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46-864: According to early Roman histories, when the Sabine ruler Titus Tatius attacked Rome after the Rape of the Sabines (8th century BC), the Vestal Virgin Tarpeia , daughter of Spurius Tarpeius , governor of the citadel on the Capitoline Hill, betrayed the Romans by opening the Porta Pandana gate for Titus Tatius in return for "what the Sabines bore on their arms" (golden bracelets and bejeweled rings). In Book 1 of Livy's Ab Urbe Condita ,

92-542: A Roman province may be too broad a canvas to generalize. One characteristic of cultural Romanization was the creation of many hundreds of Roman coloniae in the territory of the Roman Republic and the subsequent Roman Empire. Until Trajan , colonies were created by using retired veteran soldiers, mainly from the Italian peninsula, who promoted Roman customs and laws, with the use of Latin . About 400 towns (of

138-451: A Romanizing effect upon the native communities. This thought process, fueled though it was by early 20th century standards of imperialism and cultural change, forms the basis for the modern understanding of Romanization. However, recent scholarship has devoted itself to providing alternate models of how native populations adopted Roman culture and has questioned the extent to which it was accepted or resisted. One additional reason behind

184-572: A Sabine. Many of these deities were shared with the Etruscan religion , and were also adopted into the derivative Samnite and ancient Roman religion . Roman author Varro , who was himself of Sabine origin, gives a list of Sabine gods who were adopted by the Romans. Elsewhere, Varro claims Sol Indiges – who had a sacred grove at Lavinium – as Sabine but at the same time equates him with Apollo . Of those listed, he writes, "several names have their roots in both languages, as trees that grow on

230-642: A grain a day; I would not buy/ Their mercy at the price of one fair word." In lines 99–104, Sicinius Velutus gives judgment: "we/ Even from this instant, banish him our city,/ In peril of precipitation/ From off the rock Tarpeian, never more/ To enter our Rome gates." 41°53′29.4″N 12°28′56.6″E  /  41.891500°N 12.482389°E  / 41.891500; 12.482389 Sabines Timeline The Sabines ( US : / ˈ s eɪ b aɪ n z / , SAY -bynes , UK : / ˈ s æ b aɪ n z / , SAB -eyens ; Latin : Sabini  ) were an Italic people who lived in

276-586: A member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages of the Indo-European family , while Glottolog classifies it as an Old Sabellic dialect alongside South Picene and Pre-Samnite . Latin -speakers called the Sabines' original territory, straddling the modern regions of Lazio , Umbria , and Abruzzo , Sabinum . To this day , it bears the ancient tribe's name in the Italian form of Sabina . Within

322-454: A population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries

368-403: A property line creep into both fields. Saturn, for instance, can be said to have another origin here, and so too Diana." Varro makes various claims for Sabine origins throughout his works, some more plausible than others, and his list should not be taken at face value. But the importance of the Sabines in the early cultural formation of Rome is evidenced, for instance, by the bride abduction of

414-679: A surprise war action starting from Amiternum . Ancient historians debated the specific origins of the Sabines. According to Strabo the Sabines, after a long war with the Umbrians, migrated to the land of the Opici , following the ancient Italic rite of the Ver Sacrum . The Sabines then drove out the Opici and encamped in that region. Zenodotus of Troezen claimed that the Sabines were originally Umbrians that changed their name after being driven from

460-712: A temple to the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the deities venerated in the temple of Jupiter Best and Biggest on the Capitol in Rome. Livius It has been estimated that at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces. Julius Caesar , Mark Antony and Augustus settled many of their veterans in colonies: in Italy, and the provinces. The colonies that were established in Italy until 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of

506-682: The Greeks . Romanization was largely effective in the western half of the empire, where native civilizations were weaker. In the Hellenized east, ancient civilizations like those of Ancient Egypt , Anatolia , the Balkans , Syria , and Palestine effectively resisted all but its most superficial effects. When the Empire was divided, the east, with mainly Greek culture, was marked by the increasing strength of specifically Greek culture and language to

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552-654: The Iberian Peninsula , Gaul , southern Germany and Dalmatia . Romanization in most of those regions remains such a powerful cultural influence in most aspects of life today that they are described as "Latin countries" and "Latin American countries". That is most evident in European countries in which Romance languages are spoken and former colonies that have inherited the languages and other Roman influences. According to Theodor Mommsen , cultural Romanization

598-795: The Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire . The terms were used in ancient Roman historiography and traditional Italian historiography until the Fascist period, when the various processes were called the " civilizing of barbarians ". Acculturation proceeded from the top down, with the upper classes adopting Roman culture first and the old ways lingering longest among peasants in outlying countryside and rural areas. Hostages played an important part in this process, as elite children, from Mauretania to Gaul , were taken to be raised and educated in Rome. Ancient Roman historiography and traditional Italian historiography confidently identified

