128-629: Tarragona ( Catalan: [tərəˈɣonə] , Spanish: [taraˈɣona] ; Latin : Tarraco ) is a coastal city and municipality in Catalonia ( Spain ). It is the capital and largest town of Tarragonès county, the Camp de Tarragona region and the province of Tarragona . Geographically, it is located on the Costa Daurada area on the Mediterranean shore. During
256-532: A distance of 20.0 km (12.4 mi), whilst stage 26 links southwards to Cambrils , a distance of 28.1 km (17.5 mi). Tarragona contains a number of small bars, restaurants, and cafes serving tapas and sandwiches, and local seafood and Catalan dishes like " pa amb tomàquet " or "neules i torrons". Many such outlets are found in the historic centre, including those at the Plaça de la Font, Plaça del Rei and Plaça del Fòrum. The neighborhood of El Serrallo, at
384-607: A family of Libyan-Punic origin. Severus had thus Italic and North African ( Punic ) ancestry. He was described as "Libyan by race", by the Roman historian and senator Cassius Dio . Due to his family background he is considered the first provincial emperor, as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin. Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under
512-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After
640-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
768-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in
896-405: A fourth wing. Benito Villamitjana built a new seminary behind the cathedral in 1886, in the courtyard of which stands the old chapel of Sant Pau. Pope Leo XIII raised this to the rank of a pontifical university. 50 km (31.07 mi) north of the city is Poblet Monastery , founded in 1151 by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona , which was used for sepultures of the kings . Tarragona
1024-487: A military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere. At the beginning of Severus' reign, Trajan 's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out. Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt
1152-538: A more ambitious campaign. The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the Parthian Empire , reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to Pescennius Niger . His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of Ctesiphon and he annexed the northern half of Mesopotamia to the empire; Severus took the title Parthicus Maximus , following the example of Trajan . However, he
1280-560: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until
1408-508: A persecutor. However, the Christian apologist Tertullian stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob. Some scholars think that Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in
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#17327657551731536-521: A quarry after the fall of the Western Roman Empire , and but few vestiges of it now remain. A circus c. 450 m (1,480 ft) long, was built over in the area now called Plaça de la Font , though portions of it are still to be traced. Throughout the town Latin , and even apparently Phoenician , inscriptions on the stones of the houses mark the material used for buildings in the town. Two ancient monuments, at some little distance from
1664-423: A relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter Fulvia Plautilla was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and Caracalla accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of
1792-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through
1920-519: A senior military appointment. Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as tribune of the plebs , a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the candidatus of the emperor. About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to Paccia Marciana , a woman from Leptis Magna. He probably met her during his tenure as legate under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else
2048-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to
2176-649: A short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19 February 197 at the Battle of Lugdunum , with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of Pannonian , Moesian and Dacian legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire. Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors). In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to
2304-621: A small Franco-Italian garrison led by Brigadier general Antoine Marc Augustin Bertoletti . Murray was subsequently removed from command for his indecisive and contradictory leadership. The Anglo-Spanish forces finally captured Tarragona on 19 August. During the Spanish Civil War , Tarragona was in the hands of the Second Spanish Republic until captured by Franco's Nationalist troops on 15 January 1939 during
2432-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
2560-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be
2688-572: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
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#17327657551732816-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as
2944-399: A time decisive, securing Nisibis and Singara for the empire and establishing a status quo of Roman dominance in the region until 251. His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries Cassius Dio and Herodianus : in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain
3072-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
3200-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
3328-744: Is Pau Ricomà . The opening session in which the mayor is invested is traditionally held at the Saló de Plens . Since the first democratic election after the Francoist dictatorship , Tarragona has had four democratically elected mayors: The local is the body formed by the elected councillors of the Ajuntament . The plenary meetings ( Ple ) are held at the Saló de Plens. It is formed by the municipal councillors, elected through closed party list proportional representation and 27 councillors are currently elected on
3456-897: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to
3584-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
3712-509: Is described as producing good wine and flax . The city also minted coins. An inscribed stone base for a now lost statue of Tiberius Claudius Candidus was found in Tarragona during the nineteenth century. The 24-line Latin inscription describes the governor and senator's career as an ally of the future Roman emperor Septimius Severus , who fought in the civil war following the assassination of Commodus in 192 AD. This important marble block
