Misplaced Pages

#910089

148-647: In official account, the speech is celebrated as the landmark of the search for an alternative mode of socialist development that fit the specific conditions in China and it also marks the beginning of Mao's denouncement of the Soviet Union in the late 1950s. In fewer than 13,000 words in Chinese (10,000 in English translation), Mao stressed that China had to avoid repeating "certain defects and errors that occurred in

296-911: A U-2 spy plane , the CIA 's photographing of military bases in the USSR; aerial espionage that the US said had been discontinued. In Paris, at the Four Powers Summit meeting, Khrushchev demanded and failed to receive Eisenhower's apology for the CIA's continued aerial espionage of the USSR. In China, Mao and the CCP interpreted Eisenhower's refusal to apologize as disrespectful of the national sovereignty of socialist countries, and held political rallies aggressively demanding Khrushchev's military confrontation with US aggressors; without such decisive action, Khrushchev lost face with

444-443: A devastating effect on the country's economic activities. In the early 1950s, there were already incidents of peasants committing suicide or resisting the state collection despite Chen Yun 's urge of caution. As seen from the official figures, grain shortage in spring (chunhuang 春荒) might not be the most direct cause of unnatural death, as years with higher shortage could actually have fewer unnatural death. Instead, natural disaster and

592-597: A dramatic event happened during the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956, as Nikita Khrushchev made the " Secret Speech " of denouncing the personality cult and dictatorship of Joseph Stalin . Chinese Communist Zhu De and Deng Xiaoping attended the congress and were surprised by the length that Khrushchev went into denouncing Stalin. Furthermore, the Soviet Union had begun to implement its 6th Five-year Plan for 1956–1960. On

740-554: A formal acknowledgement of Stalin's economic unfairness to the PRC, fifteen industrial-development projects, and exchanges of technicians (c. 10,000) and political advisors (c. 1,500), whilst Chinese labourers were sent to fill shortages of manual workers in Siberia . Despite this, Mao and Khrushchev disliked each other, both personally and ideologically. However, by 1955, consequent to Khrushchev's having repaired Soviet relations with Mao and

888-442: A great and splendid socialist state. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union is our best teacher and we must learn from it. The situation both at home and abroad is in our favour, we can rely fully on the weapon of the people's democratic dictatorship, unite the people throughout the country, the reactionaries excepted, and advance steadily to our goal." Following Mao's visit to Moscow from late 1949 to early 1950, on February 14, 1950,

1036-424: A harmonious relation with ethnic minorities. The situation in China was that Han population was the majority, but they occupied relatively a lower portion of land and the ethnic minorities occupied the majority of the land. The party hence needed to keep reviewing their own policy to eliminate the influences of the old time and devise systems of economic management and finance for the minority nationalities. This part

1184-557: A leader, a political purpose, and a social function, the ideologically discrete units of Red Guards soon degenerated into political factions, each of whom claimed to be more Maoist than the other factions. In establishing the ideological orthodoxy presented in the Little Red Book ( Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung ), the political violence of the Red Guards provoked civil war in parts of China, which Mao suppressed with

1332-484: A model nuclear bomb to China. By this time, the Soviets had already helped create the foundations of China's nuclear weapons program. Throughout the 1950s, Khrushchev maintained positive Sino-Soviet relations with foreign aid, especially nuclear technology for the Chinese atomic bomb project, Project 596 . However, political tensions persisted because the economic benefits of the USSR's peaceful-coexistence policy voided

1480-574: A peasant revolution against foreign imperialism. In socialist solidarity, the PRC allowed safe passage for the Soviet Union's matériel to North Vietnam to prosecute the war against the US-sponsored Republic of Vietnam , until 1968, after the Chinese withdrawal. In the late 1960s, the continual quarrelling between the CCP and the CPSU about the correct interpretations and applications of Marxism–Leninism escalated to small-scale warfare at

1628-648: A speech on "twelve major relationships" of socialist development, echoing what Mao had stressed nearly 40 years earlier, though much less significance was attached to the speech. Jiang's twelve relationships overlap with some of Mao's. On the Ten Major Relationships and On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People ( 关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题 ) were two important speeches that Mao delivered after 1949. The latter, delivered in February 1957,

