Timeline
87-642: The first Wartburg Festival (German: Wartburgfest ) was a convention of about 500 Protestant German students, held on 18 October 1817 at the Wartburg castle near Eisenach in Thuringia . The former refuge of reformer Martin Luther was considered a national symbol and the assembly a protest against reactionary politics and Kleinstaaterei . After the German " Wars of Liberation " against Napoleon and
174-473: A House of Deputies ( Abgeordnetenhaus ). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied. After the second war with Denmark in 1864, Holstein came under Austrian administration, and Schleswig and Lauenburg under Prussian administration. But the internal difficulties continued. Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by
261-665: A Protestant movement, the Inner mission , that sought a rebirth of the Church in Germany but also a greater emphasis on gaining support for social welfare and relief programs among Protestants. Throughout the 19th century Protestant churches in Germany were reactionary and politically conservative . Protestant theologians rejected the tenets of the French Revolution , seeing instead an increase in nationalism . This nationalism,
348-498: A constitution for the German state of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach including articles on freedom of speech, press and assembly was amended by Grand Duke Karl August in 1816. On the occasion of the three-hundredth anniversary of Martin Luther's nailing of his ninety-five theses on 31 October 1517 and to commemorate the fourth anniversary of the bloody Battle of Nations at Leipzig , the Burschenschaft student fraternities from
435-550: A decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1813–14. It participated in a second invasion of France in 1815, and put an end to Murat's regime in south Italy. The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured Metternich exerting a large degree of influence over foreign policy in the Austrian Empire, a matter nominally decided by the Emperor. Metternich initially supported an alliance with France, arranging
522-645: A focus on the Bible . The lasting effects of Luther's Protestant movement within Germany was to question its existing power structures, imploring lay nobles for church reformation, critiquing the Roman mass, sacraments and seeking to reaffirm the importance of faith in good works. His subsequent excommunication from the Church ensured Germany had an ideological divide between Protestant sects and other Christian denominations. Another prominent reformer, Martin Bucer , introduced
609-535: A number of reactionary literary works, and symbols of Napoleon's foreign rule like a corporal's cane. This act was used in 1933 as a justification for the Nazi book burnings . The symbolically burnt books comprised: Protestantism in Germany Religion in Germany (2022 estimate) The religion of Protestantism ( German : Protestantismus ), a form of Christianity , was founded within Germany in
696-523: A restructuring of the Protestant Church in the light of the early church, the dissolution of monastic communities, establishment of Protestant universities, the regular inspection of Parishes and the conversion of nuns and monks. The Thirty Years' War , which took place from 1618 to 1648, stunted the theological development of Protestantism in Germany due to the severe reduction in population it triggered, with estimates suggesting as much as 90% of
783-584: A stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included
870-511: A system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke [ de ] ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867. In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851 (re-divided in 1854 ); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise . German was
957-567: A very bad reputation among Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement . However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom . Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations. In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in
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#17327652014061044-496: A whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in
1131-678: The Carlsbad Decrees of 1819. In 1832, the Hambacher Fest was held in similar manner. A second festival at the Wartburg was held during the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states . After the end of the official festivities and referring to Martin Luther's burning of the papal bull Exsurge domine in 1520, followers of "Turnvater" Friedrich Ludwig Jahn arranged a book burning with the burning of mocked books symbolizing
1218-524: The First War of Schleswig (1848–1850). Sardinia allied itself with France for the conquest of Lombardy–Venetia . Austria was defeated in the 1859 armed conflict. The Treaties of Villafranca and Zürich removed Lombardy, except for the part east of the Mincio river, the so-called Mantovano . The Constitution of 1861 , also known as "February Patent", created a House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) and
1305-576: The French occupation, many people were bitter about dreams of German national unity shattered after the 1815 Congress of Vienna . Democratic reforms were stalled, and governments had cracked down on press freedom and rights of association. On 12 June 1815 several corporated students at the University of Jena founded the Urburschenschaft organization in order to encourage German unity at
1392-718: The German Democratic Republic (GDR). As a result of concerted state intrusions against Protestantism, the church became a place to organise opposition against the Soviet rule of the region. This opposition increased citizens' church involvement; however, the end of the German Democratic Republic led to a demographic decline in the Protestant church as the role of political activism was lost. In terms of political affiliations throughout
1479-767: The Napoleonic Wars , Metternich was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia , and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance . The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy. Due to
1566-533: The Nazi Party gained power, it actively destroyed the institutional structures of the Protestant church itself. After the fall of Nazi power post-1945, the wider church conducted a de-Nazification effort. At the conclusion of World War II , leading church clergy issued the Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt , which acknowledged the inadequacy of church opposition to Nazism and their culpability in