644-834: The Samnites and the Sabelli , as attested by the common ethnonyms of Safineis (in ancient Greek σαφινείς ) and by the toponyms safinim and safina (at the origin of the terms Samnium and Sabinum ). The Indo-European root * Saβeno or * Sabh evolved into the word Safen , which later became Safin . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh- , which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . At some point in prehistory,

690-463: The Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek , which largely kept its position as lingua franca and even spread to new areas. Latin became prominent in certain areas around new veteran colonies like Berytus . The local customary laws were supplanted in part by Roman law , with its institutions regarding property and inheritance. Typically-Roman institutions, such as public baths , the imperial cult and gladiator fights, were adopted. Gradually,

736-528: The Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order. The very existence of Romanization is a source of contention among modern archaeologists . One of

782-690: The Pomentine plains) and some from that colony settled among the Sabines. According to the account, the Sabine habits of belligerence (aggressive or warlike behavior) and frugality (prudence in avoiding waste) were known to have derived from the Spartans. Plutarch also mentions, in the Life of Numa Pompilius, "Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians". Plutarch also wrote that

828-584: The Pythagoras of Sparta, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race, helped Numa arrange the government of the city and many Spartan customs introduced by him to the Numa and the people. Legend says that the Romans abducted Sabine women to populate the newly built Rome. The resultant war ended only by the women throwing themselves and their children between the armies of their fathers and their husbands. The Rape of

874-629: The Reatine territory by the Pelasgians . Porcius Cato argued that the Sabines were a populace named after Sabus , the son of Sancus (a divinity of the area sometimes called Jupiter Fidius). In another account mentioned in Dionysius's work, a group of Lacedaemonians fled Sparta since they regarded the laws of Lycurgus as too severe. In Italy, they founded the Spartan colony of Foronia (near

920-522: The Roman Empire) are known to have possessed the rank of colonia. During the empire, colonies were showcases of Roman culture and examples of the Roman way of life. The native population of the provinces could see how they were expected to live. Because of this function, the promotion of a town to the status of "Colonia civium Romanorum" implied that all citizens received full citizen rights and dedicated

966-463: The Sabine Women became a common motif in art; the women ending the war is a less frequent but still reappearing motif. According to Livy , after the conflict, the Sabine and Roman states merged, and the Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruled Rome with Romulus until Tatius' death five years later. Three new centuries of Equites were introduced at Rome, including one named Tatienses, after

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1012-544: The Sabine country, but these are given in Latin form. Robert Seymour Conway , in his Italic Dialects , gives approximately 100 words which vary from being well-attested as Sabine to being possibly of Sabine origin. In addition to these he cites place names derived from the Sabine, sometimes giving attempts at reconstructions of the Sabine form. Based on all the evidence, the Linguist List tentatively classifies Sabine as

1058-623: The Sabine king. A variation of the story is recounted in the pseudepigraphal Sefer haYashar (see Jasher 17:1–15 ). Tradition suggests that the population of the early Roman kingdom was the result of a union of Sabines and others. Some of the gentes of the Roman republic were proud of their Sabine heritage, such as the Claudia gens , assuming Sabinus as a cognomen or agnomen . Some specifically Sabine deities and cults were known at Rome: Semo Sancus and Quirinus , and at least one area of

1104-400: The Sabine women by Romulus 's men, and in the Sabine ethnicity of Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome , to whom are attributed many of Rome's religious and legal institutions. Varro, however, says that the altars to most of these gods were established at Rome by King Tatius as the result of a vow ( votum ). During the expansion of ancient Rome , there were a series of conflicts with

1150-455: The Sabines "having been accepted into the citadel, [the Sabines] killed her, having been overwhelmed by weapons, and " scuta congesta ", meaning, "[they] heaped up shields [on her]". The Sabines crushed her to death with their shields, and her body was buried in the rock that now bears her name. Regardless of whether or not Tarpeia was buried in the rock itself, it is significant that the rock

1196-531: The Sabines. Manius Curius Dentatus conquered the Sabines in 290 BC. The citizenship without the right of suffrage was given to the Sabines in the same year. The right of suffrage was granted to the Sabines in 268 BC. Romanization (cultural) Romanization or Latinization ( Romanisation or Latinisation ), in the historical and cultural meanings of both terms, indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation , integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by

1242-521: The achievements of his long reign, Res Gestae Divi Augusti ( The Deeds of the Divine Augustus ), Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE. Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited", which would thus be

