent camping
13167-722: The park gates. In 1992 the East Entrance was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in recognition of its historic and rustic architectural design. The gate was designed by Canadian architect Shamus Marshall. Community events held in Wasagaming include the Riding Mountain National Park Film Festival and an annual LGBTQ Pride weekend. Riding Mountain National Park has over 400 km (250 mi) of trails, with surfaces ranging from being grassy to gravelled. Backpacking trails include Ochre River Trail, South Escarpment Trail, and
13300-527: The park staff. He spent six months living in a cabin in Riding Mountain National park studying and working with wildlife, including two beavers named Jelly Roll and Rawhide. His main goal in the park was to re-establish beaver colonies in areas where they were exterminated. Riding Mountain National Park was found to be an unsuitable habitat for the beavers, as a summer drought resulted in the lake water level sinking, and becoming stagnant. Both
13433-543: The passage of enabling legislation by the United States Congress to create Yellowstone National Park. Theodore Roosevelt and his group of conservationists, the Boone and Crockett Club , were active campaigners and were highly influential in convincing fellow Republicans and big business to back the bill. Yellowstone National Park soon played a pivotal role in the conservation of these national treasures, as it
13566-472: The proceeds would be used to purchase another piece of land adjacent to the existing IR 61A reservation. While the affected piece of land from IR 61 was surrendered and sold, and the land adjacent to IR 61A was purchased by the government, it was not added officially to the IR 61A reserve. A settlement in 2005 provided compensation for the lost use of the land, providing $ 6,999,900 in monetary compensation, and returned
13699-445: The railroad monopoly and interests. Harkin held no ties to the railroad industry or those businesses that benefited from their protection. He viewed the predominant usage of automobiles as an opportunity for national park's to gain commercial success. In 1911, Harkin cancelled the prohibition on automobiles in parks and introduced motor vehicle legislation: 25 cent registration and speed limits (8 MPH in townsites; 15 MPH elsewhere). This
13832-402: The responsibility of subnational, regional, or local authorities. The United States established Yellowstone National Park , the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people," in 1872. Although Yellowstone was not officially termed a "national park" at the time, in practice it is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. However,
13965-572: The retreat of the glaciers 12,500 years ago. The Riding Mountain upland and surrounding plains and Manitoba Escarpment were mostly carved in the Tertiary era, but the ice sheets of the Pleistocene period modified the drainage and appearance of the land. Only the movement of the last ice sheet in this period left a visible effect on the features of the region. About 11,500 years ago a spruce dominated forest began to emerge in its place, with some of
14098-438: The rise of the Liberal Party, Parks Branch became consolidated with other departments and Harkin's career as commissioner came to an eventual end. Starting in the 1970s, some years after Harkin's death, many critiques of Harkin that cast him in an unfavourable light started surfacing. In particular, Harkin's lack of knowledge of his duties as commissioner, his alleged over-dependence on his staff, and his desire to employ men under
14231-758: The same time, justify his conservationist goals. With an economic philosophy on parks development, Harkin led the Parks Branch into the business of selling Canadian scenery to tourists. Harkin identified the emergence of the automobile as a key component in driving tourism to Canada's national parks. Some notable commercial achievements Harkin made included motor vehicle legislation that permitted vehicles to enter parks, improvements of existing roads through parks, and major highway projects that connected more visitors to parks. His parks promotion strategy, favourable motor vehicle regulations, and improvements in accessibility notably increased tourism to Canada's national parks from 100,000 in 1921 to 550,000 in 1928. In 1935, following
14364-532: The speed limit to 25 MPH. Harkin identified road development as another measure to increase the profitability of tourism and national parks. His goal was to make the scenery of the Canadian Rockies accessible to automobile traffic through first class motor roads into and through parks. With adequate roads through mountains, there would be increased traffic and significant spending from auto-tourists. The Calgary-Banff Coach Road, completed in 1911, absorbed
14497-402: The state of California. According to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for "public use, resort, and recreation". Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation and improvement. A public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was
14630-447: The stock market crash in 1929. Crops began to fall and by 1933, one-fifth of the work force was unemployed while 15% of Canadians were on relief. Also, in 1932, Harkin enforced the six-day work week because he felt the parks' workers would be more compliant when occupied. He stripped his workers of civil liberties including restrictions on alcohol consumption. Restrictions lead to protests from his workers. Harkin needed to gain control of