3840-707: Is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211. On his death, Severus was deified by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta , who were advised by his wife Julia Domna . Severus was buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over 5 million square kilometres, which scholars like David L. Kennedy , Lukas De Blois, and Derrick Riley state expanded
3968-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from
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4096-641: Is home to one of the largest ports in Spain, which is an export hub for the Spanish car industry. Much of its economic activity comes from a number of chemical industries located west of the city. Among other educational institutions, it also features the Rovira i Virgili University . The most significant living heritage is the Popular Retinue, a great parade of dances, bestiary and spoken dances, as well as
4224-516: Is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable Historia Augusta claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years. Marciana died of natural causes around 186. Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into
4352-481: Is likely that he served as a vigintivir in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate. At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney ( Advocatus fisci ). However, he omitted the military tribunate from the cursus honorum and had to delay his quaestorship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25. To make matters worse,
4480-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
4608-1011: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
4736-528: Is unusual for the Mediterranean climate. Winters are mildly cool and summers are warm and sultry, while the wettest seasons are spring and autumn, which receive around 54 to 77 mm (2.1 to 3.0 in) in May and September. Tarragona was also a candidate to be the Spanish representative as European Capital of Culture in 2016. The local mayor is elected by the members of the plenary from among its members
4864-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
4992-738: The Limes Tripolitanus along the southern desert frontier of the empire. With his second wife, Julia Domna , Severus had two sons; the elder, Caracalla , was proclaimed Augustus , or co-emperor, in 198, and the younger, Geta , in 209. Severus travelled to Britain in 208, strengthening Hadrian's Wall and reoccupying the Antonine Wall . In 209 he invaded Caledonia (modern Scotland ) with an army of 50,000 men but his ambitions were cut short when he died of an infectious disease in early 211 at Eboracum (modern York ). His sons, advised by Julia Domna, succeeded him, thus founding
5120-549: The Roman Martyrology as the martyrs of Madauros , Charalambos and Perpetua and Felicity in Roman-ruled Africa . These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus. In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The legatus legionis or commander of Legio III Augusta , Quintus Anicius Faustus , had been fighting against
5248-595: The Antonine Plague swept through the capital in 166. With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier. According to the Historia Augusta , a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for adultery during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5 December, he took office and
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5376-592: The Catalonia Offensive . The Roman ruins of Tarraco have been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . Part of the bases of large Cyclopean walls near the Cuartel de Pilatos are thought to pre-date the Romans. The building just mentioned, a prison in the 19th century, is said to have been the palace of Augustus. The second century Tarragona Amphitheatre near the seashore was extensively used as
5504-754: The Crown of Castile , it remained a part of the Crown of Aragon until the foundation of the Spanish Empire in 1516. During the Reapers' War , Tarragona was captured by Catalan insurgents with French support in 1641, but it was retaken by Spanish troops in 1644. It was captured by allied Portuguese, Dutch, and British troops in 1705 during the War of the Spanish Succession and remained in their hands until
5632-576: The Garamantes along the Limes Tripolitanus for five years. He captured several settlements such as Cydamus , Gholaia, Garbia and their capital Garama —over 600 kilometres (370 mi) south of Leptis Magna . The province of Numidia was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of Vescera , Castellum Dimmidi , Gemellae , Thabudeos and Thubunae . By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid
5760-583: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
5888-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
6016-488: The Praetorian Guard , which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99 mi) of the city on pain of death. Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions. Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with
6144-576: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to
6272-569: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it
6400-706: The Severan dynasty . It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the Crisis of the Third Century . Born on 11 April 145 at Leptis Magna (in present-day Libya) as the son of Publius Septimius Geta and Fulvia Pia , Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of equestrian rank. On his mother's side, he descended from Roman immigrants (the Fulvii) who had intermarried with locals of Libyan origin. His father, Publius Septimius Geta, hailed from
6528-460: The Southern Uplands up to the Antonine Wall , which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force, Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of Agricola of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as Carpow . Cassius Dio 's account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate
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#17327657551736656-444: The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. During the war, the Catalans supported the unsuccessful claim of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen against the victorious Bourbon Duke of Anjou , who became Philip V of Spain . He signed the Nueva Planta decrees , which abolished the Crown of Aragon , as well as the Catalan institutions and prohibited the administrative use of Catalan language on 16 January 1716. The Jewish community in Tarragona
6784-510: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which
6912-414: The resort of Salou and the PortAventura World ( PortAventura Park , the most visited theme park in Spain, Ferrari Land and also the PortAventura Caribe Aquatic Park ). The city is served by Camp de Tarragona high-speed railway station , and is located a few kilometres away from Reus Airport , which offers low-cost charter-flights (over a million passengers per year). Reus is the second city of
