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175-573: Windsor Terrace is a small residential neighborhood in the central part of the New York City borough of Brooklyn . It is bounded by Prospect Park on the east and northeast, Park Slope at Prospect Park West, Green-Wood Cemetery , and Borough Park at McDonald Avenue on the northwest, west, and southwest, and Kensington at Caton Avenue on the south. As of the 2010 United States Census , Windsor Terrace had 20,988 people living within its 0.503-square-mile (1.30 km) area. Windsor Terrace

350-425: A Starbucks , and (c) my neighbors and I can no longer afford to live here ( community displacement )". Palen & London (1984) compiled five explanations for gentrification since the 1970s: Other explanations propose that as people tire of the automobile-dependent urban sprawl style of life, they move to urban areas, in particular to homes near public transit stations. The increase in professional jobs in

525-422: A basement . The neighborhood is mostly residential, with some commerce along Prospect Park W, Prospect Avenue, and Fort Hamilton Parkway. The latter two corridors have seen an increased commercial presence since the 2000s, but these new stores are mostly family-owned businesses , with the exception of a Walgreens and a grocery store in the area. There are at least four bars (The renown Farrell's Bar & Grill,

700-555: A concrete arch bridge that spans 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) above Prospect Avenue. The 143.7-foot (43.8 m) bridge was built by 1903 at a cost of $ 22,000, and is supported by underpinning since the IND subway runs under Prospect Avenue at this point. While street bridges that span other streets are more common in the hilly Bronx , they are rare in Brooklyn. This particular bridge does not appear on contemporary maps. The bridge has

875-511: A condominium tower at 279 Prospect Park W, a former paint factory storage building that posed as a bank in the 1975 movie Dog Day Afternoon . The houses are of varying types, including some small one-story clapboard houses that have attics and date to the neighborhood's development; larger two-story houses with basements and some wood framing on the exterior; and attached brick townhouses with either flat facades with normal-sized windows or curved facades with bay windows, both with two floors and

1050-631: A decade between Irish immigrants and Black people for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground. At least 120 people were killed. Eleven Black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of Blacks to flee. The Black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865. The White working class had established dominance. It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history . In 1886,

1225-662: A district it goes on rapidly, until all or most of the original working-class occupiers are displaced and the whole social character of the district is changed. In the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report Health Effects of Gentrification defines the real estate concept of gentrification as "the transformation of neighborhoods from low value to high value." A real estate encyclopedia defines gentrification as "the process by which central urban neighborhoods that have undergone disinvestments and economic decline experience

1400-519: A drop in the number of children per household, increased education among residents, the number of non-traditional types of households, and a general upwards shift in income. Just as critical to the gentrification process as creating a favorable environment is the availability of the 'gentry,' or those who will be first-stage gentrifiers. The typical gentrifiers are affluent and have professional-level, service industry jobs, many of which involve self-employment . Therefore, they are willing and able to take

1575-522: A higher likelihood of eviction." A 2020 study which followed children from low-income families in New York found no evidence that gentrification was associated with changes in mobility rates. The study also found "that children who start out in a gentrifying area experience larger improvements in some aspects of their residential environment than their counterparts who start out in persistently low-socioeconomic status areas." A 2023 study by economists at

1750-415: A neighborhood, changing the essential character and flavour of that neighborhood", so distinguishing it from the different socio-economic process of "neighborhood (or urban) revitalization", although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Gentrification has been described as a natural cycle: the well-to-do prefer to live in the newest housing stock. Each decade of a city's growth, a new ring of housing

1925-545: A number of enrichment programs for students, such as chess and journalism. In 2013–2014, 64% of PS 154 students met or exceeded Common Core standards in the English Language Arts (ELA) exams and 65% met or exceeded the standards on the math exams. At PS 130, 32% of ELA test-takers met or exceeded standards, and 41% did so on the math test. For the 2017–18 school year, PS 154 placed in the top 30% of all schools in New York for overall test scores (math proficiency

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2100-671: A one-and-a-half-year renovation in February 2019. Windsor Terrace is served by the New York City Subway 's 15th Street–Prospect Park and Fort Hamilton Parkway stations on the IND Culver Line (now carrying the F and ​ G trains). The section of the line containing these two stations opened on October 7, 1933, as part of a "temporary" extension to Church Avenue in Kensington, where it

2275-434: A one-bedroom apartment to more than $ 1 million for a three-bedroom apartment. Windsor Terrace is becoming more ethnically diverse and culturally active, owing to a demographic change since the 1990s, when the area had a more elderly population and not as many families with young children. The increased presence of many families with young kids has not indicated a significant cultural change in the neighborhood. However, despite

2450-523: A part of the colony of New York . It became a center of slavery , with 42% of households enslaving Africans by 1730. Most were domestic slaves ; others were hired out as labor. Slavery became integrally tied to New York's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port, and the banking and shipping industries trading with the American South . During construction in Foley Square in

2625-416: A process "in which members of the 'new middle class' move into and physically and culturally reshape working-class inner city neighbourhoods". Kennedy & Leonard (2001) say in their Brookings Institution report that "the term 'gentrification' is both imprecise and quite politically charged", suggesting its redefinition as "the process by which higher income households displace lower income residents of

2800-549: A public school by 1876, and its own volunteer fire department by 1888. The village remained rural in feel until around 1900, when row houses began to be built throughout the area, at first along Prospect Park SW. Development began to pick up pace during the 1920s as rumors circulated that the neighborhood would soon be served by the New York City Subway . There were a lot of single-family and two-family houses being built, as well as stores being opened on 11th Avenue and two apartment buildings being erected on Prospect Avenue . Many of

2975-519: A reputation as a despotic leader. He instituted regulations on liquor sales, attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church , and blocked other religious groups from establishing houses of worship. In 1664, unable to summon any significant resistance, Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops, led by Colonel Richard Nicolls , without bloodshed. The terms of the surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in

3150-531: A result of Sandy, and the economic losses in New York City were estimated to be roughly $ 19 billion. The disaster spawned long-term efforts towards infrastructural projects to counter climate change and rising seas, with $ 15 billion in federal funding received through 2022 towards those resiliency efforts. In March 2020, the first case of COVID-19 in the city was confirmed. With its population density and its extensive exposure to global travelers,

3325-540: A result of a donation by the Patrick J. Devaney Post #964, VFW of the U.S.—memorializes all of the locals who have died in war. One side has the inscription "In memory of the men / of this community who / have given their lives / In wartime service/ to their country / Erected by / Patrick J. Devaney Post #964 / V.F.W. of U.S. / 1965" while the other side has the inscription "For Valor / and / Sacrifice / 1965". Like similar structures such as Times Square and Herald Square ,

3500-538: A return to the inner city but is more of a positive action to remain there. The stereotypical gentrifiers also have shared consumer preferences and favor a largely consumerist culture. This fuels the rapid expansion of trendy restaurant, shopping, and entertainment spheres that often accompany the gentrification process. Holcomb and Beauregard described these groups as those who are "attracted by low prices and toleration of an unconventional lifestyle". An interesting find from research on those who participate and initiate

3675-683: A reversal, reinvestment, and the in-migration of a well-off middle- and upper-middle-class population." Scholars and pundits have applied a variety of definitions to gentrification since 1964, some oriented around gentrifiers, others oriented around the displaced, and some a combination of both. The first category include the Hackworth (2002) definition "the production of space for progressively more affluent users". The second category include Kasman's definition "the reduction of residential and retail space affordable to low-income residents". The final category includes Rose, who describes gentrification as

