159-705: Williamite victory The Williamite War in Ireland took place from March 1689 to October 1691. Fought by Jacobite supporters of James II and his successor, William III , it resulted in a Williamite victory. It is generally viewed as a related conflict of the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War . The November 1688 Glorious Revolution replaced the Catholic James with his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William, who ruled as joint monarchs of England , Ireland and Scotland . However, James retained considerable support in largely Catholic Ireland, where it
318-773: A customs and monetary union . However, England and Scotland remained separate legal jurisdictions. With the Act of Union 1800 , the Kingdom of Ireland united with Great Britain into what then formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The history of the Union is reflected in various stages of the Union Jack , which forms the flag of the United Kingdom . Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922, however
477-541: A political theology shared by Non-juring , Tory elements within the Church of England, and members of the Scottish Episcopal Church . These were the divine right of kings , their accountability to God, not man or Parliament; secondly, that monarchy was a divine institution; thirdly, legitimism , the crown's descent by indefeasible dynastic right, which could not be overturned or annulled; and lastly
636-567: A broader conservative current in Enlightenment thought, appealing to those attracted to a monarchist solution to perceived modern decadence. Populist songs and tracts presented the Stuarts as capable of correcting a wide range of ills and restoring social harmony, as well as contrasting Dutch and Hanoverian "foreigners" with a man who even in exile continued to consume English beef and beer. While particularly calculated to appeal to Tories,
795-573: A combination of Dutch, English and Danish regiments. Parliament backed him with increased funding and the issues faced by Schomberg were remedied, transportation costs alone rising from £15,000 in 1689 to over £100,000 in 1690. The Jacobites established defensive positions at Oldbridge , outside Drogheda on the south bank of the Boyne. In the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July, William crossed the river in several places, forcing them to retreat. The result itself
954-592: A cost-effective way for France to divert British resources from Europe. This meant prolonging the war was more useful than winning it, although potentially devastating for the local populace, a dilemma that resurfaced in the 1745 Scottish Rising . In 1689, the French envoy d'Avaux urged the Jacobites to withdraw beyond the Shannon, first destroying everything in between, including Dublin. Unsurprisingly, this suggestion
1113-485: A follower of Tyrconnell, of treachery, while Saint-Ruhe's subordinate d'Usson sided with Tyrconnell, who appointed him governor of Galway. Unaware of the location of Saint-Ruhe's main army and assuming he was outnumbered, on 10 July Ginkell continued a cautious advance through Ballinasloe down the main Limerick and Galway road. Saint-Ruhe's initial plan, endorsed by Tyrconnell, had been to fall back on Limerick and force
1272-889: A former English naval commander, James recognised control of the Channel was a rare opportunity and returned to France to urge an immediate invasion. However, the French failed to follow up their victory and by August, the Anglo-Dutch fleet had regained command of the sea. Tyrconnell had spent the winter of 1689 to 1690 urging Louis XIV to support a "descent on England" and avoid fighting on Irish soil. His requests were rejected; an invasion required enormous expenditure and Louis trusted neither James nor his English supporters. While there were sound strategic reasons for his hurried departure, which were backed by his senior commanders, James has gone down in Irish history as Séamus an Chaca or "James
1431-505: A government prepared to offer similar concessions. The ongoing Stuart focus on England and regaining a united British throne led to tensions with their broader-based supporters in 1745, when the primary goal of most Scots Jacobites was ending the 1707 Union. This meant that following victory at Prestonpans in September, they preferred to negotiate, rather than invade England as Charles wanted. More generally, Jacobite theorists reflected
1590-589: A more cautious response elsewhere. Arthur Rawdon , who later organised the Army of the North , had offered to fight for James against Monmouth in 1685 and did not commit to William until March 1689. Protestants were concentrated in Ulster and urban centres such as Sligo and Dublin , which Tyrconnell sought to secure with Catholic units of the Irish army. Catholic troops were refused entry to Derry on 7 December, although
1749-441: A number that increased significantly after the establishment of the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1712. Episcopalian ministers, such as Professor James Garden of Aberdeen, presented the 1707 Union as one in a series of disasters to befall Scotland, provoked by "the sins [...] of rebellion, injustice, oppression, schism and perjury". Opposition was boosted by measures imposed by the post-1707 Parliament of Great Britain , including
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#17327661890981908-553: A physician, or when taking a seat in the Irish Parliament, to deny transubstantiation ; it effectively barred all Catholics, although included a clause exempting beneficiaries of the articles of Limerick in some circumstances. Despite this, many Protestants were initially outraged by their perception that the treaty had left the Jacobites "immune to the penalties of defeat". The fact that the administration chose to forbid searches for Jacobite arms and horses in order to prevent
2067-617: A plan titled "Reforming Our Union" and described the UK as a "voluntary union" of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland [that] must be based on a partnership of equals", with devolution a "permanent feature". The plan had twenty ideas for the union including reform of the House of Lords into a constitutional body, centralised funding for devolved legislatures, respect for devolved matters, and devolution of justice and police to Wales inline with Scotland and Northern Ireland. Attempts to promote
2226-527: A reigning monarch. For most of the period from 1690 to 1714, Parliament was either controlled by the Tories, or evenly split with the Whigs; when George I succeeded Anne, most hoped to reconcile with the new regime. The Earl of Mar , who led the 1715 rising, observed "Jacobitisme, which they used to brand the Tories with, is now I presum out of doors". However, George blamed the 1710-to-1714 Tory government for
2385-462: A roughly equivalent number of Irish troops under Mountcashel, who were sent to France. To retain as much territory as possible, the Jacobites held a line along the River Boyne , first destroying or removing crops and livestock to the north. This reduced the local population to utter misery; a French official recorded his horror at seeing people "eating grass like horses", or their corpses littering
2544-472: A separate Parliament until 1800, but the 1707 Union combined England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain . Anne viewed this as the unified Protestant kingdom which her predecessors had failed to achieve. The exiled Stuarts continued to agitate for a return to power, based on the support they retained within the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. Doing so required external help, most consistently supplied by France, while Spain backed
2703-409: A series of assaults , inflicting heavy casualties. Cavalry raids led by Patrick Sarsfield destroyed William's artillery train and heavy rain prevented replacements. Faced by multiple threats in mainland Europe, William withdrew and left Ireland in late 1690, the Jacobites retaining large parts of western Ireland. Dutch general de Ginkell assumed command, based at Kilkenny , with Douglas in Ulster and
2862-567: A series of proclamations deprived Catholic gentry of the right to bear arms or hold public office. The Catholic Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell , was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1687, and began building a Catholic establishment that could survive James. Fearing a short reign, Tyrconnell moved at a speed that destabilised all three kingdoms. James dismissed the English and Scottish Parliaments when they refused to approve his measures of religious tolerance , which he enforced using
3021-642: Is after 1691, for various reasons disarmed and disenfranchised Irish Jacobites looked to European allies or the return of the Wild Geese, rather than planning a domestic revolt. From the 1720s on, many upwardly mobile Catholics were willing to swear loyalty to the Hanoverian regime, but balked at the Oath of Abjuration , which required denouncing the authority of the Pope and the doctrines of Transubstantiation and