7040-451: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
7168-441: The Central Lowlands. This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands. The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the Maeatae . Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even
7296-486: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As
7424-486: The French besiegers with cannon fire and transported large numbers of reinforcements into the city by sea. Nevertheless, Suchet's troops stormed into the defences and killed or captured almost all the defenders. It became a subprefecture centre in Bouches-de-l'Èbre department of French empire. In the second siege of Tarragona (3–11 June 1813), an overwhelming Anglo-Spanish force under the command of Lieutenant general John Murray, 8th Baronet failed to wrest Tarragona from
7552-416: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
7680-411: The Iberian Peninsula. During the Roman Republic , the city was fortified and much enlarged as a Roman colony by the brothers Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus , who converted it into a fortress and arsenal against the Carthaginians . The city was first named Colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco and was capital of the province of Hispania Citerior . Subsequently, it became
7808-524: The Jews." After the Christian reconquest, the Jews of Tarragona faced institutional persecution and anti-semitic restrictions until the community's destruction in 1492, during the expulsion of the Jews . During the Peninsular War , in the first siege of Tarragona from 5 May to 29 June 1811, Louis-Gabriel Suchet 's Army of Aragon of the First French Empire laid siege to a Spanish garrison led by Lieutenant General Juan de Contreras . A British naval squadron commanded by Admiral Edward Codrington harassed
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#17327657551737936-418: The Parthians, he erected the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. According to Cassius Dio, however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus , who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and Julia Domna , Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had
8064-410: The Praetorian Guard in early 193. In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legion XIV Gemina acclaimed him emperor at Carnuntum on 9 April. Nearby legions, such as X Gemina at Vindobona , soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy. Pertinax's successor in Rome, Didius Julianus , had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by
8192-411: The Pyrenees and the River Iberus (modern Ebro ). Livy mentions a portus Tarraconis ; and according to Eratosthenes it had a naval station or roads ( Ναύσταθμον ); but Artemidorus Ephesius says with more probability that it had none, and scarcely even an anchoring place; and Strabo himself refers to it as "harbourless" ( ἀλίμενος ). Tarraco lies on the main road along the northeastern coast of
8320-438: The Scipios"; but there is no authority for assuming that they were buried here. Other Roman buildings include: The city is also home to the National Archaeological Museum of Tarragona . The seminary of Sant Pau and Santa Tecla was founded in 1570 by the cardinal archbishop, Gaspar Cervantes de Gaeta , and was the first to comply with the decrees of the Council of Trent . In 1858 Archbishop José Domingo Costa y Borrás built
8448-443: The Senate and killed. Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the Praetorian Guard , filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions. The legions of Syria had proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer Clodius Albinus , the powerful governor of Britannia , who had probably supported Didius against him,
8576-523: The Tarragona area (101,767 inhabitants in 2006), known by its commercial activity and for being the place where the architect Antoni Gaudí was born. The city hosted the 2018 Mediterranean Games , one year later than planned, because of political and economical instability. Tarragona is one of the World Heritage Journeys in the European Union. Tourism is focused on the main sites of Mercat Central de Tarragona (Central Market of Tarragona), La Rambla Nova (the main shopping street), El Serrallo fishing village,
8704-409: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
8832-447: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
8960-415: The advice of Quintus Aemilius Laetus , prefect of the Praetorian Guard , emperor Commodus appointed Severus as governor of Pannonia Superior . At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment". Commodus was assassinated the following year. Pertinax was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by
9088-539: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus ( Latin: [ˈɫuːkiʊs sɛpˈtɪmiʊs sɛˈweːrʊs] ; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211)
9216-460: The babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction." Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill. He withdrew to Eboracum (York) and died there in 211. Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall. Severus
9344-527: The basis of the population of the municipality. Councillors are grouped in municipal groups on the basis of their political filiation. It has a government commission ( Comissió de Govern ; also Junta de Govern or Junta de Gobierno ) is formed by the mayor, the deputy mayors, and a number of appointed councillors. Tarragona is twinned with: Tarragona had partnerships with: Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )
9472-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
9600-481: The building of human towers called castells . These cultural traditional are especially visible during the Santa Tecla Festival , and are so popular in Tarragona that they have their own home called the "Casa de la Festa", Festivities House, which can be visited all year. A number of beaches, some awarded a Blue Flag designation, line the Mediterranean coast near the city. Tarragona is located near
9728-565: The capital ( conventus iuridicus ) of the province named after it, Hispania Tarraconensis . Augustus wintered at Tarraco after his Cantabrian campaign, and bestowed many marks of honour on the city, among which were its honorary titles of Colonia Victrix Togata and Colonia Julia Victrix Tarraconensis . According to Mela, it was the richest town on the coast, and Strabo represents its population as equal to that of Carthago Nova (now Cartagena ). Its fertile plain and sunny shores are celebrated by Martial and other poets; and its neighbourhood