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3850-507: A rumor of bedbug-infested upholstery and malfunctions in the theater's heating system. In October 2016, the building was closed in preparation for conversion to a 7-screen, 650-seat theatre. Operated by Nitehawk Cinema , the refurbished Pavilion Theatre, where patrons would be able to dine and watch movies simultaneously, was Nitehawk's second movie theater within Brooklyn. The renovated theater ultimately reopened on December 19, 2018. Farrell's Bar & Grill, at 16th Street and Prospect Park W,

4025-458: A small town, as do well-maintained one-family houses, some with covered balconies and stained glass windows; other houses with " bay windows , both rounded and faceted"; and yet other "clapboard Italianate " houses with multicolored cornices . There are a few apartment buildings, including Windsor Tower, a 10-story building that was downgraded from 22 stories after community objections; a 73-unit, seven-floor rental building that opened in 2015; and

4200-413: A social rise that brings new standards in consumption, particularly in the form of excess and superfluity, to the area that were not held by the pre-existing residents. These differing norms can lead to conflict, which potentially serves to divide changing communities. Often this comes at a larger social cost to the original residents of the gentrified area whose displacement is met with little concern from

4375-485: A speech denying the request, which was paraphrased on the front page of the New York Daily News as "FORD TO CITY: DROP DEAD." The Municipal Assistance Corporation was formed and granted oversight authority over the city's finances. While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city's economic health in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into

4550-578: A stairway on its side that connects the two streets. Several notable Windsor Terrace residents are in the field of entertainment and media, including the actress Debi Mazar and her chef husband, Gabriele Corcos . The MSNBC news host Chris Hayes also lives in the neighborhood. Actress, comedian, writer, and producer Mindy Kaling lived in Windsor Terrace when she wrote her award-winning play Matt & Ben with then-roommate Brenda Withers. George Motz, described as "America's hamburger expert" and

4725-437: A supplier of food and a community focal point. To become a member, residents must pay a one-time fee and commit to a work requirement, although memberships from other Brooklyn food co-ops are honored. The food, especially produce, is often higher quality and lower in price than at local supermarkets. Windsor Terrace, which is part of Community Board 7 , consists of a narrow, nine-block-wide area. Located in central Brooklyn,

4900-628: A total of 5,324 Democrats voting. Windsor Terrace had relatively few Republican primary voters. Just 371 voters cast ballots in the 2016 Republican primary , with 197 people ( 53.1% of the Republican electorate in the neighborhood) voting for Donald Trump , 120 for John Kasich ( 32.3% of the Republican electorate), and 54 for Ted Cruz ( 14.6% of the Republican electorate). The neighborhood public elementary schools, PS 154 (The Windsor Terrace School) on 11th Avenue and PS 130 (The Parkside School) on Ocean Avenue, are well regarded. Each school features

5075-422: A tradition since its cardboard "containers" were replaced by Styrofoam "containers" in 1985, were discontinued in 2015 following a citywide ban on Styrofoam food implements. Due to Windsor Terrace's topography, there is a terminal moraine that ends in Windsor Terrace, creating a steep slope. As a result, at the location where the intersection of Seeley Street and Prospect Avenue would have been; Seeley Street uses

5250-532: A typical 1970s term with more visibility in public discourse than actual migration. A 2017 study found that gentrification leads to job gains overall, with job losses in proximate locations but job gains further away. A 2014 study found that gentrification led to job gains in the gentrifying neighborhood. A 2016 study found that residents who stay in gentrifying neighborhoods go on to obtain higher credit scores whereas residents who leave gentrifying neighborhoods obtain lower credit scores. "School gentrification"

5425-417: Is a combined community effort to win historic district designation for the neighborhood, a phenomenon that is often linked to gentrification activity. Gentry can exert a peer influence on neighbors to take action against crime, which can lead to even more price increases in changing neighborhoods when crime rates drop and optimism for the area's future climbs. Some argue that gentrification is associated with

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5600-543: Is a consolidation of Holy Name of Jesus and Immaculate Heart of Mary's elementary schools into Holy Name's existing infrastructure on 9th Avenue, offering Pre-K(3) to 8th Grade, including Honors Classes and after school programs. Another Catholic school, Bishop Ford High School , formerly operated at 500 19th Street in Windsor Terrace from 1952 to 2014. It closed in June 2014 due to lowered revenues from declining enrollment, with only 25% of its 2006 enrollment. The former school site

5775-441: Is a noted community institution that has been continuously run by three owners since 1933. Famous among the fire and police officers who live in the community, it is said to be one of the first bars in New York City to get its liquor license at the end of Prohibition . It has been used as a standard bar backdrop in many film sequences. The neighborhood legend persists that until 1971, when Shirley MacLaine and Pete Hamill went into

5950-409: Is a traffic circle at the intersection of Prospect Park West, 15th Street, and Prospect Park Southwest. Its name commemorates local residents, Emil Bartel and William Pritchard, who died during World War I while in combat. The circle, which was dedicated under its current name in 1922, originally had a flower garden in its center. A black granite monument in the center of the circle—installed in 1965 as

6125-640: Is also a small minority of Syrians , Maronite Lebanese , and Jewish-Americans . The local synagogue is the Chabad Jewish Center. There is also a newer place of worship, the Calvary Cathedral of Praise at Caton Place and East Eighth Street. By the 2000s and 2010s, an influx of residents seeking affordable family housing had pushed property prices up. In 2015, houses in various parts of Windsor Terrace sold for about $ 1.2 million to $ 2 million in 2015, and apartments cost from $ 400,000 for

6300-467: Is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023 , New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates and has by a wide margin the highest U.S. city residential rents; and Fifth Avenue is the most expensive shopping street in the world. New York City is home by a significant margin to the highest number of billionaires , individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$ 30 million), and millionaires of any city in

6475-481: Is at the convergence of Prospect Park Southwest, Coney Island Avenue, Parkside Avenue, Ocean Parkway , and Fort Hamilton Parkway, and was reconstructed in 2010. Park Circle's entrance to Prospect Park is designed in a style similar to the Bartel-Pritchard Square entrance. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of Windsor Terrace was 20,988, an increase of 209 (1.0%) from

6650-411: Is built. When the housing at the center has reached the end of its useful life and becomes cheap, the well-to-do gentrify the neighborhood. The push outward from the city center continues as the housing in each ring reaches the end of its economic life. They observe that gentrification has three interpretations: (a) "great, the value of my house is going up, (b) coffee is more expensive, now that we have

6825-641: Is characterized by: (i) increased numbers of middle-class families; (ii) material and physical upgrades (e.g. new programs, educational resources, and infrastructural improvements); (iii) forms of exclusion and/or the marginalization of low-income students and families (e.g. in both enrollment and social relations); and (iv) changes in school culture and climate (e.g. traditions, expectations, and social dynamics). A 2024 study found that adding high-density mixed-income developments to low-income neighborhoods in London, United Kingdom, led to improved educational outcomes for