3180-549: Is dispelled over time as long as the benefits of the UK are well enough advertised. Although critics argued the Conservatives' approach to maintaining their Northern England red wall seats involving "confected rows over flags, history and race" which may "not resonate [with] Scots". Others have stated that "unionism has singularly struggled to articulate its vision as to why Scottish voters should be persuaded". In June 2021, Welsh First Minister Mark Drakeford announced
3339-484: The 1719 Rising . While talks were also held at different times with Sweden , Prussia , and Russia , these never produced concrete results. Although the Stuarts were useful as a lever, their foreign backers generally had little interest in their restoration. Historian Frank McLynn identifies seven primary drivers in Jacobitism, noting that while the movement contained "sincere men [..] who aimed solely to restore
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#17327661890983498-890: The Acts of Union 1707 and divine right seriously undermined the 1745 rising . Jacobitism was strongest in Ireland, the Western Scottish Highlands , Perthshire , and Aberdeenshire . Pockets of support were also present in Wales , Northern England , the West Midlands and South West England , all areas strongly Royalist during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . In addition, the Stuarts received intermittent backing from countries like France , usually dependent on their own strategic objectives. In addition to
3657-677: The British are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of the Britons , which may include people of English , Scottish , Welsh , Irish , Cornish , Jersey , Manx and Guernsey descent. Since the late 20th century, differing views on the constitutional status of the countries within the UK have become a bigger issue in Scotland, Northern Ireland, and to a lesser extent in Wales. The pro-independence Scottish National Party first became
3816-644: The British throne . When James II of England chose exile after the November 1688 Glorious Revolution , the Parliament of England ruled he had "abandoned" the English throne, which was given to his Protestant daughter Mary II of England , and her husband William III . On the same basis, in April the Scottish Convention awarded Mary and William the throne of Scotland. The Revolution created
3975-666: The Catholic Confederacy representing the Irish insurgents proclaimed allegiance to Charles, but the Stuarts were an unreliable ally, since concessions in Ireland cost them Protestant support in all three kingdoms. In addition, the Adventurers' Act , approved by Charles in March 1642, funded suppression of the revolt by confiscating land from Irish Catholics, much of it owned by members of the Confederacy. The result
4134-577: The Commons was 70 members short and largely composed of Catholics; of these, a minority were members of the old Gaelic gentry or 'Old Irish', the majority being so-called ' Old English ' of Anglo-Norman descent. Five Protestant peers and four Church of Ireland bishops sat in the Lords , with Anthony Dopping, Bishop of Meath acting as leader of the opposition. Dubbed the " Patriot Parliament " by 19th century nationalist historian Charles Duffy , in reality it
4293-613: The Duke of Norfolk , head of the English Catholic community, sentenced to death for his role in 1715 but pardoned. Even so, sympathies were complex; Norfolk's agent Andrew Blood joined the Manchester Regiment , and he later employed another ex-officer, John Sanderson, as his master of horse. English Catholics continued to provide the exiles with financial support well into the 1770s. In 1689, around 2% of clergy in
4452-519: The Earl of Sunderland , his chief minister, felt only his removal could prevent it. Sunderland secretly co-ordinated an Invitation to William , assuring Mary and her husband, and James's nephew, William of Orange of English support for armed intervention. William landed in Brixham on 5 November with 14,000 men; as he advanced, James's army deserted and he went into exile on 23 December. In February 1689,
4611-544: The English Parliament appointed William and Mary joint monarchs of England, while the Scots followed suit in March. Most of Ireland was still controlled by Tyrconnell, where James landed on 12 March 1689 with 6,000 French troops. The 1689-to-1691 Williamite War in Ireland highlighted two recurring trends; for James and his successors, the main prize was England, with Ireland and Scotland secondary to that, while
4770-557: The First Blair ministry to tackle the rise in separatism, or to support the notion of a British nation, and that the "centrifugal forces unleashed by devolution must be balanced by a centripetal role [...] [of] the British State". Former Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that Johnson should stop his policy of "muscular unionism" as it would further the case for Scottish independence. Ciaran Martin , involved in creating
4929-596: The Foyle , north of Derry. The war in the North turned on three events in the last week of July. Dundee's victory at Killiecrankie on 27th was offset by his own death and heavy losses among his troops, ending the Scottish rising as a serious threat. On the 28th, Kirke's forces broke the Jacobite blockade with naval support and raised the siege of Derry; the besiegers fired the surrounding countryside and retreated south. On
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5088-658: The French First Republic , Napoleon Bonaparte and Daniel O'Connell . Jacobite ideology has since influenced the Gaelic revival and much of traditional Irish nationalism . In England and Wales, Jacobitism was often associated with the Tories , many of whom supported James's right to the throne during the Exclusion Crisis . Tory ideology implied that neither "time nor statute law [...] could ameliorate
5247-814: The Peace of Utrecht , which he viewed as damaging to his home state of Hanover . His isolation of former Tory ministers like Lord Bolingbroke and the Earl of Mar drove them first into opposition, then exile. Their exclusion from power between 1714 and 1742 led many Tories to remain in contact with the Jacobite court, which they saw as a potential tool for changing or pressuring the existing government. In 1715, there were co-ordinated celebrations on 29 May, Restoration Day , and 10 June, James Stuart's birthday, especially in Tory-dominated towns like Bristol , Oxford , Manchester and Norwich , although they remained quiet in
5406-544: The Real Presence as "base and idolatrous". After the effective demise of the Jacobite cause in the 1750s and '60s, many Catholic gentry withdrew support from the Stuarts. Instead, they created organisations like the Catholic Convention , which worked within the existing state for redress of Catholic grievances. When Charles died in 1788, Irish nationalists looked for alternative liberators, among them
5565-520: The Royal Prerogative . Doing so threatened to re-open disputes over religion, reward those who rebelled in 1685 and undermine his own supporters. It also ignored the impact of the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau , which revoked tolerance for French Protestants and created an estimated 400,000 refugees, 40,000 of whom settled in London. Two events turned discontent into rebellion, the first being
5724-467: The Second Johnson ministry , efforts were placed on promoting unionism to keep the union together, once described as "Project Love". The strategy involved replacing formerly EU investment funds with a UK Government "shared prosperity fund" awarded to various local authorities in the United Kingdom, and not involving the devolved governments. The UK Government may have hoped that separatist feeling
5883-542: The Third English Civil War , and Ormond went into exile in 1650. Defeat in 1652 led to the mass confiscation of Catholic and Royalist land, and its re-distribution among English Parliamentary soldiers and Protestant settlers. The three kingdoms were combined into the Commonwealth of England , regaining their separate status when the monarchy was restored in 1660. Charles's reign was dominated by
6042-643: The Tower of London after James' flight, in January William sent him to negotiate with Tyrconnell: once back in Ireland, however, he was widely thought to have convinced Tyrconnell to abandon negotiations. In January, Tyrconnell issued warrants for the recruitment of another 40,000 levies, almost entirely Catholic and organised along standard regimental lines. By spring 1689, the army theoretically had around 36,000 men, although experienced officers remained in short supply. Paying, equipping and training this number
6201-523: The Treason Act 1708 , the 1711 ruling that barred Scots peers with English or British peerages from their seats in the House of Lords , and tax increases. Despite their own preferences, the Stuarts tried to appeal to this group; in 1745, Charles issued declarations dissolving the "pretended Union", despite concerns this would alienate his English supporters. However, opposition to post-Union legislation