1653-853: The Russian Empire and the United Kingdom , while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire . The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon 's declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until
1740-531: The first Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire forced Metternich's resignation. Metternich is remembered for his success in maintaining the status quo and the Habsburg influence in international affairs. No Habsburg foreign minister following Metternich held a similar position within the empire for such a long time nor held such a vast influence on European foreign affairs. Historians generally consider
1827-444: The printing press to spread their ideas. The printing press enabled the dispersion of Protestant literature throughout greater Germany. In order to curb this dispersion, the 16th-century Council of Trent compiled an Index of Prohibited Books in 1559, which included the works of Protestant theologians and those who desired reform within the Church. This act reduced the ability for Protestant material to spread throughout Germany. One of
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#17327652014061914-569: The "royal" part referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. However, during World War I Austria-Hungary issued military stamps for use in occupied regions, with the text "K.u.K. Feldpost" or K.u.K. Militärpost. The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria
2001-489: The 16th-century Reformation . It was formed as a new direction from some Roman Catholic principles. It was led initially by Martin Luther and later by John Calvin . The Protestant Reformation began with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Augustinian friar Martin Luther in 1517. The key element of this religious upheaval was a break from Roman Catholicism 's emphasis on tradition, favouring
2088-527: The 1757 Battle of Leuthen and a final blessing, the convention resembled a Protestant church service. The men eventually gathered for a festive meal and gave several toasts to the fallen of the Liberation Wars, Scharnhorst , Schill and Körner . Invitations to Austrian universities had been blocked by the government of State Chancellor Metternich ; the event itself was also used as a justification for further suppression of liberal forces, such as
2175-481: The 17th century, where the castles built along Germany's Middle Rhine were inhabited by Protestant archbishops, joined only by nobles and princes. In the later centuries, separate church buildings were constructed along the Rhine region, due to controversial marriage laws that mandated Protestants and Catholics marry separately. The spreading of Protestant architecture was slower in other parts of Germany, however, such as
2262-555: The 1815 Congress of Vienna , including the local government reorganizations from the Revolutions of 1848 to the 1860 October Diploma : The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg. From 1850, Croatia , Slavonia , and the Military Frontier constituted a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation. Administratively, most of
2349-518: The Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War , which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War , with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking land. Crown lands of the Austrian Empire after
2436-528: The Austrian Army to preparedness for another war. Johann Philipp von Stadion, the foreign minister, personally hated Napoleon due to an experience of confiscation of his possessions in France by Napoleon. In addition, the third wife of Francis I, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este , agreed with Stadion's efforts to begin a new war. Klemens Wenzel von Metternich , located in Paris, called for careful advance in
2523-584: The Austrian Empire with other European powers whose monarchs had a similar interest in preserving conservative political direction, Metternich was able to establish the Austrian Empire's influence on European politics. Also, because Metternich used the fear of revolutions among European powers, which he also shared, he was able to establish security and predominance of the Habsburgs in Europe. Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in
2610-605: The Austrian foreign minister, other congresses would meet to resolve European foreign affairs. These included the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822). The Metternich congresses aimed to maintain the political equilibrium among the European powers and prevent revolutionary efforts. These meetings also aimed to resolve foreign issues and disputes without resorting to violence. By means of these meetings and by allying
2697-409: The Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation. Following the Congress, the major European powers agreed to meet and discuss resolutions in the event of future disputes or revolutions. Because of Metternich's main role in the architecture of the Congress, these meetings are also referred to as the "Metternich congress" or "Metternich system". Under Metternich as
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2784-528: The French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805. The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with the French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, Maximilian IV Joseph , the prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria , proclaimed himself king, followed by the Duke of Württemberg Frederick III on 11 December. Charles Frederick , Margrave of Baden ,
2871-658: The GDR in the 1980s, the Church maintained Protestant theological faculties in six of the state universities in Berlin (Halle, Leipzig, Jena, Greifswald, and Rostock) funded by the Communist budget. The Protestant leadership protested the insertion of a "materialist view" on school students' writing and the alteration of textbooks to include Communist ideology. In the years after the Reformation, Luther and his followers utilised
2958-416: The German Democratic Republic era, members of the Protestant Church ranged from far-left Stalinists to anti-communist conservatives . The initial effect of the Protestant revolution in Germany was to facilitate the entry of entrepreneurship with the decline of feudalism . The Lutheran literature dispersed throughout Germany after the Reformation called for the elimination of clerical tax exemptions and