7000-877: Is commonly referenced as a negative aspect of gentrification by its opponents. A 2022 study found evidence that gentrification leads to greater residential mobility. In the United States, a 2023 study by Princeton University sociologists found that "eviction rates decreased more in gentrifying neighborhoods than in comparable low-income neighborhoods." A 2016 study found "that vulnerable residents, those with low credit scores and without mortgages, are generally no more likely to move from gentrifying neighborhoods compared with their counterparts in nongentrifying neighborhoods." A 2017 study by sociology professor Matthew Desmond , who runs Princeton University's Eviction Lab, "found no evidence that renters residing in gentrifying or in racially- and economically-integrated neighborhoods had

7175-525: Is considered to also be in Park Slope). Isaac Asimov lived in Windsor Terrace when his father ran a small candy store on Windsor Place. It is believed Asimov wrote his famous short story Nightfall in his bedroom in the family home across the street. The New York Times journalist Jonathan Mahler, author of Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bronx Is Burning is a Windsor Terrace resident, as is

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7350-410: Is little evidence for more long-term impacts and that gentrification in some cases widens crime-related disparities. Displacement is often seen as a key effect of gentrification, although evidence is mixed as to whether gentrification leads to displacement (or even reduces displacement) and under which circumstances. In 2005, USA Today claimed that gentrification is a "boost for everyone" based on

7525-758: Is more likely when there is an undersupply of housing and rising home values in a metropolitan area. The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development , increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain , where large villas were replacing small shops by

7700-723: Is named after Roger Sherman , a signatory of the Declaration of Colonial Rights , the United States Declaration of Independence , the Articles of Confederation , and the United States Constitution . The street name "Windsor Place" has been applied to two different streets throughout the neighborhood's history. The current Windsor Place was formerly Braxton Street before the 1900s, while 16th Street between Prospect Park W and Prospect Park SW

7875-460: Is no agreed-upon definition of gentrification. In public discourse, it has been used to describe a wide array of phenomena, sometimes in a pejorative connotation. Gentrification is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning . Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but can be controversial due to changing demographic composition and potential displacement of incumbent residents. Gentrification

8050-498: Is now Terrace Place. An attempt was made in 1865 to change the name of Middle Street to Sterling Street, possibly for Lord Stirling , but was vetoed by Mayor Alfred M. Wood . Prospect Park's establishment required additional access, and in 1868 the New York Legislature passed an act that provided for Middle Street's renaming to Prospect Avenue and its widening from 60 to 80 feet (18 to 24 m). Maps made in 1874 for

8225-549: Is now a warehouse. By around the 1940s, the stables started to disappear, with some being converted into bowling alleys or roller skating rinks , and others just disappearing. Today, Kensington Stables gives lessons in The Shoe in Prospect Park. Kensington Stables now exists on the Windsor Terrace side of the border between Kensington and Windsor Terrace. Bartel-Pritchard Square, in Windsor Terrace's northern extremity,

8400-425: Is now the location of K280, a pre-kindergarten school, and MS 442 (School for Innovation). The Brooklyn Public Library 's Windsor Terrace branch is located at East 5th Street at Fort Hamilton Parkway. It began as a "deposit station" with a small collection in 1922, but after 1940, service was intermittent after the library moved to a makeshift structure created out of two old streetcars. In 1969, it moved again into

8575-652: Is part of Brooklyn Community District 7 , and its primary ZIP Codes are 11215 and 11218. It is patrolled by the 72nd Precinct of the New York City Police Department . Fire services are provided by Engine Company 240/Battalion 48 of the New York City Fire Department . Politically, Windsor Terrace is represented by the New York City Council 's 38th and 39th Districts. Before the coming of Europeans to

8750-685: Is patrolled by the 72nd Precinct of the NYPD , located at 830 4th Avenue. The 72nd Precinct ranked 16th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. Total crime has decreased since the 1990s, and the 72nd Precinct is one of the safest precincts in Brooklyn as of 2010. The 72nd Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 79.1% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 2 murders, 32 rapes, 185 robberies, 209 felony assaults, 153 burglaries, 468 grand larcenies, and 77 grand larcenies auto in 2018. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) operates

8925-419: Is thought to be a method to promote health equity. Whether gentrification has occurred in a census tract in an urban area in the United States during a particular 10-year period between censuses can be determined by a method used in a study by Governing : If the census tract in a central city had 500 or more residents and at the time of the baseline census had median household income and median home value in

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9100-409: Is top 30%, and reading proficiency is top 20%). The percentage of students achieving proficiency in math was 77% (the New York state average was 52%) and the percentage of students achieving proficiency in reading/language arts was 82% (the New York state average was 52%). PS 130 placed in the top 50% of all schools in New York for overall test scores (math proficiency was top 50%, and reading proficiency

9275-593: The American Civil War . It was replaced in 1962 by the Bishop Ford High School. The Prospect Expressway, built between 1953 and 1960, runs through the middle of the neighborhood, with the majority of the neighborhood northeast of the expressway, and a small part of the neighborhood in the southwest connected by various bridges to the northeast section. Some neighborhood streets, such as Greenwood Avenue and Vanderbilt Place, were bisected by

9450-810: The Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes . Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall , a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants . In 1831, New York University was founded. Several prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s, including William Cullen Bryant , Washington Irving , Herman Melville , Rufus Wilmot Griswold , John Keese , Nathaniel Parker Willis , and Edgar Allan Poe . Members of

9625-909: The Crown , with as many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation, the largest such community on the continent. When the British forces evacuated New York at the close of the war in 1783, they transported thousands of freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia , England, and the Caribbean . The attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates, including Benjamin Franklin , and British general Lord Howe on September 11, 1776. Shortly after

9800-659: The New York City Fire Department and 71 law enforcement officers. The area was rebuilt with a new World Trade Center , the National September 11 Memorial and Museum , and other new buildings and infrastructure, including the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , the city's third-largest hub. The new One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the seventh-tallest building in

9975-556: The New York Times bestselling novelist and memoirist Darin Strauss . New York City New York , often called New York City or NYC , is the most populous city in the United States , located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors . The city comprises five boroughs , each coextensive with a respective county . The city is the geographical and demographic center of both

10150-692: The Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area , the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area . New York is a global center of finance and commerce , culture , technology , entertainment and media , academics and scientific output , the arts and fashion , and, as home to the headquarters of the United Nations , international diplomacy . With an estimated population in 2023 of 8,258,035 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km ),

10325-1000: The Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company . He sailed up what the Dutch called North River (now the Hudson River), named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange . Hudson claimed the region for the Dutch East India Company. In 1614, the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay was claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland (' New Netherland '). The first non–Native American inhabitant of what became New York City

10500-576: The Statue of Liberty , a gift from France , was dedicated in New York Harbor. The statue welcomed 14 million immigrants as they came to the U.S. via Ellis Island by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is a symbol of the United States and American ideals of liberty and peace. In 1898, the City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then a separate city),

10675-709: The Stonewall riots were a series of violent protests by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village . They are widely considered to be the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights . Wayne R. Dynes , author of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality , wrote that drag queens were

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10850-612: The steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River , killing 1,021 people. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire , the city's worst industrial disaster, killed 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards. New York's non-White population was 36,620 in 1890. New York City

11025-516: The waterfronts since Dutch colonial times; reclamation is most prominent in Lower Manhattan, with developments such as Battery Park City in the 1970s and 1980s. Some of the natural relief in topography has been evened out, especially in Manhattan. Gentrification Gentrification is the process whereby the character of a neighborhood changes through the influx of more affluent residents (the " gentry ") and investment. There