14763-858: The surrounding Manitoba farmland. Riding Mountain is the highest point in the region, bordered by the Manitoba Escarpment in the east, the Valley River and Wilson River in the North, and a valley in the west. Further to the west is the Saskatchewan Plain. Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve covers 15,000 square kilometers of land in South-western Manitoba, with the core area, Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), covering nearly 3,000 square kilometers. It
14896-688: The surrounding communities were called to the Court House in Neepawa, Manitoba to discuss a proposal to designate the Riding Mountain Forest Reserve a national park. Led by J. N. McFadden, the meeting aimed to highlight to residents the differences between a forest reserve and national park. Although some wanted a national park to be located in the Whiteshell , a majority voted in favour of locating it in Riding Mountain. As
15029-632: The tutelage of some influential figures working for the Liberal Party of Canada , most notably Clifford Sifton and Frank Oliver , Harkin was able to acquire an appointment to be the first commissioner of the Dominion Parks Branch in 1911. During his career, Harkin oversaw the establishment of national parks that include Elk Island , Mount Revelstoke , Point Pelee , Kootenay , Wood Buffalo , Prince Albert , Riding Mountain , Georgian Bay Islands and Cape Breton Highlands . On
15162-502: The vegetation being ash, juniper , sedges , buffaloberry , and trembling aspen . After this time the climate was dry, and the percentage of spruce decreased. During the Holocene climatic optimum up until 6500 years ago the amount of herbs, shrubs and grasses in the park increased. At the end of this time beaked hazelnut appeared and the amount of bur oak increased, with the climate becoming cooler and moister. Up to 2,500 years ago
15295-521: The verge of extinction. In 1910, the pronghorn antelope was moved from the Banff Paddock into Wood Buffalo National Park. Harkin believed the animal would benefit in a new protected park area. In March 1912, the park reported the presence of fourteen antelope. However, the effort was unsuccessful as the pronghorn antelope population decreased due to a lack of proper diet. In 1915, Harkin continued to play an essential role in antelope preservation near
15428-518: The village of Nemiskam , Alberta, where about 200 starving antelope were found in a ranch near the village of Foremost. The antelope were removed and sent to a reserved area of Maple Creek, where sufficient food and resources were available . On December 18, 1915, Minister William James Roche approved the formal reservation of seven square miles of land and established the Nemiskam National Antelope Reserve . In 1917,
15561-534: The wettest month of the year. The increased precipitation during the summer months is due to the large number of lakes and wetlands within the region as well as turbulence caused by the surrounding Manitoba escarpment. During the winter at an elevation of about 732 meters the mean snowfall is 127 centimetres. At a lower altitude of about 335 meters the snowfall drops to 25.4 centimetres. The town site Wasagaming has an average July temperature of 16.5 °C and an average January temperature of -19.7 °C. In general there
15694-441: The worker escaping periodically to nature to be recharged" but with every intention of returning as a productive member of society. Harkin recognized that Canadian scenery was a natural resource that could not be exported. He led the Parks Branch into what some critics call the business of selling scenery, where foreign tourists were to be imported to enjoy Canada's natural resource. Harkin often described parks in economic terms. In
15827-432: Was appointed National Parks Branch Commissioner in 1911, he had to juggle the twin policy of advocating conservatism while encouraging tourism to the parks, which brought forth controversy to Harkin's role as commissioner. When Harkin accepted the job, he admitted that he knew little about parks in general or what was expected of him in his role as commissioner. Many biographers have written about Harkin's work, but his life
15960-602: Was classified as a National Park and was opened to public access in 1977. In 1989, the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve (QNNP) was created to protect 3.381 million hectares on the north slope of Mount Everest in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. This national park is the first major global park to have no separate warden and protection staff—all of its management consists of existing local authorities, allowing
16093-542: Was created in 1922 to help preserve the five hundred buffalo that were found south of the Great Slave Lake in Northern Alberta. Indigenous groups that lived in the area protested the creation of the Wood Buffalo National Park up until its establishment and continued after in hopes of gaining back their sovereignty and their right to hunt on their traditional territories. The creation of the park led to
16226-515: Was established as the first game sanctuary in Africa. In 1926, the government of South Africa designated Kruger National Park as the nation's first national park, although it was an expansion of the earlier Sabie Game Reserve established in 1898 by President Paul Kruger of the old South African Republic , after whom the park was named. Argentina became the third country in the Americas to create