3045-541: The German Student Christian movement, whose active participation involved church adherents from other nations. Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire , officially known as the Empire of Austria , was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs . During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after
3132-399: The German population was lost and barbary was common. In the early 1500s, the Holy Roman Empire led by Charles V treated German Protestantism as a competitor to its geo-political power, issuing a decree in 1524 banning the recitation of its Lutheran works. This prompted riots across Germany and in 1529 a formal protestation was issued by a body of Protestant leaders and Princes, claiming
3219-546: The German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts. Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest. Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks
3306-554: The Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm . The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with
3393-737: The Jena and Halle universities agreed to organize a "national festival" at the Wartburg. The castle was chosen as a meeting place as it had been a refuge for Luther after he had been banned and was declared vogelfrei by Emperor Charles V in 1521. Inasmuch as he had translated the Bible there and thus set a standard for the German language , it became a symbol of German nationalism . Hundreds of students from Berlin , Breslau , Erlangen , Gießen , Göttingen , Greifswald , Heidelberg , Kiel , Königsberg , Leipzig , Marburg , Rostock und Tübingen joined
3480-735: The Jews and Their Lies ), to reaffirm the anti-Jewish prejudice escalating in Germany. During one 1927 Protestant Church Congress in Konigsberg , Paul Althaus gave a famous keynote address deriding the Überfremdung ('foreign invasion') of the arts, fashion and finance industries, reflecting the anti-Semitism of many church leaders. There were actions taken by some church members to fight against Nazism, such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer who rescued multiple Jews in Operation 7 . The Confessing Church in particular maintained objections to merging of
3567-488: The Metternich era as a period of stability : the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms. However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire. The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained
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3654-582: The Protestant Church and Nazi state, resulting in some being sent to concentration camps . Several leading church figures, however, published substantial anti-Semitic publications, such as the Thuringian bishop Martin Sasse [ de ; es ; no ] who distributed thirty-seven thousand copies of Martin Luther über die Juden: Weg mit ihnen! ( Martin Luther on the Jews: Away with Them! ). As
3741-646: The Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France. Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian budget suffered from wartime expenditures and its international position
3828-571: The Wittenberg workshop of Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger . The Protestant movement brought a new variation of figural sculptures, portraits, artwork and illustrations to the interiors of German churches. Martin Luther's early reforms included an emphasis on the value music provides as an aid to worship. New branches of Protestantism, however, such as Calvinism , reduced
3915-654: The abolition of serfdom , cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire. After the death of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg in 1852, the Minister of the Interior Baron Alexander von Bach largely dictated policy in Austria and Hungary. Bach centralized administrative authority for the Austrian Empire, but he also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of
4002-642: The actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France, was the end of the empire. Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw either
4089-859: The case of the war against France. The defeat of French army at the Battle of Bailén in Spain on 27 July 1808 triggered the war. On 9 April 1809, an Austrian force of 170,000 men attacked Bavaria . Despite military defeats of the Austrian army —especially the Battles of Marengo , Ulm , Austerlitz and Wagram —and consequently lost territory throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (the Treaties of Campo Formio in 1797, Luneville in 1801, Pressburg in 1806, and Schönbrunn in 1809), Austria played
4176-470: The church, moving to replace the festival of Christmas with celebrations of the birthday of Joseph Stalin , along with the jailing of more than 70 Evangelical pastors and lay workers from January 1953. One popular Protestant pastor, Siegfried Schmutzler , was imprisoned for five years after a show trial , charged with "agitation to boycott the republic". Censorship against Protestantism was also employed, with several West German church periodicals banned by
4263-449: The city of Cologne where its first Protestant church was constructed in 1857. Large Protestant places of worship were commissioned across Germany, such as the Garrison Church in the city of Ulm built in 1910 which could hold 2,000 congregants. In the early 1920s, architects such as Gottfried Böhm and Otto Bartning were involved in changing Protestant architecture towards modern constructions. An example of this new form of architecture
4350-403: The court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain. During the Crimean War , Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia , and, while not going to war, was supportive of
4437-437: The crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise (' circles '), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise ), but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54 instead instituted
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#17327652014064524-657: The debate around bioethics and stem cell research. The Protestant leadership in Germany is divided on the issue of stem cell research; however, those opposing liberalising laws have characterised it as a threat to the sanctity of human life. Within the German Democratic Republic, the Federation of Evangelical Churches, formed in June 1969 and lasting until April 1991, was where questions of morality were determined. The Protestant church has influenced German architecture. Among adherents to Protestantism in Germany were engineers, craftsmen and architects, enabling Lutheran constructions. The earliest Protestant constructions were in