11200-706: The 1950s and early '60s. The Seventh Avenue Line (now the B67 bus route) was converted from trolley to bus operations in 1951, and a year later, the Vanderbilt Avenue Line (now the B69) was similarly converted. A trolley barn, located between Green-Wood Cemetery and the Prospect Expressway, formerly served the Culver and Crosstown trolley lines on a site where a former federal prison was located during

11375-552: The 1990s, the African Burying Ground was discovered; the cemetery included 10,000 to 20,000 graves of colonial-era Africans, some enslaved and some free. The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger , who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby , helped to establish freedom of the press in North America . In 1754, Columbia University

11550-538: The 19th century, the city was transformed by both commercial and residential development relating to its status as a national and international trading center , as well as by European immigration, respectively. The city adopted the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 , which expanded the city street grid to encompass almost all of Manhattan. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected

11725-491: The 20,779 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 322.38 acres (130.46 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 65.1 inhabitants per acre (41,700/sq mi; 16,100/km). The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 64.9% (13,616) White , 6.2% (1,298) African American , 0.1% (31) Native American , 9.9% (2,076) Asian , 0.0% (0) Pacific Islander , 0.7% (151) from other races , and 2.5% (531) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.7% (3,285) of

11900-486: The 2000s. Residents protested after Key Food , the only major supermarket in the neighborhood, closed down in 2015. A new, smaller Key Food-owned store called Windsor Farms Market was opened and is currently operating in a portion of the old location. A food co-op called "Windsor Terrace Food Coop", using the model of the Park Slope Food Coop , was also organized at the same time. The co-op serves both as

12075-522: The 2012–2013 NYCDOE Progress Report, this school received an "A," garnering a quality score of 60.2 out of 100. MS 839, serving grades 6–8, is located at 713 Caton Avenue. Brooklyn College Academy operates an annex site for freshmen and sophomore high school students at 350 Coney Island Avenue, with the juniors' and seniors' building at Brooklyn College . The St. Joseph the Worker Catholic Academy opened in 2012. This Catholic school

12250-520: The 3rd century, AD. The word gentrification derives from gentry —which comes from the Old French word genterise , "of gentle birth" (14th century) and "people of gentle birth" (16th century). In England, landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen (and gentlewomen, as they were at that time known). British sociologist Ruth Glass was first to use "gentrification" in its current sense. She used it in 1964 to describe

12425-552: The Bartel-Pritchard Square is geometrically not a square, despite its name. The park entrance adjoining Bartel–Pritchard Square is shaped as a gateway between two Stanford White -designed granite pillars with "what appears to be huge bronze lanterns" adorning the pillars' apexes. The pillars, which are based on an acanthus column in Delphi with sculptures on top , were unveiled in 1906, shortly after White had died. Since at least 1908, Windsor Terrace has had its own movie theater since

12600-645: The British occupation began, the Great Fire of New York destroyed nearly 500 buildings, about a quarter of the structures in the city, including Trinity Church . In January 1785, the assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York City the national capital. New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of

12775-530: The Bronx , and Staten Island . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District, Manhattan , New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022 , the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world , with a gross metropolitan product of over US$ 2.16 trillion. If

12950-405: The City of Brooklyn, yet located far enough outside it that residents of Windsor Terrace were willing to move there for its suburban ambience; and within walking distance of Brooklyn Rapid Transit's streetcar lines . Additional blocks were developed in 1862, when the village had 30 inhabitants living in twelve houses. The village kept growing through the 1870s, boasting a Protestant chapel by 1874,

13125-504: The County of New York (which then included parts of the Bronx), the County of Richmond, and the western portion of the County of Queens. The opening of the New York City Subway in 1904, first built as separate private systems, helped bind the new city together. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. In 1904,

13300-559: The Double Windsor, Rhythm and Booze and the Adirondack) as well as a combination cafe and food store called The Tuscan Gun; a combination pub and restaurant called Hamilton's; a French restaurant called Le Paddock; and a Middle Eastern restaurant called Batata. The commercial streets are also lined with new "coffee shops, yoga studios and vegetarian restaurants" that have popped up since the area's gentrification. Windsor Terrace

13475-603: The Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade, leading to growth in the production and trade of food, timber, tobacco, and slaves (particularly with the Dutch West Indies ). In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During his tenure, the population of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000. Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order; however, he earned

13650-544: The Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit , as charged by the Dutch West India Company , purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie , a small Lenape band, for "the value of 60 guilders " (about $ 900 in 2018). A frequently told but disproved legend claims that Manhattan was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads. Following the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. To attract settlers,

13825-613: The Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628, whereby wealthy Dutchmen ( patroons , or patrons) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded land, local political autonomy, and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade. This program had little success. Since 1621, the Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland, on authority granted by the Dutch States General . In 1639–1640, in an effort to bolster economic growth,

14000-529: The Engine Company 240/Battalion 48 fire station at 1307 Prospect Avenue. The company supersedes a volunteer fire department created in 1888. Brooklyn Fire Department Engine 40 was created with that number on January 20, 1896, moving into a firehouse at 1307-1309 Prospect Avenue (which is now a city landmark). The company was incorporated into the FDNY as Engine Company 240 on January 1, 1913. The firehouse

14175-550: The Kings County Town Survey Commission provided for a 100-foot-wide (30 m) extension of Prospect Avenue into the Town of Flatbush ; however, this was stymied by a steep, boulder-strewn terminal moraine , and the fact that the city of Brooklyn's and town of Flatbush's sections of the road were misaligned. In 1903, plans were approved to correct the misalignment; Prospect Avenue was extended through

14350-510: The Marathon Theatre opened at present-day 188 Prospect Park W in 1908. The 500-seat Marathon Theatre had a Wurlitzer organ installed in 1927, shortly before its 1928 demolition. In August of that year, the 1,516-seat, Art Deco Sanders Theatre was opened on the site of the former Marathon Theatre, where it operated for half a century before its closure in 1976. The building stood vacant for twenty years after that, and investors bought

14525-597: The Native Americans and epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizeable population losses for the Lenape between 1660 and 1670. By 1700, the Lenape population had diminished to 200. New York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century, losing ten percent of its population in 1702 alone. In the early 18th century, New York grew in importance as a trading port while as

14700-651: The New World, the area which is now Windsor Terrace was inhabited by the Canarsee Indians . Specifically, the Gowanus and Werpos tribes inhabited the surrounding area. The land, which was then in the far northwestern corner of the Town of Flatbush , was purchased as a farm by John Vanderbilt . Some parts of the land were also maintained by the Martense family, who owned land in the area through 1895. This area

14875-480: The New York metropolitan area were its own country , it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world . Despite having a 24/7 rapid transit system , New York also leads the world in urban automobile traffic congestion . The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq . New York City

15050-417: The Prospect Expressway elsewhere or cancel the expressway altogether. Kensington Stables is the only remaining stable near Prospect Park. In the days where horse stables saw a lot of business, there were many dozens of stables in the area. The barn was built in 1930 as the last extension of the riding academy at 11 Ocean Parkway, 57 Caton Place (built in 1917). The original riding academy closed in 1937 and