9856-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name
9984-560: The city may have been established by the Phoenicians , who referred to it as Tarchon . According to Samuel Bochart , signifies a citadel. The moniker likely stemmed from its location atop a high rock, approximately 75–90 m (250–300 ft) above sea level; earning it the epithet arce potens Tarraco . It was seated on the river Sulcis or Tulcis (modern Francolí ), on a bay of the Mare Internum (Mediterranean), between
10112-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as
10240-670: The consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the Parthian Empire , sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the Tigris . He then enlarged and fortified the Limes Arabicus in Arabia Petraea . In 202, he campaigned in Africa and Mauretania against the Garamantes , capturing their capital Garama and expanding
10368-640: The control of the Almoravid dynasty between 1110 and 1117. It was taken by the County of Barcelona in 1117. From 1129 to 1173 Tarragona was the capital of the short lived Principality of Tarragona , under the Norman -influence. After the dynastic union of Aragon and Barcelona , it was part of the Principality of Catalonia within the Crown of Aragon from 1164 to 1714. After dynastic union of Aragon and
10496-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
10624-406: The day the new municipal corporation is formed after the local election. The officeholder has a mandate for the 4-year duration of the elected body. If the mayor leaves office ahead of time a new voting may take place among the plenary members in order to invest a new mayor (meanwhile, another local councillor, conventionally the first deputy mayor may act as acting mayor). Since 15 June 2019 the mayor
10752-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
10880-401: The denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively. Severus' currency debasement was the largest since the reign of Nero , compromising the long-term strength of
11008-767: The east. He embarked at Brundisium and probably landed at the port of Aegeae in Cilicia , travelling on to Syria by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the Euphrates . Abgar IX , titular King of Osroene but essentially only the ruler of Edessa since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province, handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers. King Khosrov I of Armenia also sent hostages, money and gifts. Severus travelled on to Nisibis , which his general Julius Laetus had prevented from falling into Parthian hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan
11136-528: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin
11264-600: The emperor Antoninus Pius r. 138–161 . His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the gens Fulvia , an Italian patrician family that originated in Tusculum . Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, Publius Septimius Geta ; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was the praetorian prefect and consul Gaius Fulvius Plautianus . Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke
11392-409: The empire to its greatest physical extent. Edward Gibbon famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as
11520-782: The grandmother of the future emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus . Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon , France), of which Severus was the governor. The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy. They had two sons, Lucius Septimius Bassianus (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4 April 188 in Lugdunum) and Publius Septimius Geta (born 7 March 189 in Rome). In 191, on
11648-549: The harbour, specialises in seafood cuisine. Chartreuse liqueur is a famous local drink of Tarragona. Originally created in 1605, it was considered by monks to be an “elixir for long life”. It is produced in yellow, with an alcohol content of 40º, as well as green, with a content of 55º. Between 1903 and 1989, the Chartreuse liqueur made by the French Carthusian Monks was distilled in Tarragona, following
11776-419: The help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or conspiracy against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over
11904-569: The horoscopes of prospective brides. The Historia Augusta relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife. This woman was an Emesene Syrian named Julia Domna . Her father, Julius Bassianus , descended from the Arab Emesene dynasty and served as a high priest to the local cult of the sun god Elagabal . Domna's older sister, Julia Maesa , would become
12032-536: The incumbent emperor Didius Julianus , Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus . Niger was defeated in 194 at the Battle of Issus in Cilicia . Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the Kingdom of Osroene as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the Battle of Lugdunum in Gaul . Following
12160-498: The introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III Parthica . He garrisoned Legio II Parthica at Albanum , only 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome. He gave his soldiers a donative of a thousand sesterces (250 denarii ) each, and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 denarii . Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed
12288-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
12416-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
12544-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as
12672-467: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and
12800-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became
12928-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language" , Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in
13056-540: The local Punic language fluently, but he was also educated in Latin and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to Cassius Dio , the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons in oratory : at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech. Severus sought a public career in Rome in around 162. At
13184-487: The monks' expulsion from France. Chartreuse is now a key part of the Feast of Santa Tecla. This traditional festival of national interest celebrates the patroness saint of the city. The climate of Tarragona can be described as a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen Csa ) bordering on a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ). Despite its location in the Mediterranean region, August tends to have more precipitation than February, which