SECTION 10

#1732772222911

1776-558: A speech on the ten major relationships and it became the focus for the rest of the meeting. After the founding of the new country in 1949, the party had consolidated its control over Chinese society through mass campaigns like Land Reform (1947–1952) , the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries (1950–1953) , the Three-Anti and Five-Anti Campaigns (1951–1952) , the Campaign to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea (1950–1953) , and

1924-510: A theoretician of communism, in the article "The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung", and about the CCP's communist revolution, in the 1948 book Dawn Comes Up Like Thunder Out of China: An Intimate Account of the Liberated Areas in China , which reports that Mao's intellectual achievement was "to change Marxism from a European [form] to an Asiatic form . . . in ways of which neither Marx nor Lenin could dream." In 1950, Mao and Stalin safeguarded

2072-487: A year or two, for three or five years, we shall eventually master it. At first some of the Soviet Communists also were not very good at handling economic matters and the imperialists awaited their failure too. But the Communist Party of the Soviet Union emerged victorious and, under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin, it learned not only how to make the revolution but also how to carry on construction. It has built

2220-625: Is part of the fourth volume collection of his works, which was published by the Foreign Languages Press in Beijing . It is noteworthy for its tone, that it preceded the freeze in Sino-Soviet relations following the Sino-Soviet split and adoption of Maoism in China, and that it codifies and embraces people's democratic dictatorship . The speech opens with an allegory that compares the CCP to an aging man. At 28, Mao states

2368-399: Is the most liberal of the ten major relationships, as Mao opined that the existence of other political parties could serve the party well by providing supervision. Though democratic parties were composed of the national bourgeoisies and intellectuals, they offered "well-intentioned criticisms." Even if the criticism was abusive, the party could refute by rational responses. Mao then envisioned

2516-479: The Chinese people . Mao's Sinification of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought , established political pragmatism as the first priority for realizing the accelerated modernization of a country and a people, and ideological orthodoxy as the secondary priority because Orthodox Marxism originated for practical application to the socio-economic conditions of industrialized Western Europe in the 19th century. During

2664-771: The Empire of Japan from the Republic of China . To that end, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin , ordered Mao Zedong , leader of the CCP, to co-operate with Chiang Kai-shek , leader of the KMT, in fighting the Japanese. Following the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II , both parties resumed their civil war, which the communists won by 1949. At World War II's conclusion, Stalin advised Mao not to seize political power at that time, and, instead, to collaborate with Chiang due to

2812-594: The Korean War , although it later moved more decisively towards the USSR after Deng Xiaoping 's Chinese economic reform . The Italian Communist Party (PCI), one of the largest and most politically influential communist parties in Western Europe, adopted an ambivalent stance towards Mao's split from the USSR. Although the PCI chastised Mao for breaking the previous global unity of socialist states and criticised

2960-601: The People's Liberation Army (PLA), who imprisoned the fractious Red Guards. Moreover, when Red Guard factionalism occurred within the PLA – Mao's base of political power – he dissolved the Red Guards, and then reconstituted the CCP with the new generation of Maoists who had endured and survived the Cultural Revolution that purged the "anti-communist" old generation from the party and from China. As social engineering,

3108-643: The Sino-Soviet border . In 1966, for diplomatic resolution, the Chinese revisited the national matter of the Sino-Soviet border demarcated in the 19th century, but originally imposed upon the Qing dynasty by way of unequal treaties that annexed Chinese territory to the Russian Empire . Despite not asking the return of territory, the PRC asked the USSR to acknowledge formally and publicly that such an historic injustice against China (the 19th-century border)

SECTION 20

#1732772222911

3256-555: The Soviet–Albanian split . In response to this rebuke, on the 19 October the delegation representing China at the Party Congress led by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai sharply criticised Moscow's stance towards Tirana: "We hold that should a dispute or difference unfortunately arise between fraternal parties or fraternal countries, it should be resolved patiently in the spirit of proletarian internationalism and according to

3404-546: The Sufan Movement (1955) . The government also completed the Ethnic Classification in 1954 which aimed at sorting and categorizing the hundreds of distinct ethnic communities within the country, the result of which served as the basis for future policy on nationalities. In terms of economic development, China had followed the Soviet model of socialism ever since Mao's decision to lean on the side of