1288-458: The central Apennine Mountains (see Sabina ) of the ancient Italian Peninsula , also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome . The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with

1334-538: The conquered would see themselves as Romans. The process was supported by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire . The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and

1380-526: The detriment of the Latin language and other Romanizing influences, but its citizens continued to regard themselves as Romans. While Britain certainly was Romanized, its approximation to the Roman culture seems to have been smaller than that of Gaul. The most Romanized regions, as demonstrated by Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas of the computing center of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, were Italy,

1426-465: The different processes involved with a "civilization of barbarians". Modern historians take a more nuanced view: by making their peace with Rome, local elites could make their position more secure and reinforce their prestige. New themes include the study of personal and group values and the construction of identity, which is the personal aspect of ethnogenesis . The transitions operated differently in different provinces; as Blagg and Millett point out even

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1472-535: The endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. There is little record of the Sabine language; however, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from

1518-457: The etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of the reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not

1564-498: The execution of Simon bar Giora was as late as the time of Vespasian . There is a Latin phrase, Arx tarpeia Capitoli proxima ('the Tarpeian Rock is close to the Capitol'), a warning that one's fall from grace can come swiftly. To be hurled off the Tarpeian Rock was, from a certain perspective, a fate worse than mere death because it carried with it the stigma of shame. The standard method of execution in ancient Rome

1610-465: The extinction of all aspects of native cultures even when there was extensive acculturation. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period while sustaining considerable Latin influence, including the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian , Basque and Berber . Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin after

1656-524: The fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century ( c.  560 –575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in

1702-525: The first approaches, which now can be regarded as the "traditional" approach, was taken by Francis Haverfield . He saw this process beginning in primarily post-conquest societies (such as Britain and Gaul ), where direct Roman policy from the top promoted an increase in the Roman population of the province through the establishment of veteran colonies. The coloniae would have spoken Latin and been citizens of Rome following their army tenure (See Roman citizenship ). Haverfield thus assumes this would have

1748-512: The modern region of Lazio (or Latium ), Sabina constitutes a sub-region, situated north-east of Rome , around Rieti . The Sabines settled in Sabinum, around the tenth century BC, founding the cities of Reate , Trebula Mutuesca and Cures Sabini. Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions the Sabines in relation to the Aborigines , from whom they allegedly stole their capital Lista, with

1794-422: The preexisting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized . The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. Afterwards, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic . The Sabines derived directly from the ancient Umbrians and belonged to the same ethnic group as

1840-466: The romanization process was the "Spread of Catholicism ". Christianity actually is centered in Rome, and believes that a Roman Bishop is the supreme head of Christianity: the spread of Roman Catholicism corresponds with the spread of a Latinized "Western" cultural mindset and generally of the spread of the Romance languages, all based on Latin. Roman names were adopted by some, and the Latin language

1886-484: The town, the Quirinale , where the temples to those latter deities were located, had once been a Sabine centre. The extravagant claims of Varro and Cicero that augury , divination by dreams and the worship of Minerva and Mars originated with the Sabines are disputable, as they were general Italic and Latin customs, as well as Etruscan , even though they were espoused by Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome and

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1932-520: The veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus. The Lex Calpurnia, however, also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery. For example, the 1,000 socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) and the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana ) after Zela , got Roman citizenship. By the time of Augustus, the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls. However, Romanization did not always result in

1978-473: Was by strangulation in the Tullianum . The rock was reserved for the most notorious traitors and as a place of unofficial, extra-legal executions such as the near-execution of then-Senator Gaius Marcius Coriolanus by a mob whipped into frenzy by a tribune of the plebs . Victims of this punishment included: "Let them pronounce the steep Tarpeian death,/ Vagabond exile, flaying, pent to linger/ But with

2024-670: Was more complete in those areas that developed a "neolatin language" (like Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian). The same process later developed in the recent centuries' colonial empires. The regions of Levant and Mesopotamia were re-Semiticized by the Arab conquests of the Rashidun and the Umayyad Caliphates and into the Abbasid Caliphate after centuries of Roman rule. The conquests reversed

2070-481: Was named for her deceit. About 500 BC, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the seventh legendary king of Rome , levelled the top of the rock, removing the shrines built by the Sabines, and built the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the intermontium , the area between the two summits of the hill. The rock itself survived the remodelling and was used for executions well into Sulla 's time (early 1st century BC). However

2116-461: Was spread, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that many cultures were mostly oral (particularly for the Gauls and Iberians ). Anyone who wanted to deal (through writing) with the bureaucracy and/or with the Roman market had to write in Latin. The extent of the adoption is subject to ongoing debate, as the native languages were certainly spoken after the conquests. Moreover, in the eastern half of

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