6360-514: The battle of Aughrim in 1691, and the Treaty of Limerick ended the war in Ireland; future risings on behalf of the exiled Stuarts were confined to England and Scotland. The Act of Settlement 1701 barred Catholics from the English throne, and when Anne became the last Stuart monarch in 1702, her heir was her Protestant cousin Sophia of Hanover , not her Catholic half-brother James. Ireland retained
6519-481: The partition of Ireland along the lines of nationalism and unionism in 1920, causing 26 out of 32 counties of Ireland to be separated from the Union to form the Irish Free State in 1922. The rest of the counties were incorporated to Northern Ireland , which remained part of the United Kingdom. In 2012, Northern Irish support for the Union had increased after the end of The Troubles , especially within
Williamite War in Ireland - Misplaced Pages Continue
6678-417: The 'Old Irish', whose main demand was regaining estates confiscated from them after the 1652 Cromwellian conquest . As a result, a significant proportion of the Irish Parliament preferred to negotiate, which meant avoiding combat to preserve the army and retain as much territory as possible. James himself viewed war in Ireland as a dead-end, and pointed out that the French provided only enough supplies to keep
6837-592: The 1689 Parliament were annulled, penal laws criminalized the practice of Catholicism and barred Catholics from public life, while the Act of Attainder was used to justify further land confiscations. 12,000 Jacobite soldiers went into exile in the diaspora known as the Flight of the Wild Geese , the majority of whom were later absorbed into the French Royal Army 's Irish Brigade . About 1,000 men were recruited for
6996-552: The 1689–1691 Williamite War in Ireland and Jacobite rising of 1689 in Scotland , there were serious revolts in 1715 , 1719 and 1745, French invasion attempts in 1708 and 1744 , and numerous unsuccessful plots. While the 1745 Rising briefly seemed to threaten the Hanoverian monarchy, its defeat in 1746 ended Jacobitism as a serious political movement. Jacobite ideology originated with James VI and I , who in 1603 became
7155-471: The 1715 Rising. In the 1730s many 'Jacobite' demonstrations in Wales and elsewhere were driven by local tensions, especially hostility to Methodism , and featured attacks on Nonconformist chapels. Most English participants in 1715 came from traditionally Catholic areas in the northwest, such as Lancashire . By 1720 there were fewer than 115,000 in England and Wales, and most remained loyal in 1745, including
7314-528: The 17th century, the close connection between Scottish politics and religion meant regime changes were accompanied by the losers being expelled from the Church of Scotland . In 1690 , over 200 clergymen lost their parishes, mostly in Aberdeenshire and Banffshire , a strongly Episcopalian area since the 1620s. In 1745, around 25% of Jacobite recruits came from this part of the country. Episcopalianism
7473-575: The 31st, a Jacobite attack on Enniskillen was defeated at Newtownbutler ; over 1,500 men were killed and its leader Mountcashel captured. From a position of virtual domination, the Jacobites lost their hold on Ulster within a week. On 13 August, Schomberg landed in Belfast Lough with the main Williamite army; by the end of the month, he had more than 20,000 men. Carrickfergus fell on 27 August; James insisted on holding Dundalk , against
7632-456: The 6,000 troops accompanying Mountcashel. Disbanded Jacobites still presented a considerable risk to security in Ireland and despite resistance from the English and Irish parliaments, William continued to encourage them to join his own army; by the end of 1693 a further 3,650 former Jacobites had joined William's forces fighting on the Continent. The Lord Lieutenant Viscount Sidney eventually restricted enlistment to "known Protestants", upon which
7791-524: The Boyne in 1690, telling his supporters to "shift for themselves". This led some to depict him as ( Irish : "Séamus an chaca" , "James of the shit"), who had deserted his loyal followers. However, Gaelic scholar Breandán Ó Buachalla claims his reputation subsequently recovered as "the rightful king...destined to return' and upper-class Irish Jacobite writers like Charles O'Kelly and Nicholas Plunkett blamed "corrupt English and Scottish advisors" for his apparent desertion. After 1691, measures passed by
7950-425: The British for rejecting their rightful king, although post 1710 this was blamed specifically on the Whigs . These views were not held by all Jacobites, while many Whigs argued the post 1688 succession was also "divinely ordained". After the 1701 Act of Settlement, Jacobite propagandists deemphasised the purely legitimist elements in their writing and by 1745, active promotion of hereditary and indefeasible right
8109-400: The Church of England refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary; one list identifies a total of 584 clergy, schoolmasters and university dons as Non Jurors . This almost certainly understates their numbers, for many sympathisers remained within the Church of England, but Non Jurors were disproportionately represented in Jacobite risings and riots, and provided many "martyrs". By
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#17327661890988268-417: The Church of England, and ruling without Parliament led to a political crisis. Similar measures in Scotland caused the 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars , and installation of a Covenanter government. Organised by a small group of Catholic nobility, the October 1641 Irish Rebellion was the cumulative effect of land confiscation, loss of political control, anti-Catholic measures and economic decline. The Rebellion
8427-409: The Danes under Württemberg at Waterford . Protestant administration was re-established in the counties held by Williamites, with arrests and confiscation of Jacobite estates, intended to reward William's supporters. Ginkel pointed out doing so in cash, not land, was cheaper than a month of war and urged more generous terms. On 24 July, a letter from James confirmed ships were on their way to evacuate
8586-598: The Electors of Hanover". While Jacobite agents continued in their attempts to recruit the disaffected, the most committed Jacobites were often linked by relatively small family networks, particularly in Scotland; Jacobite activities in areas like Perthshire and Aberdeenshire centred on a limited number of influential families heavily involved in 1715 and 1745. Some of the most powerful landowning families preserved their establishment loyalties, but maintained traditions of Stuart allegiance by permitting younger sons to become involved in active Jacobitism; in 1745, Lewis Gordon
8745-404: The English officer Dorrington and 'Old English' Purcell and Luttrell . Encouraged by William's failure to take Limerick and looking to reduce Tyrconnell's influence, Sarsfield's faction appealed directly to Louis XIV requesting that Tyrconnell and Berwick were removed from office. They also asked for substantial French military aid, although this was unlikely as the French regime saw Flanders,
8904-530: The English.' He therefore resisted measures that might "dissatisfy his Protestant subjects" in England and Scotland, complaining "he was fallen into the hands of a people who would ram many hard things down his throat". When it became clear Parliament would only vote war taxes if he met their minimum demands, James reluctantly gave his assent to Tyrconnell's land bill and passed a Bill of attainder , confiscating estates from 2,000 mostly Protestant "rebels". Although he also approved Parliament's resolution that Ireland
9063-416: The French and Spanish armies annually, many with a "tangible commitment to the Stuart cause". Elements of the French Irish Brigade participated in the Scottish Jacobite rising of 1745. Irish-language poets, especially in Munster , continued to champion the cause after James' death; in 1715, Eoin O Callanain described his son Prince James Francis Edward Stuart as " taoiseach na nGaoidheal " or "chieftain of
9222-483: The French brigade and any others who wanted to leave; he also released his Irish officers from their oaths, allowing them to seek a negotiated end to the war. Tyrconnell and the French troops sailed from Galway in early September; James's inexperienced illegitimate son Berwick was left in command, supported by a council of officers composed of Thomas Maxwell , Dominic Sheldon , John Hamilton and Sarsfield. Tyrconnell hoped to obtain sufficient French support to extend
9381-419: The Gaels". As in England, throughout the 1720s, Prince James' birthday on 10 June was marked by celebrations in Dublin, and towns like Kilkenny and Galway . These were often accompanied by rioting, suggested as proof of popular pro-Jacobite sympathies. Others argue riots were common in 18th-century urban areas and see them as a "series of ritualised clashes". Combined with Jacobite rhetoric and symbolism in