3552-636: The Zhenbao Island incident , and Tielieketi . On the People%27s Democratic Dictatorship " On the People's Democratic Dictatorship " ( simplified Chinese : 论人民民主专政 ; traditional Chinese : 論人民民主專政 ) is a speech which was written by Mao Zedong . It was presented to the public on 30 June 1949, twenty-eight years after the founding of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This speech

3700-515: The 1945 USSR–KMT Treaty of Friendship and Alliance . Mao obeyed Stalin in communist solidarity. Three months after the Japanese surrender, in November 1945, when Chiang opposed the annexation of Tannu Uriankhai (Mongolia) to the USSR, Stalin broke the treaty requiring the Red Army's withdrawal from Manchuria (giving Mao regional control) and ordered Soviet commander Rodion Malinovsky to give

3848-605: The CCP for raising the standards of the working class in China and for its strong alliance with the Soviet Union . That is notable because it precedes the ideological Sino-Soviet split and establishment of Maoism as a distinct ideology. The speech then addresses some criticisms of the CCP: leftist extremism, aggression of the CCP, foreign relations, international communism, rejection of American and British aid, cries of dictatorship. Chinese has two words that translate to dictator;

3996-704: The Chinese Civil War in 1947, Mao dispatched American journalist Anna Louise Strong to the West, bearing political documents explaining China's socialist future, and asked that she "show them to Party leaders in the United States and Europe", for their better understanding of the Chinese Communist Revolution , but that it was not "necessary to take them to Moscow." Mao trusted Strong because of her positive reportage about him, as

4144-446: The Chinese civil war, Mao was especially sensitive to ideological shifts that might undermine the CCP. In an era saturated by this form of ideological instability, Khrushchev's anti-Stalinism was particularly impactful to Mao. Mao saw himself as a descendent in a long Marxist-Leninist lineage of which Stalin was the most recent figurehead. Chinese leaders began to associate Stalin's successor with anti-party elements within China. Khrushchev

4292-487: The Chinese communists the Japanese leftover weapons. In the five-year post-World War II period, the United States partly financed Chiang, his nationalist political party, and the National Revolutionary Army . However, Washington put heavy pressure on Chiang to form a joint government with the communists. US envoy George Marshall spent 13 months in China trying without success to broker peace. In

4440-518: The Chinese, 60% of the PRC's exports went to the USSR, by way of the five-year plans of China begun in 1953. In early 1956, Sino-Soviet relations began deteriorating, following Khrushchev's de-Stalinization of the USSR, which he initiated with the speech On the Cult of Personality and its Consequences that criticized Stalin and Stalinism – especially the Great Purge of Soviet society, of

4588-518: The Chinese. China stated that its goal was the resumption of ambassadorial talks that had started after the First Taiwan Strait Crisis while simultaneously framing the crisis as the start of a nuclear war with the capitalist bloc. Chinese nuclear brinkmanship was a threat to peaceful coexistence. The crisis and ongoing nuclear disarmament talks with the US helped to convince the Soviets to renege on its 1957 commitment to deliver

Ten Major Relationships - Misplaced Pages Continue

4736-466: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union ; each ideological stance perpetuated the Sino-Soviet split. In 1964, Mao said that, in light of the Chinese and Soviet differences about the interpretation and practical application of Orthodox Marxism, a counter-revolution had occurred and re-established capitalism in the USSR; consequently, following Soviet suit, the Warsaw Pact countries broke relations with

4884-521: The Cultural Revolution and for the same reason Mao again disagreed to publish the speech. During the 2nd National Convention for Learning from Dazhai in Agriculture held in December 1976, the speech was chosen as a learning document. On the last day of the meeting, the article was published on People's Daily in full text and a nationwide learning campaign followed. The speech was also included in

5032-526: The Cultural Revolution brought about by him, it simultaneously applauded and heaped praise on him for the People's Republic of China's enormous assistance to North Vietnam in its war against South Vietnam and the United States. As a Marxist–Leninist, Mao was much angered that Khrushchev did not go to war with the US over their failed Bay of Pigs Invasion and the United States embargo against Cuba of continual economic and agricultural sabotage. For

5180-483: The Cultural Revolution reasserted the political primacy of Maoism , but also stressed, strained, and broke the PRC's relations with the USSR and the West. Geopolitically, despite their querulous "Maoism vs. Marxism–Leninism" disputes about interpretations and practical applications of Marxism-Leninism, the USSR and the PRC advised, aided, and supplied North Vietnam during the Vietnam War , which Mao had defined as