15225-646: The Prospect Park West Station post office at 225 Prospect Park West. Politically, Windsor Terrace is in New York's 10th congressional district . It is in the New York State Senate 's 20th district, the New York State Assembly 's 44th district, and the New York City Council 's 38th and 39th districts. Windsor Terrace was once part of New York's 9th congressional district, but following redistricting in 2022,

15400-716: The Revolutionary War and escaped slaves, a significant free-Black population gradually developed in Manhattan. The New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate Black children. It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state . Free Blacks struggled with discrimination and interracial abolitionist activism continued. New York City's population jumped from 123,706 in 1820 (10,886 of whom were Black and of which 518 were enslaved) to 312,710 by 1840 (16,358 of whom were Black). Also in

15575-512: The Town of Flatbush lay to the south, located in the direction of Seeley Street. The grid of old Brooklyn, which is tilted at an angle, is adjacent to the Flatbush grid, which is roughly aligned with the cardinal directions , at this juncture. The only other still-extant nuance of this ancient Dutch boundary is the legacy of original Catholic Parish boundaries, which are between Holy Name of Jesus to

15750-465: The United States . As the U.S. capital, New York City hosted the inauguration of the first President, George Washington , and the first Congress , at Federal Hall on Wall Street . Congress drafted the Bill of Rights there. The Supreme Court held its first organizational sessions in New York in 1790. In 1790, for the first time, New York City surpassed Philadelphia as the nation's largest city. At

15925-580: The W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research and Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia found that the construction of new large apartment buildings in low-income neighborhoods lead to an influx of high-income households but also decrease rents in nearby units by increasing housing supply. Many of the social effects of gentrification have been based on extensive theories about how socioeconomic status of an individual's neighborhood will shape one's behavior and future. These studies have prompted "social mix policies" to be widely adopted by governments to promote

16100-638: The Windsor Terrace street grid, since the streets diverge from each other from Park Slope eastward. The northernmost of the streets is Windsor Place, which runs between 7th Avenue and Prospect Park Southwest. The southernmost of the streets is Prospect Avenue, which continues southward to Ocean Parkway (near the Fort Hamilton Parkway overpass across the Prospect Expressway) and northward to Third Avenue . Running between these two streets from 10th Avenue to Terrace Place, Sherman Street

16275-723: The area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême (New Angoulême ). A Spanish expedition, led by the Portuguese captain Estêvão Gomes sailing for Emperor Charles V , arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 and charted the mouth of the Hudson River , which he named Río de San Antonio ('Saint Anthony's River'). In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while searching for

16450-552: The area. Gentrification of the neighborhood began in the 1980s, with families who could not afford the prices in Brooklyn Heights and Park Slope coming to Windsor Terrace instead, looking for more affordable real estate. During this time, the old square block-sized Pilgrim Laundry, site of an ancient Victorian-era brick edifice at the corner of Prospect Avenue and Terrace Place, was razed and replaced with 17 two-family houses constructed in 1983. The houses were funded with

16625-447: The artists' case. Their cultural emancipation from the bourgeois makes the central city an appealing alternative that distances them from the conformity and mundaneness attributed to suburban life. They are quintessential city people, and the city is often a functional choice as well, for city life has advantages that include connections to customers and a closer proximity to a downtown art scene, all of which are more likely to be limited in

16800-451: The bar during the filming of Desperate Characters and successfully demanded that MacLaine be served from the bar; until that time, Farrell's only served men at the bar and women at the rear of the establishment. Farrell's, which known for being open every day from 10 a.m. to 3 a.m., was closed for a nine-day renovation in 2006, marking the bar's longest duration of closure since Prohibition ended. Its iconic styrofoam cups filled with beer,

16975-548: The beginning of the 1990s. By the mid-1990s, crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies, improving economic opportunities, gentrification , and new residents, both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. New York City's population exceeded 8 million for the first time in the 2000 United States census ; further records were set in 2010 , and 2020 U.S. censuses. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley , emerged in

17150-407: The bottom 40th percentile and at the time of the next 10-year census the tract's educational attainment (percentage of residents over age 25 with a bachelor's degree) was in the top 33rd percentile; the median home value, adjusted for inflation, had increased; and the percentage of increase in home values in the tract was in the top 33rd percentile when compared to the increase in other census tracts in

17325-490: The building in 1993 in hopes of reopening the theatre. The Pavilion Theatre, a 3-screen movie theater within the defunct Sanders Theatre building, opened in 1996 to positive reception from the surrounding communities, which had experienced a cultural decline in prior years. The theater, which expanded to 9 screens in October 2004, suffered from complaints about broken toilets, poorly maintained seats, and sticky floors, as well as

17500-587: The business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city. The Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, of whom more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, representing over a quarter of the city's population. Extensive immigration from the German provinces meant that Germans comprised another 25% of New York's population by 1860. Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing

17675-436: The central business district has increased demand for living in urban areas according to Ley (1980) . Critical geographers have argued that capital flows and developers have been instrumental in causing gentrification. The de-industrialization of cities in developed nations may have caused displacement by reducing the number of blue-collar jobs available to the urban working class and middle-class. Some have argued that

17850-417: The changed perception of the central city that is encouraged by gentrification can be healthy for resource-deprived communities who have previously been largely ignored. Gentrifiers provide the political effectiveness needed to draw more government funding towards physical and social area improvements, while improving the overall quality of life by providing a larger tax base. Communities have strong ties to

18025-419: The changing norms that accompany gentrification translate to a changing social hierarchy. The process of gentrification mixes people of different socioeconomic strata, thereby congregating a variety of expectations and social norms. The change gentrification brings in class distinction also has been shown to contribute to residential polarization by income, education, household composition, and race. It conveys

18200-571: The children who were already living in the neighborhood. The plausible mechanism for this effect is that incumbent students were exposed to more high-ability students. In Chicago, among neighborhood public schools located in areas that did undergo gentrification, one study found that schools experience no aggregate academic benefit from the socioeconomic changes occurring around them, despite improvements in other public services such street repair, sanitation, policing, and firefighting. The lack of gentrification-related benefits to schools may be related to

18375-561: The city from New Jersey. The East River—a tidal strait —flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River , another tidal strait between the East and Hudson rivers, separates most of Manhattan from the Bronx. The Bronx River , which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County , is the only entirely freshwater river in the city. The city's land has been altered substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along

18550-425: The city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York City has more than double the population of Los Angeles , the nation's second-most populous city. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities . The city and its metropolitan area are

18725-439: The city rapidly replaced Wuhan , China as the global epicenter of the pandemic during the early phase, straining the city's healthcare infrastructure. Through March 2023, New York City recorded more than 80,000 deaths from COVID-19-related complications. New York City is situated in the northeastern United States , in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston . Its location at

18900-632: The city's economy. The advent of Y2K was celebrated with fanfare in Times Square . New York City suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks . Two of the four airliners hijacked that day were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, resulting in the collapse of both buildings and the deaths of 2,753 people, including 343 first responders from

19075-726: The city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on. Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861–1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to hire a substitute, led to the Draft Riots of 1863 , whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class. The draft riots deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on Black New Yorkers after fierce competition for

19250-633: The colony and allowed for religious freedom. In 1667, during negotiations leading to the Treaty of Breda after the Second Anglo-Dutch War , the victorious Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of what is now Suriname , which they had gained from the English, and in return the English kept New Amsterdam. The settlement was promptly renamed "New York" after the Duke of York (the future King James II and VII). The duke gave part of