9540-523: The Grand Alliance and become part of the wider Nine Years' War. Hamilton had been appointed Jacobite commander in the North, and on 14 March he secured eastern Ulster by routing a Williamite militia at Dromore . On 11 April, Viscount Dundee launched a Jacobite rising in Scotland; on 18th, James joined the siege of Derry and on 29th, the French landed another 1,500–3,000 Jacobites at Bantry Bay . When reinforcements from England reached Derry in mid-April, governor Robert Lundy advised them to return, claiming
9699-410: The Jacobite "Peace Party" and "War Party" had widened. Those who supported Tyrconnell's efforts to negotiate with William included senior officers Thomas Maxwell and John Hamilton, in addition to political figures such as Lord Riverston and Denis Daly . Sarsfield's "War Party" argued William could still be defeated; while once characterised as representing the 'Old Irish' interest, its leaders included
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#17327661890989858-524: The Jacobite army shattered. D'Usson succeeded as overall commander: he surrendered Galway on 21 July, on advantageous terms. Following Aughrim the remnants of Saint-Ruhe's army retreated to the mountains before regrouping under Sarsfield's command at Limerick, where the defences were still in the process of being repaired: many of the Jacobite infantry regiments were seriously depleted, although some stragglers arrived later. Tyrconnell, who had been sick for some time, died at Limerick shortly afterwards, depriving
10017-414: The Jacobites in 1715, compared to 11,000 who joined the government army, and were the majority of the 9,000 to 14,000 who served in 1745. One reason was the persistence of feudalism in parts of rural Scotland, where tenants could be compelled to provide their landlords with military service. Many of the Highland clansmen who were a feature of Jacobite armies were raised this way: in all three major risings,
10176-434: The Jacobites of their main negotiator. Sarsfield and the Jacobites' main army surrendered at Limerick in October after a short siege . Now the senior Jacobite commander, Sarsfield signed the Treaty of Limerick with Ginkel on 3 October 1691. It promised freedom of worship for Catholics, and legal protection for any Jacobites willing to swear an oath of loyalty to William and Mary, although the estates of those killed prior to
10335-424: The Jacobites, Schomberg's men lacked tents, coal, food and clothing, largely because his inexperienced commissary agent in Chester could not charter enough ships. This was worsened by choosing a campsite on low, marshy ground, which autumn rains and lack of hygiene quickly turned into a stinking swamp. Nearly 6,000 men died from disease before Schomberg ordered a withdrawal into winter quarters in November. Inspecting
10494-526: The Limerick and Galway 'articlemen' to own a weapon or a horse worth more than £5. A second 1695 bill, designed to deter Irish Catholics "from their foreign correspondency and dependency" and aimed particularly at the country's "English ancient families", restrained Catholics from educating their children abroad. Catholic gentry saw such actions as a serious breach of faith, summed up by the phrase cuimhnigí Luimneach agus feall na Sassanaigh ("remember Limerick and Saxon perfidy") supposedly used in later years by
10653-435: The Lords to approve the bill. More serious were differences between Parliament and James, who resisted any measures that might "dissatisfy his Protestant subjects" in England and Scotland. These conflicted with the demands of the Irish Parliament, which in addition to land restoration included toleration for Catholicism and Irish autonomy. A French diplomat observed James had 'a heart too English to do anything that might vex
10812-403: The November 1688 Glorious Revolution , which had replaced him with his nephew William III and daughter Mary II . The conflict was part of the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War between Louis XIV of France and the Grand Alliance , a coalition led by William as Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic . Both Louis and William viewed Ireland as a subsidiary theatre, as did James, whose primary objective
10971-410: The Papacy remained committed to restoring the Stuarts to their British Kingdoms. At least one composite Irish battalion (500 men) drawn from Irish soldiers in the French service, fought on the Jacobite side in the Scottish Jacobite uprisings up to the Battle of Culloden in 1746. Jacobitism Jacobitism was a political ideology advocating the restoration of the Catholic House of Stuart to
11130-434: The Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland". This restricted Protestant Jacobitism to "doctrinaire clergymen, disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts", who opposed Catholicism but still viewed James' removal as unlawful. A few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non-Jurors , the most famous being propagandist Charles Leslie . Since regaining England
11289-521: The Protestant town council simultaneously declared their "duty and loyalty to our sovereign lord, (James)". William viewed it as a French proxy invasion, best dealt with by attacking France and agreed to divert resources only because "abandoning" beleaguered Irish Protestants was politically unacceptable in England and Scotland. On 8 March, the English Parliament approved funding for an Irish expeditionary force of 22,230 men, composed of new levies and European mercenaries. In return, Parliament agreed to join
11448-625: The Rhine, and Italy as greater strategic priorities. Ginkell had finally obtained William's permission to offer the Jacobites moderate terms of surrender, including a guarantee of religious toleration, but when in December the "Peace Party" made moves to accept, Sarsfield demanded that Berwick have Hamilton, Riverston and Daly arrested. Berwick complied, although likely with the tacit approval of Tyrconnell, who returned from France to try to regain control by offering Sarsfield concessions. Deeply alarmed by
11607-537: The Roman Catholic population. In part, this is as a result of a decreasing association of the Union with radical or extremist political ideologies following the Good Friday Agreement . After Brexit , support for a United Ireland was shown to have increased to a majority in one poll concerning reunification within 20 years, however most polling still puts Unionism firmly in the lead. Under
11766-528: The Stuarts", it "provided a source of legitimacy for political dissent of all kinds". Establishing the ideology of active participants is complicated by the fact that "by and large, those who wrote most did not act, and those who acted wrote little, if anything." As a result, historians have taken different views on its primary driving force. These include being an aristocratic rejection of an increasingly Unitary state , feudal opposition to capitalism, or Scots and Irish nationalism. Jacobitism drew on elements of
11925-414: The Stuarts, their loyalty to Catholicism, and Ireland's status as a kingdom with a Crown of its own." In the first half of the 18th century, Jacobitism was "the primary allegiance of politically conscious Catholics". Irish Catholic support for James was predicated on his religion and assumed willingness to deliver their demands. In 1685, Irish bard Dáibhí Ó Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring
12084-409: The UK as a union of four nations. Some media has stated that Johnson "made the calculation that most voters don't care which level of government delivers particular projects as long as things improve". The efforts have been criticised as being counter-productive and even encouraging independence. Some have described the approach to be an inevitable response to the failure of devolution as intended by
12243-527: The Union during Boris Johnson 's time as Prime Minister were described as "Muscular unionism" or "know-your-place unionism". The strategies used to promote the Union were sometimes described as controversial. Examples include policies to bypass the devolved administrations to award funding relating in devolved areas, the Internal Market Bill , to include the UK flag on large infrastructure projects and requests for UK diplomats to stop referring to
12402-624: The Union has traditionally been high, while support for a separate English state has conversely been relatively low. However, the rise of English nationalism has seen a decrease in support for the United Kingdom, although English nationalism does not necessarily advocate English independence from the United Kingdom. In November 2006, an ICM poll, commissioned by the Sunday Telegraph , showed that support for full English independence had reached 48% of those questioned. However, two polls conducted in 2007 and 2013 showed that English support for
12561-416: The Union was stable and high, with 78% opposed to English independence in 2013. In 2014, a referendum for Scottish independence was held. Voters were asked: "Should Scotland be an independent country?" 44.7% of voters answered "Yes" and 55.3% answered "No", with a record voter turnout of 84.5%. Chief counting officer Mary Pitcaithly stated: "It is clear that the majority of people voting have voted No to