5328-525: The Eastern Bloc, Mao addressed those Sino-Soviet matters in "Nine Letters" critical of Khrushchev and his leadership of the USSR. Moreover, the break with the USSR allowed Mao to reorient the development of the PRC with formal relations (diplomatic, economic, political) with the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In the 1960s, the Sino-Soviet split allowed only written communications between

5476-622: The Eastern Bloc, the Chinese Communist Party denounced the USSR's de-Stalinization as revisionism , and reaffirmed the Stalinist ideology, policies, and practices of Mao's government as the correct course for achieving socialism in China. This event, indicating Sino-Soviet divergences of Marxist–Leninist practice and interpretation, began fracturing "monolithic communism" — the Western perception of absolute ideological unity in

5624-582: The Eastern Bloc. From Mao's perspective, the success of the Soviet foreign policy of peaceful coexistence with the West would geopolitically isolate the PRC; whilst the Hungarian Revolution indicated the possibility of revolt in the PRC, and in China's sphere of influence. To thwart such discontent, Mao launched in 1956 the Hundred Flowers Campaign of political liberalization – the freedom of speech to criticize government,

5772-615: The PRC and the USSR, in which each country supported their geopolitical actions with formal statements of Marxist–Leninist ideology as the true road to world communism , which is the general line of the party . In June 1963, the PRC published The Chinese Communist Party's Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement , to which the USSR replied with the Open Letter of

5920-582: The PRC recognized the independence of the Mongolian People's Republic . Despite the favourable terms, the treaty of socialist friendship included the PRC in the geopolitical hegemony of the USSR, but unlike the governments of the Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe, the USSR did not control Mao's government. In six years, the great differences between the Soviet and the Chinese interpretations and applications of Marxism–Leninism voided

6068-554: The PRC's nuclear-weapons program, Project 596 , was nascent, and Mao perceived the test-ban treaty as the nuclear powers' attempt to thwart the PRC's becoming a nuclear superpower. Between 6 and 20 July 1963, a series of Soviet-Chinese negotiations were held in Moscow. However, both sides maintained their own ideological views and, therefore, negotiations failed. In March 1964, the Romanian Workers' Party publicly announced

Ten Major Relationships - Misplaced Pages Continue

6216-631: The PRC, which cancelled some 200 joint scientific projects. In response, Mao justified his belief that Khrushchev had somehow caused China's great economic failures and the famines that occurred in the period of the Great Leap Forward. Nonetheless, the PRC and the USSR remained pragmatic allies, which allowed Mao to alleviate famine in China and to resolve Sino-Indian border disputes. To Mao, Khrushchev had lost political authority and ideological credibility, because his US-Soviet détente had resulted in successful military (aerial) espionage against

6364-617: The PRC. In the Romanian capital of Bucharest , at the International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties (November 1960), Mao and Khrushchev respectively attacked the Soviet and the Chinese interpretations of Marxism-Leninism as the wrong road to world socialism in the USSR and in China. Mao said that Khrushchev's emphases on consumer goods and material plenty would make the Soviets ideologically soft and un-revolutionary, to which Khrushchev replied: "If we could promise

6512-429: The PRC. In late 1964, after Nikita Khrushchev had been deposed, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai met with the new Soviet leaders, First Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and Premier Alexei Kosygin , but their ideological differences proved a diplomatic impasse to renewed economic relations. The Soviet defense minister's statement damaged the prospects of improved Sino-Soviet relations. Historian Daniel Leese noted that improvement of

6660-751: The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. In 1953, guided by Soviet economists, the PRC applied the USSR's model of planned economy , which gave first priority to the development of heavy industry , and second priority to the production of consumer goods. Later, ignoring the guidance of technical advisors, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward to transform agrarian China into an industrialized country with disastrous results for people and land. Mao's unrealistic goals for agricultural production went unfulfilled because of poor planning and realization, which aggravated rural starvation and increased

6808-560: The Sino-Soviet disputes from the political-party level to the national-government level. In late 1962, the PRC broke relations with the USSR because Khrushchev did not go to war with the US over the Cuban Missile Crisis . Regarding that Soviet loss-of-face, Mao said that "Khrushchev has moved from adventurism to capitulationism" with a negotiated, bilateral, military stand-down. Khrushchev replied that Mao's belligerent foreign policies would lead to an East–West nuclear war. For