19425-622: The colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley . On August 24, 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War , Anthony Colve of the Dutch navy seized New York at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it "New Orange" after William III , the Prince of Orange . The Dutch soon returned the island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674. Several intertribal wars among

19600-423: The cooperation of a public-private partnership and sold through lottery to locals. This brought attention to the need for affordable housing in Brooklyn, and in the late 1980s, the neighborhood was rezoned to prevent the construction of high-rise buildings in order to retain the small-town fabric of the existing neighborhood. However, by then, gentrification of the neighborhood had started, and would continue through

19775-435: The counterculture movement in the 1960s created disdain for the "standardization of look-alike suburbs", prompting people to live in urban areas. Others argue that a desire to live near cultural attractions prompts gentrification. According to a 2020 systematic review of existing research, gentrification in the United States has led to a short-term reduction in crime in gentrifying neighborhoods. However, it noted that there

19950-453: The current library building, which had been completed that year. The library was renovated in 1994, and again in 2011. In 2016, a campaign was started in which people were to "like" the library's Facebook page so that the library could get a garden; this was part of an initiative in which Facebook users from Brooklyn can vote on which Brooklyn Public Library branches could get $ 5,000 of extra funding for various programs. The library closed for

20125-609: The cut, and Seely Street was placed over Prospect Avenue on a concrete-and-steel arch bridge. 16th Street is co-named "Captain Vincent E. Brunton Way" after a New York City Fire Department captain who died in the September 11 attacks . 10th Avenue is also co-named "John P. Devaney Boulevard" in this area after a firefighter who died while trying to rescue residents of a burning Red Hook building in 1989. Traffic circles are relatively rare in New York City, but Windsor Terrace has three of them, all framing Prospect Park entrances along

20300-469: The days of unpaved roads, when logs or "planks" were laid for stability and to keep the mud down. The southernmost stretch of Prospect Park Southwest, south of the bend at the termination of 16th Street, still retains Coney Island Avenue's street numbering system. Prospect Avenue extends from Hamilton Avenue to Ocean Parkway and is crossed by a bridge at Seeley Street. The northern part was originally known as Middle Street and had its southernmost limit at what

20475-501: The decline of distinctive local businesses and the rise of chains and franchises. Rehabilitation movements have been largely successful at restoring the plentiful supply of old and deteriorated housing that is readily available in inner cities. This rehabilitation can be seen as a superior alternative to expansion, for the location of the central city offers an intact infrastructure that should be taken advantage of: streets, public transportation, and other urban facilities. Furthermore,

20650-417: The demand has grown. Additionally, Darren P. Smith finds through his research that college-educated workers moving into the urban areas causes them to settle there and raise children, which eventually contributes to the cost of education in regards to the migration between urban and suburban places. Women increasingly obtaining higher education as well as higher paying jobs has increased their participation in

20825-417: The development of large housing tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County , with Wall Street leading America's place as the world's dominant economic power. The United Nations headquarters was completed in 1952, solidifying New York's global geopolitical influence, and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated New York's displacement of Paris as the center of the art world. In 1969,

21000-490: The efficiency of commodities parents need by minimizing time constraints among multiple jobs, childcare, and markets. Phillip Clay's two-stage model of gentrification places artists as prototypical stage one or "marginal" gentrifiers. The National Endowment for the Arts did a study that linked the proportion of employed artists to the rate of inner city gentrification across a number of U.S. cities. Artists will typically accept

21175-406: The end of 1790, the national capital was moved to Philadelphia . During the 19th century, New York City's population grew from 60,000 to 3.43 million. Under New York State's gradual emancipation act of 1799, children of slave mothers were to be eventually liberated but to be held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties. Together with slaves freed by their masters after

21350-474: The expressway and remain so, while others, such as Seeley Street, 11th Avenue/Terrace Place, and Prospect Park W, are bridged over the highway. A plan to extend the highway along Ocean Parkway was never realized, though Ocean Parkway serves as a service road for the expressway for a short distance in southern Windsor Terrace. In the late 1950s, the Holy Name of Jesus Church led a failed effort to try to reroute

21525-579: The expressway, which splits the neighborhood in two. MTA Regional Bus Operations operates bus routes in the area. As of 2016, there are four local bus routes: the B61 , B67 , B68 , and B69 . Several express buses and the B103 Limited bus pass through Windsor Terrace without stopping. As elsewhere in Brooklyn, trolley service, operated by the BMT's rapid transit arm , ran in the neighborhood well into

21700-506: The finding that white gentrifiers often do not enroll their children in local neighborhood public schools. Programs and policies designed to attract gentrifying families to historically disinvested schools may have unintended negative consequences, including an unbalanced landscape of influence wherein the voices and priorities of more affluent parents are privileged over those of lower-income families. In addition, rising enrollment of higher-income families in neighborhood schools can result in

21875-457: The founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island . In 1625, construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam , later called Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), on present-day Manhattan Island. The colony of New Amsterdam extended from the southern tip of Manhattan to modern-day Wall Street , where a 12-foot (3.7 m) wooden stockade was built in 1653 to protect against Native American and English raids. In 1626,

22050-514: The general area, was able to sell them rather quickly. Bell then renamed the area after one of the multiple places named Windsor in England. Bell sold part of the land to Edward Belknap in 1851, and Belknap subsequently built four streets on which he marked 49 lots for future "Pleasant Cottages." The development was incorporated as the Village of Windsor Terrace, which was bounded by Church Avenue on

22225-464: The gentrification process, the "marginal gentrifiers" as referred to by Tim Butler, is that they become marginalized by the expansion of the process. Research shows how one reason wealthy, upper-class individuals and families hold some responsibility in the causation of gentrification is due to their social mobility. Wealthier families were more likely to have more financial freedom to move into urban areas, oftentimes choosing to do so for their work. At

22400-488: The gentry or the government. Clashes that result in increased police surveillance, for example, would more adversely affect young minorities who are also more likely to be the original residents of the area. There is also evidence to support that gentrification can strengthen and stabilize when there is a consensus about a community's objectives. Gentrifiers with an organized presence in deteriorated neighborhoods can demand and receive better resources. A characteristic example

22575-467: The history and culture of their neighborhood, and causing its dispersal can have detrimental costs. The economic changes that occur as a community goes through gentrification are often favorable for local governments. Affluent gentrifiers expand the local tax base as well as support local shops and businesses, a large part of why the process is frequently alluded to in urban policies. The decrease in vacancy rates and increase in property value that accompany

22750-496: The host of the television series Burger Land , lives in Windsor Terrace. Mallory Hagan , 2013's Miss America , was living in Windsor Terrace at the time that she won Miss America 2013 , though older reports incorrectly mentioned that she lived in Park Slope. Several writers of note have lived in Windsor Terrace, including Frank McCourt ; Pete Hamill and Denis Hamill; and Paul Auster (although Auster's place of residence

22925-473: The ice (and its subsequent retreat) contributed to the separation of what is now Long Island and Staten Island. That action left bedrock at a relatively shallow depth, providing a solid foundation for most of Manhattan's skyscrapers. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay . Between New York City and Troy, New York , the river is an estuary . The Hudson River separates