12720-503: The United Kingdom In the United Kingdom , unionism is a political stance favouring the continued unity of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland as one sovereign state, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Those who support the union are referred to as Unionists. Though not all unionists are nationalists, UK or British unionism is associated with British nationalism , which asserts that
12879-399: The United Kingdom over Welsh independence . In 2007, almost 70% of people in Wales supported remaining part of the UK whilst 20% were in favour of Welsh independence . In 2013, support for remaining in the UK was between 49% and 74% of the population. The lowest support for unionism in a standard opinion poll in Wales was 49% in April 2021, with the support for Welsh independence being 42%,
13038-405: The Williamite position had improved; on 16th, government forces retained control of Kintyre , cutting direct links between Scotland and Ireland. The main Jacobite army was stuck outside Derry, its French contingent proving more unpopular with their Irish colleagues than their opponents. On 11 June, four battalions of Williamite reinforcements under the tough and experienced Percy Kirke arrived on
13197-527: The Williamites into another year of campaigning, but wishing to redeem his errors at Athlone he appears to have instead decided to force a decisive battle. Ginkell, with 20,000 men, found his way blocked by Saint-Ruhe's similarly sized army at Aughrim on the early morning of 12 July. Despite a brave and tenacious defence by the inexperienced Irish infantry, the Battle of Aughrim would see Saint-Ruhe dead, many senior Jacobite officers captured or killed, and
13356-583: The abandoned camp, John Stevens , an English Catholic serving with the Grand Prior's Regiment , recorded that "a vast number of dead bodies was found there unburied, and not a few yet breathing but almost devoured with lice and other vermin". The Jacobites were undermined by differing political and strategic objectives, reflected in the Irish Parliament that sat from May to July. Since no elections were held in Counties Fermanagh and Donegal ,
13515-472: The advice of his French advisors who wanted to retreat beyond the Shannon . Tyrconnell was pessimistic about their chances but an opportunity for Schomberg to end the war by taking Dundalk was missed, largely due to a complete failure of logistics. Ireland was a relatively poor country with a small population, obliging both armies to depend on external support. While this ultimately proved a greater problem for
13674-550: The army until the autumn, but no troops or money. By late spring, concerned that a French convoy could land further reinforcements at Galway or Limerick, Ginkell began making preparations to enter the field as quickly as possible. During May, both sides began assembling their forces for a summer campaign, the Jacobites at Limerick and the Williamites at Mullingar , while low-level skirmishing continued. On 16 June, Ginkell's cavalry began reconnoitring from Ballymore towards Athlone. Saint-Ruhe had initially strung out his forces behind
13833-586: The beshitten/coward". An opportunity to end the war was missed when William overestimated the strength of his position. The Declaration of Finglas of 17 July excluded Jacobite officers and the Catholic landed class from a general pardon, encouraging them to continue fighting. Shortly afterwards, James Douglas and 7,500 men tried to break the Jacobite defensive line along the Shannon by taking Athlone . However they lacked sufficient siege artillery and provisions and rumors had reached Douglas that Patrick Sarsfield
13992-511: The birth of James's son on 10 June 1688, which created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty. The second was James' prosecution of the Seven Bishops , which seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and actively attack the Church of England; their acquittal on 30 June caused widespread rejoicing throughout England and Scotland, and destroyed James's political authority. In 1685, many feared civil war if James were bypassed; by 1688, even
14151-496: The bulk of the rank and file were supplied by a small number of north-western clans whose leaders joined the rebellion. Despite this, many Jacobites were Protestant Lowlanders, rather than the Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders of legend. By 1745, fewer than 1% of Scots were Catholic, restricted to the far north-west and a few noble families. The majority of the rank and file, as well as many Jacobite leaders, belonged to Protestant non-juring Episcopalian congregations. Throughout
14310-493: The city was indefensible. Their commanders, Richards and Cunningham , were later dismissed by William for cowardice and Lundy fled the town in disguise. The Jacobite focus on western Ulster, specifically Derry and Enniskillen, has been described as a strategic error. The eastern region was of greater significance, since it allowed mutual support between Irish and Scots Jacobites and, if it had been captured, resupply from England would have been made far more difficult. By mid May,
14469-466: The concessions demanded by Irish Catholics in return for their backing undermined Jacobite support in England and Scotland, which were overwhelmingly Protestant. This also applied to Ulster, without which James could not support the rising in Scotland , invade England or prevent William bringing in troops and supplies. Their major demands included reversal of land confiscations which had reduced Catholic land ownership from 90% in 1600 to 22% by 1685. This
14628-522: The conflict and gain better terms, which he told Louis could be done with limited numbers of French troops. A negotiated peace also required him to reduce the influence of the pro-war party, led by Sarsfield, who was increasingly popular with the army. He told James the pro-war group wanted Irish autonomy or even independence, while he wished to see Ireland linked firmly to England; to do so, he needed arms, money and an 'experienced' French general to replace Sarsfield and Berwick. By late 1690, divisions between
14787-552: The conflict going, not win it. As a former naval commander, he argued retaking England meant a cross-Channel invasion, and French suggestions of doing so via the Irish Sea were simply unrealistic. Since the French navy was unable to resupply their own forces in Ireland, it was unlikely they could control the Irish Sea long enough to land troops in the face of a hostile population. Peripheral rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were
14946-587: The countryside; the population of Derry grew from 2,500 in December to over 30,000 by April. Doubts over the ability of Tyrconnell's regime to ensure law and order was not confined to Protestants; many Catholics also sought security abroad or in large towns. James landed in Kinsale on 12 March, accompanied by French regulars under Conrad von Rosen , along with English, Scottish and Irish volunteers. The news sparked pro-Williamite demonstrations in Belfast , offset by
15105-738: The creation of the Kingdom of Ireland under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 . Since the 12th century, the King of England had acted as Lord of Ireland , under papal overlordship. The act of 1542 created the title of " King of Ireland " for King Henry VIII of England and his successors, removing the role of the Pope as the ultimate overlord of Ireland. The crowns of England and Scotland were united in 1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I in England. The Kingdom of Great Britain
15264-627: The end of 2019. Independence was leading over Union support in most polls for each month of 2020 up to July. On 6 July 2020, Professor Sir John Curtice stated that "support for the Union [in Scotland] has never been weaker". Following the Brexit transition period, and the UK-EU trade deal going into effect, unionism has generally polled higher than nationalism within Scotland. Multiple polls since 2007 show most people in Wales support remaining part of
15423-526: The exiles of the Irish Brigade. However, despite later extension of the penal laws, the 'articlemen' of Limerick, Galway, Drogheda and other garrisons subject to Williamite articles of surrender generally stayed exempt for the remainder of their lives. The Williamite victory in the war in Ireland had two main long-term results. The first was that it ensured James II would not regain his thrones in England, Ireland and Scotland by military means. The second
15582-513: The expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France, seen as a threat to Protestant Europe. When his brother and heir James announced his conversion to Catholicism in 1677, an attempt was made to bar him from the English throne . Nevertheless, he became king in February 1685 with widespread support in England and Scotland; a Catholic monarch was preferable to excluding the 'natural heir', and rebellions by Protestant dissidents quickly suppressed. It