6956-453: The Sino-Soviet split was a question of who would lead the revolution for world communism , and to whom (China or the USSR) the vanguard parties of the world would turn for political advice, financial aid, and military assistance. In that vein, both countries competed for the leadership of world communism through the vanguard parties native to the countries in their spheres of influence . In

7104-464: The Soviet Union . As his speech On the People's Democratic Dictatorship ( 论人民民主专政 ) in June 1949 states, "We must learn to do economic work from all who know how, no matter who they are. We must esteem them as teachers, learning from them respectfully and conscientiously. We must not pretend to know when we do not know. We must not put on bureaucratic airs. If we dig into a subject for several months, for

7252-420: The Soviet Union where peasants were exploited heavily by the state, China had a good relation with the peasants, though the Chinese Communist Party made a huge purchase of grain despite the floods in 1954 which made the peasants disgruntled. The policies of low agricultural tax, purchasing agricultural productions at standard prices, and subsidizing the grain sale to grain-deficient areas prevented China from making

7400-484: The Soviet Union, Mao said that the "assessment of 30 per cent for mistakes and 70 per cent for achievements" for Stalin was "just about right." He then recounted the history of Wang Ming's "left adventurism" and "right opportunism" in the early history of the Chinese Communist Party which could be traced back to Stalin. In terms of socialist construction, Mao warned against the dogmatic following of Marxism–Leninism and applied their doctrines creatively. Lastly, Mao summed up

7548-443: The Soviet Union, those who once extolled Stalin to the skies have now in one swoop consigned him to purgatory. Here in China some people are following their example." Shen Zhihua suggests that the criticism of personality cult of Stalin led to the removal of Mao Zedong Thought from the 8th party congress. The party constitution in the congress did not mention Mao Zedong Thought and all top party leaders did not mention it as well, which

SECTION 50

#1732772222911

7696-421: The Soviet Union. The development led to the concerns from top Chinese leaders. After the 20th Soviet party congress, personality cult became an even more sensitive issue and invited the speculation of whether there was personality cult in China. At local level, cadres started to raise doubt about the excessive praise given to Mao and internationally socialist countries also became cautious about personality cult. Yet

7844-421: The Soviet path of socialist development. Political scientist Frederick C. Teiwes believes that the thorough investigation of China's situations in 1956 had urged top Chinese leaders to examine the shortcomings of the Soviet model critically and raise doubt about its applicability in China. Despite having a more mature industrial base, the Soviet economy grew slower than the Chinese one. A central change effected by

7992-509: The USSR and public confrontation with an unapologetic capitalist enemy. Khrushchev's miscalculation of person and circumstance voided US-Soviet diplomacy at the Four Powers Summit in Paris . In late 1961, at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU , the PRC and the USSR revisited their doctrinal disputes about the orthodox interpretation and application of Marxism–Leninism. In December 1961, the USSR broke diplomatic relations with Albania, which escalated

8140-670: The USSR had stationed 12 divisions of soldiers and 200 aeroplanes at that border. By 1968, the Soviet Armed Forces had stationed six divisions of soldiers in Outer Mongolia and 16 divisions, 1,200 aeroplanes, and 120 medium-range missiles at the Sino-Soviet border to confront 47 light divisions of the Chinese Army. By March 1969, the border confrontations escalated , including fighting at the Ussuri River ,

8288-543: The USSR would carry much of the economic burden of the Korean War, but, when Khrushchev came to power, he created a repayment plan under which the PRC would reimburse the Soviet Union within an eight-year period. However, China was experiencing significant food shortages at this time, and, when grain shipments were routed to the Soviet Union instead of feeding the Chinese public, faith in the Soviets plummeted. These policy changes were interpreted as Khrushchev's abandonment of

8436-453: The United States are hypocritical since he thinks democracy is a lie perpetuated by the ruling bourgeoisie . Stressing the importance of the alliance between the working class and the peasantry, Mao calls for a common effort with urban bourgeoisie (a term used in this context to mean current communists but former wealth holders) to organize rural production until regulated capitalism until final socialism can extend to agriculture. He warns that