4611-421: The decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling. The leadership of the Austrian Empire was transferred to a state council composed of Metternich, Francis I's brother Archduke Louis, and Count Franz Anton Kolowrat , who later became
4698-483: The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by George III of the United Kingdom who was also the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg ; Hanover and Lauenburg were incorporated into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, having been occupied several times since 1801, but Britain remained at war with France and no treaty
4785-430: The dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed
4872-472: The economic privileges granted to religious institutions. Through the 16th century, however, the Protestant movement brought with it wealthy and influential Lutheran princes who formed a new social class. When the Reformation occurred, the art industry was declining in Germany; however, it provided a new inspiration for graphic arts, sculptures and paintings. Protestant churches displayed medieval images, along with uniquely Lutheran artistic traditions, such as
4959-410: The empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Hungary —as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from the rest of the empire. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary . Changes shaping
5046-418: The end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted the title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire . Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. This new empire or " Kaiserthum " ( lit. ' Kaiser -dom ' ) comprised all
5133-428: The establishment of Protestantism in the region. Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, resolved by the 1548 Council of Trent , maintained a lack of concessions to the German Protestants, and country-wide riots ensured it was not accepted. The official separation of Protestantism and the state in Germany came with the adoption of the Weimar Constitution in 1919. In the 19th century, Johann Hinrich Wichern pioneered
5220-412: The festivities. Jena professors such as Dietrich Georg von Kieser , Lorenz Oken , Heinrich Luden , and Jakob Friedrich Fries were also among the participants. At the meeting in the Wartburg knights' hall, speeches were held about Martin Luther as a freedom fighter and the way to national unity. Followed by the Christian hymn Now Thank We All Our God as sung by the victorious Prussian troops after
5307-411: The government, including the official Lutheran Church organ Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung . Official government orders, such as the 15 February 1956 Fechner Decree, banned religious instruction before school. In terms of political involvement, Protestant Church leaders also pushed for the introduction of the policies of Mikhail Gorbachev , including glasnost and perestroika policies in
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#17327652014065394-415: The lands of the Habsburg monarchy , which had until then been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy ) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast, the Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by
5481-408: The latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars , except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War . Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna , which reaffirmed
5568-465: The marriage between Napoleon and Francis I's daughter, Marie-Louise; however, by the 1812 campaign, he had realised the inevitability of Napoleon's downfall and took Austria to war against France. Metternich's influence at the Congress of Vienna was remarkable, and he became not only the premier statesman in Europe but the virtual ruler of the Empire until 1848—the Year of revolutions —and the rise of liberalism equated to his political downfall. The result
5655-415: The masses such that they were able to read the Bible, as well as strengths in mathematics and literacy. Lutheran Church teachings on the standards for the education of students were published in 1529, emphasising the study of grammar, definitions and the Latin language. To achieve literacy across Germany, every child was forced to memorise the church's catechism. At the Marburg Colloquy of October 1529, it
5742-422: The nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss ) was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but
5829-430: The need for a clear separation from the Imperial Diet and the right to autonomy. In February 1531, prominent Protestant Princes formed the League of Schmalkalden , endorsed by Luther, with the intent to defend the rights of princes and the religion. The league became central to the spread of Protestantism by using its political sway in Germany, helping the restoration of the Lutheran Duke of Wurttemberg in 1534, enabling
5916-511: The now unified Italy. After the Austrian army was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The frequent abbreviation K.u.K. ( Kaiserliche und Königliche , "Imperial and Royal") does not refer to that dual monarchy but originated in 1745, when
6003-426: The pioneers of Protestant literature was Phillip Melanchthon, who organised and consolidated the Lutheran movement in Germany in the early 16th century. His work Loci communes began the publication of Protestant dogmatics . He worked extensively to reform the German education system, local schooling and national universities. The Protestant church has influenced changes in wider culture in Germany, contributing to
6090-486: The post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I . The period of 1815–1848 is also referred to as the " Age of Metternich ". During this period, Metternich controlled the Habsburg monarchy 's foreign policy. He also had a major influence in European politics. He was known for his strong conservative views and approach in politics. Metternich's policies were strongly against revolution and liberalism. In his opinion, liberalism
6177-431: The press and abandoned public trials. He later represented the Absolutist (or Klerikalabsolutist ) party, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life. This period in the history of the Austrian Empire would become known as the era of neo-absolutism, or Bach's absolutism. The pillars of the so-called Bach system ( Bachsches System ) were, in