15741-406: The first monarch to rule all three kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland . Its basis was divine right , which claimed his authority came from God, and the crown's descent by indefeasible hereditary right: James and his supporters emphasised his right to the throne by blood to forestall controversy over his appointment by Elizabeth I as her successor. Personal rule by the monarch eliminated
15900-501: The framework for the 2014 Scottish referendum for the UK Government, stated that muscular unionism "is pushing forward a single, British nationalist vision of the future, working to shape government policy to realise it, and relying on an English electoral majority to deliver it. And if you don't like it, know your place". Mark Drakeford, Welsh FM, clarified his government's support for the union but stated that "muscular unionism"
16059-511: The governing party of the Scottish Parliament in 2007, and it won an outright majority of seats at the 2011 Scottish Parliament election . This led to a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014, where voters were asked: "Should Scotland be an independent country?" 44.7% of voters answered "Yes" and 55.3% answered "No", with a record voter turnout of 84.5%. In 1542, the crowns of England and Ireland had been united through
16218-555: The government and oppress the common people. However, views on the 'correct' balance of rights and duties between monarch and subject varied, and Jacobites attempted to distinguish between 'arbitrary' and 'absolute' power. Non-juring Church of Ireland clergyman Charles Leslie was perhaps the most extreme divine right theorist, but even he argued the monarch was bound by "his oath to God, as well as his promise to his people" and "the laws of justice and honour". Jacobite pamphlets often suggested domestic issues were divine punishment on
16377-527: The last remnants of the Jacobite army still in Ireland were sent home with a financial inducement to keep the peace. In the interim the English legislature, possibly acting under pressure from Irish Protestant refugees in London, passed a 1691 Act "for the Abrogating the Oath of Supremacy in Ireland and Appointing other Oaths". This required anyone taking the Oath of Supremacy , such as when practising law, as
16536-516: The late 1720s arguments over doctrine and the death of its originators reduced the church to a handful of scattered congregations, but several of those executed in 1745 came from Manchester, the last significant assembly in England. Quaker leader William Penn was a prominent non-conformist supporter of James, although this was based on their personal relationship and did not survive his deposition. Another element in English Jacobitism
16695-670: The latter's highest ever figure in polling. Prior to the Catholic Relief Act 1793 , Irish Catholics could not vote; and they could not sit in the Westminster Parliament until the passing of the Emancipation Act 1829 . Until this point, Ireland's constitutional position was determined by a Unionist Protestant minority. As the Irish population was overwhelmingly Catholic, the penal laws effectively disenfranchised Irish people in Ireland and of course
16854-418: The line of the Shannon, but by 19 June he realised Athlone was the target and began concentrating his troops west of the town. Ginkell breached the Jacobite lines of defence and took Athlone on 30 June after a short but bloody siege , taking Maxwell prisoner; Saint-Ruhe failed in his attempts to relieve the garrison and fell back to the west. Athlone was seen as a significant victory for William's forces, as it
17013-582: The main Jacobite army at the Boyne in July 1690. James returned to France after the battle, while the Jacobites were decisively defeated at Aughrim in 1691. The war ended with the Treaty of Limerick in October 1691. One contemporary witness, George Story , calculated the war cost over 100,000 lives through sickness, famine, and in battle. Subsequent Jacobite risings were confined to Scotland and England, but
17172-490: The many works of Aisling poetry composed in the Irish language and widespread popular support for rapparees , or Jacobite guerrillas , like Éamonn an Chnoic , John Hurley , and Galloping Hogan , provides, some historians now claim, proof of popular support for a Stuart restoration. Others, however, argue that it is hard to discern "how far rhetorical Jacobitism reflected support for the Stuarts, as opposed to discontent with
17331-637: The movement preserved an unusual level of veneration. Tartan cloth, widely adopted by the Jacobite army in 1745, was used in portraiture as a symbol of Stuart sympathies, even before the Rising. Outside elite social circles, the Jacobite community circulated propaganda and symbolic objects through a network of clubs, print-sellers and pedlars, aimed at the provincial gentry and middling sort. In 1745, Prince Charles ordered commemorative medals and miniature pictures for clandestine distribution. Unionism in
17490-457: The need for Parliaments, and required political and religious union, concepts widely unpopular in all three kingdoms. Divine right also clashed with Catholic allegiance to the Pope and with Protestant nonconformists , since both argued there was an authority above the king. The 17th-century belief that 'true religion' and 'good government' were one and the same meant disputes in one area fed into
17649-540: The other; Millenarianism and belief in the imminence of the Second Coming meant many Protestants viewed such issues as urgent and real. As the first step towards union, James began standardising religious practices between the churches of England , Scotland and Ireland . After his death in 1625, this was continued by his son Charles I , who lacked his political sensitivity; by the late 1630s, instituting Personal Rule in 1629, enforcing Laudian reforms on
17808-458: The price for these concessions was to largely remove the Anglican element from Irish Jacobitism, which thereafter became almost entirely a Catholic ideology. After 1690, Irish Jacobites were also split between Tyrconnell's 'Peace party' who continued to seek a negotiated solution, and a 'War party' led by Patrick Sarsfield who favoured fighting on to the end. James left Ireland after defeat at
17967-550: The primary French objective was to absorb British resources, not necessarily restore the Stuarts. Elections in May 1689 produced the first Irish Parliament with a Catholic majority since 1613. It repealed the Cromwellian land seizures, confiscated land from Williamites, and proclaimed Ireland a 'distinct kingdom from England', measures annulled after defeat in 1691. A Jacobite rising in Scotland achieved some initial success but
18126-418: The principle of a contract between monarch and people, which if violated meant the monarch could be removed. A key tenet of Jacobitism was that kings were appointed by God, making the post-1688 regime illegitimate. However, it also functioned as an outlet for popular discontent and thus was a complex mix of ideas, many opposed by the Stuarts themselves. Conflict between Prince Charles and Scottish Jacobites over
18285-507: The referendum question." Results were compiled from 32 council areas, with Glasgow backing independence—voting 53.5% "Yes" to 46.5% "No" (turnout in the area was 75%)—and Edinburgh voting against independence by 61% to 39% (turnout in the area was 84%). This shows that Glasgow area has the most anti - Unionist beliefs and Edinburgh area has the most pro - unionist beliefs. Although support for independence declined and/or stagnated generally between 2015 and 2018, it started to increase towards
18444-532: The revived supremacy of both the Catholic Church in Ireland and the Irish language . Tyrconnell's expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, as enabling the native Irish 'Tadhg' to be armed and to assert his dominance over "John" the English Protestant. Conversely, most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to "utterly ruin
18603-572: The rift between his Irish supporters, James was persuaded to request further military support directly from Louis. Louis dispatched general Charles Chalmot, Marquis de Saint-Ruhe , to replace Berwick as commander of the Irish Army, with secret instructions to assess the situation and help Louis make a decision on whether to send additional military aid. Saint-Ruhe, accompanied by lieutenant-generals de Tessé and d'Usson, arrived at Limerick on 9 May; they brought sufficient arms, corn and meal to sustain
18762-531: The rightful king and condemning the "treasonous subjects" who had ousted him. There were some divisions among Irish Jacobites on the issue of returning all Catholic lands confiscated in 1652 after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . The majority of the Irish House of Commons wanted the 1652 Cromwellian Act of Settlement repealed in its entirety, with ownership returned to that prevailing in 1641. This