8584-472: The West. The CCP said that the CPSU concentrated too much on "Soviet–US co-operation for the domination of the world", with geopolitical actions that contradicted Marxism–Leninism. The final face-to-face meeting between Mao and Khruschev took place on 2 October 1959, when Khrushchev visited Beijing to mark the 10th anniversary of the Chinese Revolution. By this point relations had deteriorated to

8732-543: The Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc . In addition, Beijing resented the Soviet Union's growing ties with India due to factors such as the Sino-Indian border dispute , and Moscow feared that Mao was too nonchalant about the horrors of nuclear warfare . In 1956, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Joseph Stalin and Stalinism in the speech " On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences " and began

8880-501: The Western perception that the communist nations were collectively united and would not have significant ideological clashes. However, the USSR and China both continued to cooperate with North Vietnam during the Vietnam War into the 1970s, despite rivalry elsewhere. Historically, the Sino-Soviet split facilitated the Marxist–Leninist Realpolitik with which Mao established the tri-polar geopolitics (PRC–USA–USSR) of

9028-434: The Western powers, the averted atomic war threatened by the Cuban Missile Crisis made nuclear disarmament their political priority. To that end, the US, the UK, and the USSR agreed to the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which formally forbade nuclear-detonation tests in the Earth's atmosphere , in outer space , and under water – yet did allow the underground testing and detonation of atomic bombs. In that time,

SECTION 60

#1732772222911

9176-430: The Western world, the Sino-Soviet split transformed the bi-polar cold war into a tri-polar one. The rivalry facilitated Mao's realization of Sino-American rapprochement with the US President Richard Nixon's visit to China in 1972 . In the West, the policies of triangular diplomacy and linkage emerged. Like the Tito–Stalin split , the occurrence of the Sino-Soviet split also weakened the concept of monolithic communism,

9324-463: The amount of grain to be purchased, so as to lighten the burden on peasants. During the period, the shortage of grain for peasants was a serious problem for the state which tried to maintain a low ratio of 30% in the purchase of grain. Chen Yun advocated a higher purchase ratio, which was opposed to Mao's view of maintaining a low ratio, as he knew that placing too much pressure on peasants would be counterproductive. But from 1953 onwards, Mao agreed with

9472-417: The base of the site, one of which read "Dedicated to the great Marxist, Comrade Stalin". On 23 October, the Chinese delegation left Moscow for Beijing early, before the Congress' conclusion; within days, Khrushchev had Stalin's body removed from the mausoleum. In 1960, Mao expected Khrushchev to deal aggressively with US President Dwight D. Eisenhower by holding him to account for the USSR having shot down

9620-430: The belligerent PRC's geopolitical credibility among the nations under Chinese hegemony, especially after a failed PRC–US rapprochement. In the Chinese sphere of influence, that Sino-American diplomatic failure and the presence of US nuclear weapons in Taiwan justified Mao's confrontational foreign policies with Taiwan. In late 1958, the CCP revived Mao's guerrilla-period cult of personality to portray Chairman Mao as

9768-416: The burden exerted on peasants changed gradually from considering to exploitative because of two factors: 1) the implementation of the First Five-year plan in 1953, and 2) the overall and long-term benefit of the state. The state collection of grain had been a strenuous issue for the new regime considering the fact that the War of Resistance against Japan (1937–1945) and the Civil War (1946–1949) had caused

9916-402: The bureaucracy, and the CCP publicly. However, the campaign proved too successful when blunt criticism of Mao was voiced . Consequent to the relative freedoms of the de-Stalinized USSR, Mao retained the Stalinist model of Marxist–Leninist economy, government, and society. Ideological differences between Mao and Khrushchev compounded the insecurity of the new communist leader in China. Following

10064-412: The change of leadership, the Sino-Soviet split remained open. At the Glassboro Summit Conference , between Kosygin and US President Lyndon B. Johnson , the PRC accused the USSR of betraying the peoples of the Eastern bloc countries. The official interpretation, by Radio Peking , reported that US and Soviet politicians discussed "a great conspiracy, on a worldwide basis ... criminally selling the rights of