13312-513: The name to ' Tearcon the Ethiopian', a seventh-century BC pharaoh who campaigned in Spain. The real founding date of Tarragona is unknown. The city's origins trace back to a possible Iberian settlement known as Kesse or Kosse, named after the local Iberian tribe, the Cossetans. However, the exact connection of Tarragona to Kesse remains uncertain. Scholars such as William Smith suggest that
13440-498: The need to promote religious harmony by promoting syncretism . He possibly issued an edict that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity. A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and were traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community. A decree by Severus against the Christians is mentioned in the Historia Augusta , an unreliable mix of fact and fiction. Early church historian Eusebius described Severus as
13568-479: The new and better-paid army. The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors. To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the Roman currency . Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased
13696-669: The nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory. By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties. The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of
13824-466: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there
13952-516: The period of the Roman Empire , it was one of the most prominent cities of the Iberian Peninsula , as the capital, successively, of the Roman provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Tarraconensis . The Archaeological Complex of Tàrraco is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . One Catalan legend holds that Tarragona was named for Tarraho , eldest son of Tubal in c. 2407 BC; another (derived from Strabo and Megasthenes ) attributes
14080-471: The principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity." His enlargement of the Limes Tripolitanus secured Africa , the agricultural base of the empire where he was born. His victory over the Parthian Empire was for
14208-612: The rank of Caesar , which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the Battle of Issus (194). While campaigning against Byzantium , he ordered that the tomb of his fellow-Carthaginian Hannibal be covered with fine marble. He devoted the following year to suppressing Mesopotamia and other Parthian vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his son Caracalla as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After
14336-461: The recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r. 161–180 ) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks. Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the cursus honorum and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties. It
14464-548: The region's interior and escape back into the Sahara . In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering Caledonia . Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign. Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number. He strengthened Hadrian's Wall and reconquered
14592-414: The surrounding beaches of the golden coast, the key plazas (Plaça de la Font, Plaça del Fòrum, Plaça del Rei), Balcó del Mediterrani, Praetorium and Roman Circus, Roman Amphitheatre, Model of Roman Tarraco, and the cathedral. The GR 92 long-distance footpath, which roughly follows the length of the Mediterranean coast of Spain, has a staging point at Tarragona. Stage 25 links northwards to Torredembarra ,
14720-407: The town, have, however, fared rather better. The first of these is Les Ferreres Aqueduct , which spans a valley about 4 km (2 mi) north of the city. It is 217 m (712 ft) in length, and the loftiest arches, of which there are two tiers, are 26 m (85 ft) high. There is a monument about 6 km (4 mi) along the coast road east of the city, commonly called the "Tower of
14848-463: The two emperors. One of the two following praefecti was the famous jurist Papinian . Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, Julia Domna , in the administration of the empire. Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged
14976-400: The water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and
15104-445: The whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact,
15232-600: Was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums , Libya) in the Roman province of Africa . As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus . Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors . After deposing and killing
15360-556: Was able to leave Africa, Mauri tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of Sardinia as compensation . Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of Sardinia. In 173, Severus' cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed proconsul of the province of Africa Proconsularis and chose Severus as one of his two legati pro praetore ,
15488-555: Was established during the Roman era, making it one of the most ancient Jewish communities in Spain. A laver , possibly used by the Jews for ritual purification found in Tarragona bears the inscription "peace over Israel, over ourselves, and our children." Coins with Hebrew inscriptions have also been found, dating to the Visigoth period. During Muslim rule, Jews in Tarragona prospered; Muhammad al-Idrisi nicknamed Tarragona "the city of
15616-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at
15744-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and
15872-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in
16000-535: Was officially enrolled in the Roman Senate . Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The Antonine Plague had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have. The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he
16128-838: Was purchased by the British Museum in 1994. After the demise of the Western Roman Empire , the city was captured by the Vandals and the Visigoths . The Visigothic Kingdom 's rule of Tarracona was ended by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 714. It was an important border city of the Caliphate of Córdoba between 750 and 1013. After the demise of the Caliphate, it was part of the Taifa of Zaragoza between 1013 and 1110 and under
16256-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
16384-536: Was unable to capture the fortress of Hatra , even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the Limes Arabicus , building new fortifications in the Arabian Desert from Basie to Dumatha . Severus' relations with the Senate were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with
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