18921-474: The rights of the established church. While personally loyal to James, Tyrconnell viewed his restoration as secondary to preservation of Catholic rights. One of the few Catholics who benefited from the 1662 Land Settlement, he and other beneficiaries had no desire to make substantial changes to it. Led by the Earl of Limerick, this faction urged a compromise settlement with William in January. They were opposed by
19080-531: The roads. It took over fifty years for the area around Drogheda to recover from this devastation. Faced by demands from his English government that he resolve the position in Ireland before taking the offensive in Flanders, William committed the majority of his available forces there and took personal command of the campaign. On 14 June 1690, 300 ships arrived in Belfast Lough carrying nearly 31,000 men,
19239-473: The same effect could be seen in Great Britain where such laws against Catholics overwhelmingly fell on the Irish. Towards the end of the 19th century, Irish unionism was, by and large concentrated in some counties of Ulster as a result of Catholic Relief acts and Catholic Emancipation and later expansion of male suffrage which allowed Irish Catholic nationalists to vote for Irish home rule . This led to
19398-464: The scriptural injunction of passive obedience and non-resistance, even towards monarchs of which the individual subject might disapprove. Jacobite propagandists argued such divinely sanctioned authority was the main moral safeguard of society, while its absence led to party strife. They claimed the 1688 Revolution had enabled political corruption and allowed selfish opportunists, such as Whigs, religious dissenters, and foreigners, to take control of
19557-638: The separation of Ireland which originally occurred under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 was upheld by the British Government and the Unionist-controlled devolved Parliament of Northern Ireland , and chose to remain within the state today, which is now officially termed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The 300th anniversary of the union of Scotland and England was marked in 2007. In England, support for
19716-573: The settling of private scores was taken as evidence of pro-Catholic bias, and it was even rumoured that the Lord Chancellor Sir Charles Porter was a "secret Jacobite". Continuing fears over Catholics' potential support of a French invasion and the appointment in 1695 of Capell as Lord Deputy saw a change of attitude. The same year, the Irish Parliament passed the Disarming Act, forbidding Catholics other than
19875-414: The sin of usurpation", while shared Tory and Jacobite themes of divine right and sacred kingship may have provided an alternative to Whig concepts of "liberty and property". A minority of academics, including Eveline Cruickshanks , have argued that until the late 1750s the Tories were a crypto-Jacobite party; others, that Jacobitism was a "limb of Toryism". However, the supremacy of the Church of England
20034-434: The soldiers allegedly had to be forced on board the ships when they learned they would be joining the French army. Most were unable to bring or contact their families, and many appear to have deserted en route from Limerick to Cork, the point of departure. The "Wild Geese" were initially formed into James II's army in exile. After James's death, they were merged into France's Irish Brigade , which had been set up in 1689 using
20193-409: The speed of James's fall, Tyrconnell opened negotiations with William, although this may have been a delaying tactic. His wife, Frances Talbot , was the elder sister of Sarah Churchill , whose husband Marlborough was a key member of the English military conspiracy against James. One of those transferred to England in September was Richard Hamilton , an Irish Catholic professional soldier. Confined in
20352-462: The status quo". Nevertheless, fears of resurgent Catholic Jacobitism among the ruling Protestant minority meant anti-Catholic Penal Laws remained in place for most of the eighteenth century. As the Penal Laws forbade Irish Catholics to have military training or even to own or carry arms, there were no Irish risings in either 1715 or 1745 to accompany those in England and Scotland; one suggestion
20511-468: The treaty were still liable to forfeiture. It also agreed to Sarsfield's demand that those still serving in the Jacobite army could leave for France. Popularly known as the " Flight of the Wild Geese ", the process began almost immediately and was completed by December. Modern estimates suggest that around 19,000 soldiers and rapparees departed: women and children brought the figure to slightly over 20,000, or about one per cent of Ireland's population. Some of
20670-509: The war effort. Tyrconnell ensured a predominantly Catholic electorate and candidates by issuing new borough charters, admitting Catholics into city corporations, and removing "disloyal members". Since elections were not held in many northern areas, the Irish House of Commons was 70 members short, and 224 out of 230 MPs were Catholic. Known to 19th-century Irish historians as the " Patriot Parliament ", it opened by proclaiming James as
20829-704: The war was to have a lasting effect on the political and cultural landscape of Ireland, confirming British and Protestant rule over the country for over two centuries. While the Treaty of Limerick had offered a series of guarantees to Catholics, subsequent extension of the Penal Laws , particularly during the War of the Spanish Succession , would further erode their civic rights. The war began in March 1689 when James II and VII landed in Ireland seeking to reverse
20988-525: The war, Irish Catholics maintained a sentimental attachment to the Jacobite cause, portraying James and the Stuarts as the rightful monarchs who would have given a just settlement to Ireland, including self-government, restoration of confiscated lands and tolerance for Catholicism. Thousands of Irish soldiers left the country to serve the Stuart monarchs in the Spanish and French armies. Until 1766, France and
21147-412: The wide range of themes adopted by Jacobite pamphleteers and agents periodically drew in disaffected Whigs and former radicals. Such "Whig-Jacobites" were highly valued by the exiled court, although many viewed James II as a potentially weak king from whom it would be easy to extract concessions in the event of a restoration. The role of Jacobitism in Irish political history is debated; some argue that it
21306-596: Was a "distinct kingdom" and laws passed in England did not apply there, he refused to abolish Poynings' Law , which required Irish legislation to be approved by the English Parliament. Despite his own Catholicism, James viewed the Protestant Church of Ireland as an important part of his support base; he insisted on retaining its legal pre-eminence, although agreeing landowners would only have to pay tithes to clergy of their own religion. However,
21465-464: Was a broad-based popular movement and the main driver of Irish Catholic nationalism between 1688 and 1795. Others see it as part of "a pan-British movement, rooted in confessional and dynastic loyalties", very different from 19th-century Irish nationalism. Historian Vincent Morely describes Irish Jacobitism as a distinctive ideology within the broader movement that "emphasised the Milesian ancestry of
21624-552: Was a handful of disaffected radicals, for whom the exiled Stuarts provided a potential alternative to the Whig establishment. An example was John Matthews, a Jacobite printer executed in 1719; his pamphlet Vox Populi vox Dei emphasised the Lockean theory of the social contract , a doctrine very few Tories of the period would have supported. Scottish Jacobitism had wider and more extensive roots than in England. 20,000 Scots fought for
21783-502: Was a three-way contest between the Confederacy, Royalist forces under the Protestant Duke of Ormond , and a Covenanter-led army in Ulster. The latter were increasingly at odds with the English government; after Charles' execution in January 1649, Ormond combined these factions to resist the 1649-to-1652 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . Charles II repudiated his alliance with the Confederacy, in return for Scottish support in
21942-462: Was also central to Tory ideology, and James lost their support when his policies seemed to threaten that primacy. The Act of Settlement 1701 excluding Catholics from the English throne was passed by a Tory administration; for the vast majority, Stuart Catholicism was an insuperable barrier to active support, while the Tory doctrine of non-resistance also discouraged them from supporting the exiles against
22101-467: Was also viewed as temporary; James was 52, his second marriage was childless after 11 years, and his Protestant daughter Mary was heir. His religion made James popular among Irish Catholics, whose position had not improved under his brother. By 1685, Catholic land ownership had fallen to 22%, from 90% in 1600, not least through Catholic landlords converting to the Anglican Church. After 1673,