10212-573: The charismatic, visionary leader solely qualified to control the policy, administration, and popular mobilization required to realize the Great Leap Forward to industrialize China. Moreover, to the Eastern Bloc, Mao portrayed the PRC's warfare with Taiwan and the accelerated modernization of the Great Leap Forward as Stalinist examples of Marxism–Leninism adapted to Chinese conditions. These circumstances allowed ideological Sino-Soviet competition, and Mao publicly criticized Khrushchev's economic and foreign policies as deviations from Marxism–Leninism. To Mao,

10360-532: The childhood of the communist party in China is over and that one day the party itself will cease to exist, as an old man dies. He argues that political parties only exist as instruments of class struggle, meaning that when classes disappear, so will the CCP. Mao states that prior to China engaging in communism, it had tried to learn from Western countries, as Japan . However the Western imperialism made that impossible because they were formerly aggressive states. That requires cognitive dissonance to even entertain

10508-407: The cities, private factories and shops were either turned into cooperatives or nationalized in the name of joint public-private ownership. Regarding to the Soviet Union's leadership in the socialist camp, the Tito-Stalin Split broke out in 1948, followed by the Informbiro period that ended at 1955, signaling the end of the Soviet Union's intolerance of alternative socialist development. In Moscow,

10656-490: The communist project and the nations' shared identity as Marxist-Leninists. As a result, Khrushchev became Mao's scapegoat during China's food crisis. In the first half of 1958, Chinese domestic politics developed an anti-Soviet tone from the ideological disagreement over de-Stalinization and the radicalization that preceded the Great Leap Forward . It coincided with greater Chinese sensitivity over matters of sovereignty and control over foreign policy - particularly where Taiwan

10804-473: The concluding three-year period of the Chinese Civil War, the CCP defeated and expelled the KMT from mainland China. Consequently, the KMT retreated to Taiwan in December 1949. As a revolutionary theoretician of communism seeking to realize a socialist state in China, Mao developed and adapted the urban ideology of Orthodox Marxism for practical application to the agrarian conditions of pre-industrial China and

10952-468: The conditions of our country." The published edition in 1976 contained contented which were omitted from the internal edition in 1965, including the criticism on the handling of heavy and light industries and agricultural sector of the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries, the criticism of Stalin, and other critiques. But the 1976 edition also did not contain all the contents from the speech in 1965. Sino-Soviet split The Sino-Soviet split

11100-486: The course of their [the Soviet Union] building socialism." Covered in the speech are the economic, social, political, and ethnical aspects of building socialism in China. Mao further charted a strategy of forming alliance and splitting enemies in international sphere. The speech was made in front of the party secretaries of various provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities, and was subsequently circulated among

11248-498: The criticism of the historical drama Hai Rui Dismissed from Office which was considered the preparation for initiating the Cultural Revolution . The major contents of the speech were on economic issues which were different from the anti-revisionism of the Cultural Revolution and hence Mao did not agree to publish the speech. In 1975 when Deng Xiaoping approached Mao, Deng was restoring the previous practices and negating

11396-441: The de-Stalinization of the USSR. Mao and the Chinese leadership were appalled as the PRC and the USSR progressively diverged in their interpretations and applications of Leninist theory. By 1961, their intractable ideological differences provoked the PRC's formal denunciation of Soviet communism as the work of "revisionist traitors" in the USSR. The PRC also declared the Soviet Union social imperialist . For Eastern Bloc countries,

11544-463: The development of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the PRC as a country. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 against the rule of Moscow was a severe political concern for Mao, because it had required military intervention to suppress, and its occurrence weakened the political legitimacy of the Communist Party to be in government. In response to that discontent among the European members of

11692-473: The development of the interior regions and defense construction, in response to the military threat posed by the escalation of the Vietnam War and the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, China had significantly increased the investment in the interior regions through the Third Front construction projects. Eventually China developed her own nuclear weapons in the mid-1960s. In 1995 Jiang Zemin delivered

11840-477: The disappearance of the party, as the Marxist theory suggested the coming of a stateless society when communism is achieved, and even though a coercive party was needed to suppress counter-revolutionaries, he proposed to streamline the party and the bureaucracy. Though counter-revolutionaries were negative factor, thanks to the policy of the party, some of them had stopped opposing the revolution. Whilst affirming

11988-413: The draft based on the original sound recording was prepared. After reading the revised draft, Mao agreed with its part-wide distribution, but still not its publication. Mao had twice commented on the importance of the speech, in 1958 and 1960 respective, each stressing the search for alternative socialist development. Yet in other occasions, Mao did not value it as highly. In September 1956 when he received