16359-548: Was established in Jamaica to conserve and protect 41,198 hectares, including tropical montane rainforest and adjacent buffer areas. The site includes Jamaica's tallest peak ( Blue Mountain Peak ), hiking trails and a visitor center. The Park was also designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015. The world's first national park service was established May 19, 1911, in Canada. The Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act placed
16492-698: Was given to the Keeseekoowenin Ojibway First Nation by the Canadian government to protect from encroaching settlement. In 1935, this land was expropriated by the government for the creation of the park. The government evicted Ojibway who were living on the land from within the park boundary and forcibly removed them to the main reserve, IR 61, which was outside of the park boundary. In the Report On The Mediation Of The Keeseekoowenin First Nation 1906 Land Claim Negotiation
16625-489: Was in part due to the influence of American wilderness preservationists, John Muir and Henry David Thoreau , both of whom Harkin had quoted in his departmental reports. With the onset of the First World War, Harkin's rejuvenation theory took on a more relevant form. In those years, Harkin wrote that parks were a medium through which Canadians could be in touch with their patriotic feelings, and that parks promoted
16758-724: Was involved in was the Parks Branch's first attempt to create a wood bison sanctuary. The disagreement proved to create tensions within the federal government and also started the theory that local indigenous peoples were to blame for the decrease in the population of buffalo. The tension between the Indian Affairs Department and wildlife conservationists was very evident at the National Conference on Conservation of Game, Fur-Bearing Animals, and other Wild Life held in February 1919. The beginning of
16891-866: Was limited. Any construction in the park is subject to an environmental impact assessment under the Impact Assessment Act. Ongoing research in the park is done concerning predator and ungulate populations, endangered species and invasive species, the water basin, fire reintroduction, and grassland ecology. Motorized boating is permitted on Clear Lake and Lake Audy. Moon Lake can also be used for boating though equipment must be carried 300 metres. On Whirlpool Lake, Deep Lake, Lake Katherine, and back-country lakes, only non-motorized boats can be used. All personal water crafts are banned within Riding Mountain National Park. Only four-stroke and direct injected two-stroke equipped motor boats are permitted on Clear Lake. Boats equipped with other motors are not permitted to use
17024-606: Was not an open invitation to motorists as strict limitations still existed: cars had to travel from Calgary on the Calgary-Banff Coach Road and strictly follow Banff Avenue and Spray Avenue to the CPR's Banff Springs Hotel. In 1913, Harkin allowed automobiles to visit golf courses and private homes. He introduced a $ 5 annual license and a $ 1 single trip fee for using cars within parks. By 1915, these regulations extended to include all national parks. In 1919, he increased
17157-490: Was not powerful enough to keep the budget afloat. Harkin made an impact on Canadian tourism through changing automobile regulations and increasing road development to parks. In 1905, the Federal Government passed legislation banning the use of automobiles on any road near or within prescribed limits of Banff National Park . Parks had previously been reserved for the exclusive use of railway travelers to protect
17290-476: Was suffering at the hands of poachers and others who stood at the ready to pillage what they could from the area. Theodore Roosevelt and his newly formed Boone and Crockett Club successfully took the lead in protecting Yellowstone National Park from this plight, resulting in laws designed to conserve the natural resources in Yellowstone and other parks under the Government's purview. American Pulitzer Prize -winning author Wallace Stegner wrote: "National parks are
17423-490: Was the fourth of five children born into a devout Catholic family but along with his brother William, Harkin was unconcerned with religious motivations. Their father, Dr. William Harkin, was a devout Catholic who was born to Irish Protestant immigrants in 1831 in Vanleek Hill where he became a schoolteacher and soon after went to study medicine at McGill University . Harkin's father died of a heart attack while speaking at
17556-511: Was the result of a fuelwood shortage in the winter of 1942 and 1943. To free up men for the war effort it was decided that prisoners of war would be employed. Following the end of the war and the achievement of a fuelwood surplus, the camp closed in late 1945. In 1945 an advertisement appeared in the Tribune soliciting the sale of the government-owned buildings. The camp has since been dismantled. In 1896, land adjacent to Clear Lake known as IR 61A
17689-589: Was to extend this flow of American tourists into Canada. By the 1920s, the Parks Branch shifted their focus and began targeting Canadians. Formerly, critics argued that the government was subsidizing parks for wealthy foreigners. Harkin suggested that the automobile now made it logistically and financially possible for more middle-class Canadian tourists to access the national parks. Parks located near cities were now widely accessible, allowing workers to spend weekends camping or fishing. The Parks Branch began promoting parks as attractive tourism that heals and invigorates
#33966