22260-541: Was believed that Saint-Ruhe's army would probably collapse if the Shannon was crossed. The Lords Justice in Dublin issued a proclamation offering generous terms for Jacobites who surrendered, including a free pardon, restoration of forfeited estates, and the offer of similar or higher rank and pay if they wished to join William's army. The Jacobite command fell apart in mutual recriminations: Sarsfield's faction accused Maxwell,
22419-498: Was deeply divided. For James, regaining England was his main objective, and concessions to his Irish supporters potentially weakened his position there. In the early stages of the war, Protestant Jacobite support was more significant than often appreciated and included many members of the established Church of Ireland , the most prominent being Viscount Mountjoy . His opposition to Irish autonomy meant James made concessions with great reluctance and despite his own Catholicism, insisted on
22578-440: Was formed on 1 May 1707 through the Acts of Union 1707 , two simultaneous acts passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland . These created a political union between the Kingdom of England (consisting of England and Wales ) and the Kingdom of Scotland . This event was the result of the Treaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706. The Acts created a single Parliament of Great Britain at Westminster as well as
22737-416: Was his primary objective, James viewed Ireland as a strategic dead-end but Louis XIV of France argued it was the best place to launch a regime change war, since the administration was controlled by Tyrconnell and his cause was popular among the majority Catholic population. James landed at Kinsale in March 1689 and in May called the first Parliament of Ireland since 1666, primarily seeking taxes to fund
22896-434: Was hoped he would address long-standing grievances on land ownership, religion and civic rights. The war began in March 1689 with a series of skirmishes between James's Irish Army , which had stayed loyal in 1688, and Protestant militia . Fighting culminated in the siege of Derry , where the Jacobites failed to regain control of one of the north's key towns. This enabled William to land an expeditionary force, which defeated
23055-532: Was impossible and many were organised as Rapparees or irregulars , largely beyond Tyrconnell's control. Despite assurances of protection, the easiest way to obtain supplies or money was to confiscate it from Protestants; many fled to the North or England, spreading "predictions of impending catastrophe". Fears grew as areas outside the towns became increasingly lawless, exacerbated when Dublin Castle ordered Protestant militia to be disarmed. This caused an exodus from
23214-659: Was intended as a bloodless coup, but its leaders quickly lost control, leading to atrocities on both sides. In May, a Covenanter army landed in Ulster to support Scots settlers. Although Charles and Parliament both supported raising an army to suppress the Rebellion, neither trusted the other with its control; these tensions ultimately led to the outbreak of the First English Civil War in August 1642. In 1642,
23373-411: Was marching with 15,000 men to cut off their forces from retreat. Douglas decided to withdraw in the middle of the night and by alternate route to avoid meeting the Irish force. Limerick, strategic key to the west of Ireland, became William's next objective, the Jacobites concentrating the bulk of their forces in the city. A detachment under Marlborough captured Cork and Kinsale but Limerick repulsed
23532-417: Was not decisive, with fewer than 2,000 dead on both sides, including Schomberg, but demoralised and weakened by desertion, the Jacobite army retreated to Limerick . This allowed William to enter Dublin unopposed. Elsewhere, victory at Fleurus on 1 July gave the French control of Flanders ; on the same day as the Boyne, they defeated a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet at Beachy Head , causing panic in England. As
23691-595: Was not restricted to Jacobites. Many Presbyterians opposed the establishment of the Episcopal Church in 1712 and other measures of indulgence, while the worst tax riots took place in Glasgow , a town noted for its antipathy to the Stuarts. As in England, some objected less to the Union than the Hanoverian connection; Lord George Murray , a senior Jacobite commander in 1745, was a Unionist who repeatedly disagreed with Charles, but opposed "wars [...] on account of
23850-473: Was opposed both by Protestants and those members of the Irish Catholic elite who benefitted from previous settlements , among them Tyrconnell and James himself. Another was the autonomy of the Parliament of Ireland , an idea that clashed with Stuart ideology, which was strongly Unionist . These differing external and internal objectives undermined the Jacobite campaign. Prior to November 1688, James
24009-492: Was opposed by a minority within the Catholic elite who had benefited from the 1662 Act of Settlement , a group that included James himself, Tyrconnell and other members of the Irish House of Lords . Instead, they suggested those dispossessed in the 1650s should be restored to half their estates and paid compensation for the remainder. However, with the Commons overwhelmingly in favour of complete restoration, Tyrconnell persuaded
24168-460: Was popular among social conservatives, as it emphasised indefeasible hereditary right, absolute obedience, and implied deposition of the senior Stuart line was a breach of natural order. The church continued to offer prayers for the Stuarts until 1788, while many refused to swear allegiance to the Hanoverians in 1714. However, even in 1690, a substantial minority accommodated to the new regime,
24327-401: Was rejected, while the Irish were united in their dislike of the French in general and d'Avaux in particular. The feeling was mutual; when replaced in April 1690, d'Avaux told his successor Lauzun the Irish were 'a poor-spirited and cowardly people, whose soldiers never fight and whose officers will never obey orders.' In April 1690, an additional 6,000 French regulars arrived, in exchange for
24486-458: Was restricted largely to a few Scots Episcopalians such as Lords Pitsligo and Balmerino . Instead they began to focus on populist themes such as opposition to a standing army, political corruption , and social injustice. By the 1750s, Charles himself promised triennial parliaments, disbanding the army and legal guarantees on freedom of the press . Such tactics broadened their appeal but also carried risks, since they could always be coopted by
24645-508: Was so confident Ireland would remain loyal that he ordered 2,500 troops, or around 40% of the Irish army, transferred to England. This deprived Tyrconnell of vital trained personnel, while their presence led to near mutiny in several of James' most reliable English units. Many of the Irish rank and file were arrested after William's landing, and later sent to serve under Emperor Leopold in the Austrian–Ottoman War . Apparently shaken by
24804-481: Was that it ensured closer British and Protestant dominance over Ireland. Until the nineteenth century, Ireland was ruled by what became known as the " Protestant Ascendancy ", the mostly Protestant ruling class. The majority Irish Catholic community and the Ulster-Scots Presbyterian community were systematically excluded from power, which was based on land ownership. For over a century after
24963-491: Was to regain England . Ireland was selected because some 75% of the population shared James' Catholicism , with Protestants concentrated in Ulster , where they comprised nearly 50% of the population. It also possessed a large Catholic army, built up by the Earl of Tyrconnell since 1687; although the majority were poorly equipped, unpaid recruits, James brought weapons and French regulars with him to provide training. However,
25122-565: Was ultimately suppressed. Several days after the Irish Jacobites were defeated at The Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, victory at Beachy Head gave the French temporary control of the English Channel . James returned to France to urge an immediate invasion of England, but the Anglo-Dutch fleet soon regained maritime supremacy, and the opportunity was lost. The Irish Jacobites and their French allies were finally defeated at
25281-684: Was widely believed to be a proxy for his brother, the Duke of Gordon . Many Jacobite leaders were closely linked to each other and the exile community by marriage or blood. This has led some historians, notably Bruce Lenman, to characterise the Jacobite risings as French-backed coup attempts by a small network drawn from the elite, though this view is not universally accepted. Family traditions of Jacobite sympathy were reinforced through objects such as inscribed glassware or rings with hidden symbols, although many of those that survive are in fact 19th-century neo-Jacobite creations. Other family heirlooms contained reference to executed Jacobite martyrs, for which
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