6264-570: The regime's power. With an increase in Protestant church pacifism after the end of Nazism, the German Protestant Church Assembly was formed as a forum to discuss the direction of the church. Former German chancellor Angela Merkel has been a regular attendant. In the initial years of communist rule , despite pressure on pastors to endorse the new form of government, the Protestant church insisted on remaining impartial. The Communist Party, however, grew hostile to
6351-648: The rite of communion to German Protestantism and promoted Protestant unity, ensuring the anti-Baptist sect re-joined the wider church. John Calvin , whose writings formulated the Calvinist movement, emphasised the importance of Old Testament Law. Luther called upon the assistance of German princes to further the Protestant movement, namely Phillip of Hesse who convened the Marburg Colloquy where key Protestant theologians agreed on theological questions relevant to Germany. The Marburg Colloquy reforms included
6438-473: The role of liturgical music and the expression of faith through the development of music. In the immediate post-Reformation and subsequent decades, the Lutheran principle of sola scriptura prompted followers of the religion to promote the Bible , and the act of reading. The early Lutheran church documents promoted reading and the importance of education. Early reformers emphasised the value of literacy of
6525-562: The status of the Kingdom of Hungary , a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described the state as a Regnum Independens . Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government. The fall and dissolution of
6612-522: The university. Many of them had participated as voluntary soldiers on the fields against Napoleon, e.g. in the Lützow Free Corps , the black-red-gold colour scheme of which was adopted for the Flag of Germany . The German students demonstrated for a national state and a liberal constitution condemning the "reactionary" forces in the newly recreated states of the German Confederation . At least,
6699-430: The words of Adolf Fischhof , four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks . Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen . This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach
6786-458: Was a form of legalized revolution. Metternich believed that absolute monarchy was the only proper system of government. This notion influenced his anti-revolutionary policy to ensure the continuation of the Habsburg monarchy in Europe. Metternich was a practitioner of balance-of-power diplomacy. His foreign policy aimed to maintain international political equilibrium to preserve the Habsburgs' power and influence in international affairs. Following
6873-847: Was combined with piety , evidenced by the notable addresses of Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's "Address to the German Nations" and Ernst Moritz Arndt 's writings against Napoleon Bonaparte . During the Third Reich , over three-fifths of the population were Protestant and were divided among the Confessing Church , German Christians and those unaffiliated to either. In the early 20th century, anti-Semitic writings of Martin Luther were used by some Protestant pastors and Nazi leaders to bolster their political movement. Protestant pastors, bishops and theologians utilised Luther's writings, such as Von den Juden and ihren Lügen ( On
6960-562: Was decided by Martin Luther , Phillip of Hesse , John Calvin , Phillip Melanchthon and other prominent German Protestant reformers, that a Protestant university should be formed. This became the University of Marburg , the oldest Protestant university in the world. By the 19th century, German universities were recognised as leading the Western world, with Protestant theology globally influenced by Friedrich Schleiermacher , Ernst Troeltsch , Julius Wellhausen and Adolf von Harnack . Within
7047-411: Was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with
7134-540: Was given the title of Grand Duke on 12 December. Each of these new states became French allies. Francis II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg , signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava , Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy . In practice this meant
7221-673: Was grounded in a rebellion against the German Catholic church, emphasizing the primacy of the Bible, the abolition of the Catholic ritualistic mass and a rejection of clerical celibacy. The 19th century saw movements within German Protestantism involving practical devotion and spiritual energy. The 20th century saw the creation of new Protestant organisations, such as the Evangelical Alliance, YMCA, and
7308-541: Was signed recognising their annexation. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which was held by George IV and William IV as Kings of Hanover. Succession could only be in the male line, so on Queen Victoria 's accession to the British throne, her uncle, Ernest Augustus , succeeded as King of Hanover, thus ending the personal union with Great Britain that dated to 1714. Klemens von Metternich became Foreign Minister in 1809. He also held
7395-576: Was significantly undermined, the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg provided plenty of time to strengthen the army and economy. Moreover, the ambitious Archduke Charles and Johann Philipp von Stadion never abandoned the goal of further war with France. Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the Council of War and Commander in Chief of the Austrian army. Endowed with the enlarged powers, he reformed
7482-435: Was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany. During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation . Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as
7569-758: Was the Protestant Church of the Resurrection [ de ] built in the city of Essen in 1929 by Bartning. The Protestant church published five regional papers throughout the GDR, including Die Kirche [ de ] (Berlin, circulation 42,500; also in a Greifswald edition), Der Sonntag [ de ] (Dresden, circulation 40,000), Mecklenburgische Kirchenzeitung [ de ] (Mecklenburg, circulation 15,000), Glaube und Heimat [ de ] (Jena, circulation 35,000), and Potsdamer Kirche (Potsdam, circulation 15,000). The reformation itself
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