23100-550: The impact of some recent studies and that displacement that arises is minimal, or caused by other factors. Some scholars have disputed these assertions, arguing that such studies distort facts and used limited datasets. In 2002, economist Jacob Vigdor wrote, "Overall, existing literature has failed to convincingly demonstrate that rates of involuntary displacement are higher in gentrifying neighborhoods." A 2018 study found evidence that gentrification displaces renters, but not homeowners. The displacement of low-income rental residents

23275-624: The increased population, the area still maintains a bit of small-town atmosphere, with relatively low house turnover. A real estate broker who grew up in the area said that in Windsor Terrace, "everybody says hello" to each other, and a real-estate feature in The New York Times stated that "residents look out for one another at all hours of the day." There is more on-street vehicle parking in Windsor Terrace than in nearby, more populous neighborhoods. The area's lack of traffic lights , due to low traffic volumes, make Windsor Terrace feel like

23450-523: The influx of middle-class people displacing lower-class worker residents in urban neighborhoods; her example was London , and its working-class districts such as Islington : One by one, many of the working class neighbourhoods of London have been invaded by the middle-classes—upper and lower. Shabby, modest mews and cottages—two rooms up and two down—have been taken over, when their leases have expired, and have become elegant, expensive residences ... Once this process of 'gentrification' starts in

23625-492: The inner-city lifestyle is important for women with children where the father does not care equally for the child, because of the proximity to professional childcare. This attracts single parents, specifically single mothers, to the inner-city as opposed to suburban areas where resources are more geographically spread out. This is often deemed as "marginal gentrification", for the city can offer an easier solution to combining paid and unpaid labor. Inner city concentration increases

23800-411: The investment risk in the housing market. Often they are single people or young couples without children who lack demand for good schools. Gentrifiers are likely searching for inexpensive housing close to the workplace and often already reside in the inner city, sometimes for educational reasons, and do not want to make the move to suburbia. For this demographic, gentrification is not so much the result of

23975-432: The labor force, translating to an expansion of women who have greater opportunities to invest. Smith suggests this group "represents a reservoir of potential gentrifiers." The increasing number of highly educated women play into this theory, given that residence in the inner city can give women access to the well-paying jobs and networking, something that is becoming increasingly common. There are also theories that suggest

24150-554: The last American stronghold in Manhattan, causing George Washington and his forces to retreat across the Hudson River to New Jersey , pursued by British forces. After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees and escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom promised by

24325-418: The line between the original Dutch Colonial Brooklyn towns of Brooklyn and Flatbush, as can be seen from its street grid that is bent approximately northeast–southwest along present-day Terrace Place. Old South Brooklyn (which now finds itself more westerly in disposition within the expanded boundaries of modern, consolidated Brooklyn) is located to the north of Terrace Place in the direction of 11th Avenue, and

24500-419: The most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s, overtaking London . The metropolitan area surpassed 10 million in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity . The Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance. Returning World War II veterans created a post-war economic boom and

24675-556: The mouth of the Hudson River , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port. Most of the city is built on the three islands of Long Island, Manhattan, and Staten Island. During the Wisconsin glaciation , 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City area was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet . The erosive forward movement of

24850-509: The neighborhood became part of the 10th congressional district . Windsor Terrace is a heavily Democratic area; in the 2016 Presidential election, 84% of the 9th Congressional district (where Windsor Terrace had been located from 2013 until 2022) voted for Hillary Clinton, compared to 15% for rival Donald Trump . In the 2016 Democratic presidential primary , Hillary Clinton narrowly won the primary in Windsor Terrace, receiving 2,756 votes ( 51.8%) to Bernie Sanders 's 2,568 votes ( 48.2%) with

25025-474: The neighborhood has a "curved, somewhat comma-like shape". The neighborhood lies between Green-Wood Cemetery to the southwest and Prospect Park to the northeast, split down the middle by the Prospect Expressway . Adjacent neighborhoods include Park Slope to the northeast and Kensington to the south. According to The Neighborhoods of Brooklyn , Windsor Terrace is bounded by Prospect Park West on

25200-488: The new occupants of Windsor Terrace were Irish-Americans, many of whose families remain there to this day. The 1933 arrival of the Independent Subway System (IND) ushered in an era of apartment-building construction. Even into the 1960s, Windsor Terrace was an isolated neighborhood with a quiet small-town feel to it, although the construction of the Prospect Expressway brought more through-traffic past

25375-467: The north and Immaculate Heart of Mary to the south, and ZIP Codes applied much later (11215 to the north and 11218 to the south). In this area, Vanderbilt Street, named after John Vanderbilt, splits western Brooklyn's general street grid (comprising numbered avenues from 1st–101st Streets) and southeastern Brooklyn's general street grid (comprising lettered avenues from East 1st to East 108th Streets). There are three streets between 16th and 17th Streets in

25550-500: The north, Prospect Park SW and Coney Island Avenue on the east, Caton Avenue on the south and McDonald Avenue on the west. However, the Encyclopedia of New York City gives the boundaries as Seventh Avenue and Prospect Park W on the north, Prospect Park SW to the east, and Green-Wood Cemetery to the south and west. Other sources extend the northwest corner to Eighth Avenue along 15th Street and 20th Street. Windsor Terrace straddles

25725-445: The only " transgender folks around" during the June 1969 Stonewall riots. The transgender community in New York City played a significant role in fighting for LGBT equality. In the 1970s, job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates. Growing fiscal deficits in 1975 led the city to appeal to the federal government for financial aid; President Gerald Ford gave

25900-423: The park's border. The northernmost, a medium-sized traffic circle named Bartel-Pritchard Square, is at the intersection of Prospect Park West, Prospect Park Southwest, and 15th Street, and contains an ornate entrance framed with two columns. Another traffic circle was built at Prospect Park Southwest and 16th Street, although it no longer operates as a circle. The southernmost, a large traffic circle named Park Circle,

26075-814: The political and cultural displacement of long-term residents in school decision-making processes and the loss of Title I funding. Notably, the expansion of school choice (e.g., charter schools, magnet schools, open enrollment policies) have been found to significantly increase the likelihood that college-educated white households gentrify low-income communities of color. A culmination of recent research suggests that gentrification has both detrimental and beneficial effects on health. A 2020 review found that studies tended to show adverse health impacts for Black residents and elderly residents in areas undergoing gentrification. A 2019 study in New York, found that gentrification has no impact on rates of asthma or obesity among low-income children. Growing up in gentrifying neighborhoods

26250-498: The population. Windsor Terrace is home to mainly Irish -, German -, Polish -, and Italian-American families, many having settled in its brick row and wood-frame houses when the neighborhood was first developed. The overwhelming majority of residents – many of whom can trace their family histories in Windsor Terrace back multiple generations – are Irish-American. They are traditionally affiliated with either Holy Name Church and School (the church having been built in 1874 and

26425-482: The premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States . As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York City, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world. New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists around 1624. The settlement

26600-421: The process and its positive effects, such as lessening the strain on public resources that are associated with de-concentrating poverty. However, more specific research has shown that gentrification does not necessarily correlate with "social mixing", and that the effects of the new composition of a gentrified neighborhood can both weaken as well as strengthen community cohesion. Housing confers social status, and

26775-619: The process can work to stabilize a previously struggling community, restoring interest in inner-city life as a residential option alongside the suburbs. These changes can create positive feedback as well, encouraging other forms of development of the area that promote general economic growth. Home ownership is a significant variable when it comes to economic impacts of gentrification. People who own their homes are much more able to gain financial benefits of gentrification than those who rent their houses and can be displaced without much compensation. Economic pressure and market price changes relate to

26950-494: The rezoning requires some students to travel over 0.5 miles (0.80 km) across "two highways" to get to school. In addition, since the rezoning, PS 154 has seen an increase in enrollment despite its decreased student catchment area; in 2016–2017, the school had its first-ever student waiting list , amid cuts to the school's pre-kindergarten program. There is also another public school nearby, PS 295 on 18th Street in Park Slope, to accommodate extra students from Windsor Terrace. In

27125-413: The risks of rehabilitating deteriorated property, as well as having the time, skill, and ability to carry out these extensive renovations. David Ley states that the artist's critique of everyday life and search for meaning and renewal are what make them early recruits for gentrification. The identity that residence in the inner city provides is important for the gentrifier, and this is particularly so in

27300-515: The same time, in these urban areas the lower-income population is decreasing due to an increase in the elderly population as well as demographic change. Jackelyn Hwang and Jeffrey Lin have supported in their research that another reason for the influx of upper-class individuals to urban areas is due to the "increase in demand for college-educated workers". It is because of this demand that wealthier individuals with college degrees needed to move into urban cities for work, increasing prices in housing as

27475-555: The school having been built in 1923, both located on present-day Prospect Park W), or Immaculate Heart of Mary (located on Fort Hamilton Parkway in Windsor Terrace's southeastern extremity). Other smaller Protestant denominations exist nearby, such as the Memorial Baptist Church at 16th Street and 8th Avenue , and Holy Apostles Episcopal on Greenwood Avenue. Over time, Windsor Terrace has become increasingly diverse, as Greek and Hispanic residents have moved in. There

27650-528: The south, McDonald Avenue on the west, the Brooklyn–Flatbush town line on the north, and Prospect Park Southwest and Coney Island Avenue on the east. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle first referred to the area as "Windsor Terrace" in March 1854. By 1856, Belknap had lost his land due to foreclosure. The area was generally desirable due to its prime location in the far northwest of the Town of Flatbush; close to

27825-403: The speed of gentrification. English-speaking countries have a higher number of property owners and a higher mobility. German speaking countries provide a higher share of rented property and have a much stronger role of municipalities, cooperatives, guilds and unions offering low-price-housing. The effect is a lower speed of gentrification and a broader social mix. Gerhard Hard sees gentrification as

28000-402: The stretch adjoining Prospect Park; the entire street was formerly and officially named 9th Avenue. Southeast of Prospect Park West, past Bartel-Pritchard Square , 15th Street becomes Prospect Park Southwest. The road bends noticeably between 11th Avenue and 16th Street; Prospect Park Southwest was previously known as Coney Island Avenue and originally known as the "Coney Island Plank Road" in

28175-413: The urban area then it was considered to have been gentrified. The method measures the rate of gentrification, not the degree of gentrification; thus, San Francisco , which has a history of gentrification dating to the 1970s, show a decreasing rate between 1990 and 2010. Scholars have also identified census indicators that can be used to reveal that gentrification is taking place in a given area, including

28350-529: The world by pinnacle height, with its spire reaching a symbolic 1,776 feet (541.3 m), a reference to the year of U.S. independence . The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and popularizing the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. New York City

28525-513: The world. In 1664, New York was named in honor of the Duke of York (later King James II of England ). James's elder brother, King Charles II , appointed the Duke as proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland , including the city of New Amsterdam , when the Kingdom of England seized it from Dutch control. In the pre-Columbian era , the area of present-day New York City

28700-422: Was Juan Rodriguez , a merchant from Santo Domingo who arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14, trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch colonists. A permanent European presence near New York Harbor was established in 1624, making New York the 12th-oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States , with

28875-566: Was heavily affected by Hurricane Sandy in late October 2012. Sandy's impacts included flooding that led to the days-long shutdown of the subway system and flooding of all East River subway tunnels and of all road tunnels entering Manhattan except the Lincoln Tunnel . The New York Stock Exchange closed for two days due to weather for the first time since the Great Blizzard of 1888 . At least 43 people died in New York City as

29050-539: Was a prime destination in the early 20th century for Blacks during the Great Migration from the American South, and by 1916, New York City had the largest urban African diaspora in North America. The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition . The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height. New York City became

29225-432: Was associated with moderate increases in being diagnosed with anxiety or depression between ages 9–11 relative to similar children raised in non-gentrifying areas. The effects of gentrification on mental health were most prominent for children living in market-rate (rather than subsidized) housing, which lead the authors of the study to suggest financial stress as a possible mechanism. Preventing or mitigating gentrification

29400-500: Was built in 1896 in the Romanesque Revival style . It is constructed of brick, limestone, and slate. It was named a New York City designated landmark in February 2013. Its lookout tower hails from a time where fire alarm systems were nonexistent. Windsor Terrace is covered by ZIP Codes 11215 and 11218, which respectively cover the northern and southern parts of the neighborhood. The United States Post Office operates

29575-501: Was desirable due to its proximity to downtown Brooklyn , as well as the recent construction of the Coney Island Plank Road through the area and of the serene Green-Wood Cemetery to the southwest. Following Vanderbilt's death, his land was divided in two. Vanderbilt's land were sold to William Bell, a real estate developer, in 1849. Bell subdivided the land into 47 building lots, and, unlike some other developers in

29750-807: Was founded. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty organization emerged in the city and skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The Battle of Long Island , the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War , was fought in August 1776 within modern-day Brooklyn. A British rout of the Continental Army at the Battle of Fort Washington in November 1776 eliminated

29925-534: Was inhabited by Algonquians , including the Lenape . Their homeland, known as Lenapehoking , included the present-day areas of Staten Island , Manhattan , the Bronx , the western portion of Long Island (including Brooklyn and Queens ), and the Lower Hudson Valley . The first documented visit into New York Harbor by a European was in 1524 by explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano . He claimed

30100-402: Was known as "Windsor Place" before then. Prospect Park West takes the place of 9th Avenue in the Windsor Terrace grid, and continues with the "Prospect Park West" name south of Prospect Park's borders, continuing southeastward to Green-Wood Cemetery, where it ends in a cul-de-sac. The stretch of Prospect Park West between 16th Street and Green-Wood Cemetery has always been called the same name as

30275-468: Was named New Amsterdam in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was temporarily renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York , before being permanently renamed New York in November 1674. New York City was the U.S. capital from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs : Manhattan , Brooklyn , Queens ,

30450-420: Was to have connected with Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) subway services via a ramp to Ditmas Avenue . The former station, 15th Street, has stone entrances set into the park walls. The latter station, Fort Hamilton Parkway, has a long passageway due to its unusual location under the Prospect Expressway ; its three entrances (one on Fort Hamilton Parkway itself, and two on Prospect Avenue) straddle

30625-480: Was top 50%) for the 2017–18 school year. The percentage of students achieving proficiency in math was 62% and the percentage of students achieving proficiency in reading/language arts was 58%. The NYCDOE district in which the schools are operated, District 15, was rezoned in 2014 due to an increased enrollment in the two schools; some students formerly zoned to PS 154 are now zoned to PS 130. This rezoning proved contentious, with some rezoned students' parents saying that

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