12136-616: The events of the 1958–1959 period indicated that Khrushchev was politically untrustworthy as an orthodox Marxist. In 1959, First Secretary Khrushchev met with US President Dwight Eisenhower to decrease US-Soviet geopolitical tensions. To that end, the USSR: (i) reneged an agreement for technical aid to develop Project 596 , and (ii) sided with India in the Sino-Indian War . Each US-Soviet collaboration offended Mao and he perceived Khrushchev as an opportunist who had become too tolerant of

12284-418: The experts reported back to Moscow their observations and dissatisfaction with the Chinese counterparts. Ten Major Relationships , along with On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People , was an important part of the theoretical efforts to incorporate Marxism into the Chinese context and China's efforts to develop socialism. Many considered the speech the beginning of Mao's disagreement with

12432-411: The fifth volume of Mao's Selected Works, with the following editorial: "Bearing in mind lessons drawn from the Soviet Union, Comrade Mao Tsetung summed up China's experience, dealt with ten major relationships in socialist revolution and socialist construction and set forth the ideas underlying the general line of building socialism with greater, faster, better and more economical results, a line suited to

12580-962: The formulation of the ten major relationships was the result of communicating with the cadres in those bureaus. From February 14 to April 24 (1956), Mao listened to the reports from 34 different bureaus, plus the report from the State Planning Commission on the Second Five-year Plan . During those 41 days, Mao listened to reports for four to five hours every day in Zhongnanhai . Other top leaders including Zhou Enlai , Liu Shaoqi, Chen Yun , and Deng Xiaoping had also participated in these meetings and expressed their opinions. The reporting began with heavy industry , then proceeded to light industry , handicraft industry , transportation and telecommunication , agriculture and forestry , finance , and other areas. During

12728-646: The geopolitical scene, China had since 1954 began to foster relations with her Asian neighboring countries like India and Burma. In April 1955, the Bandung Conference was held in Bandung, Indonesia and Zhou Enlai attended the conference as the representative of Communist China, strengthening her role in the African and Asian continents. Mao Zedong summarized the issues related to socialist construction and transformation into ten major relationships. To avoid

12876-553: The guiding thought. After the speech was delivered, the ten major relationships became the guiding thought instead and it was followed up by Liu Shaoqi, Hu Qiaomu , and other top leaders in their preparation for the congress. During the congress Zhou Enlai reported on the proposal for the Second Five-year Plan (1956–1962) and issues highlighted by Mao in the speech, like the ratio of investment between heavy and light industries and decentralization, were addressed. After

13024-407: The idea. The Soviet-Yugoslavia conflict in 1948 had signaled that Stalin would not tolerate alternative socialist path and the Soviet Union remained dominant in the socialist world. After Stalin's death in 1953, however, the pressure from the Soviet Union lessened, yet Mao still had not put forward the use of Mao Zedong Though publicly because of the possible backlash due to the anti-personality cult in

13172-518: The incidents of Gao Gang and Rao Shushi in 1953 reminded the danger of local leaders having too much power, "provided that the policies of the central authorities are not violated, the local authorities may work out rules, regulations and measures in the light of their specific conditions and the needs of their work, and this is in no way prohibited by the Constitution ." Mao said that the party had been able to oppose Han chauvinism and foster

13320-491: The intention of the Bucharest authorities to mediate the Sino-Soviet conflict. In reality, however, the Romanian mediation approach represented only a pretext for forging a Sino-Romanian rapprochement, without arousing the Soviets' suspicions. Romania was neutral in the Sino-Soviet split. Its neutrality along with being the small communist country with the most influence in global affairs enabled Romania to be recognized by

13468-548: The interpretation of orthodox Marxism became specific disputes about the Soviet Union's policies of national de-Stalinization and international peaceful coexistence with the Western Bloc , which Chinese leader Mao Zedong decried as revisionism . Against that ideological background, China took a belligerent stance towards the Western world , and publicly rejected the Soviet Union's policy of peaceful coexistence between

13616-524: The late-period Cold War (1956–1991) to create an anti-Soviet front, which Maoists connected to Three Worlds Theory . According to Lüthi, there is "no documentary evidence that the Chinese or the Soviets thought about their relationship within a triangular framework during the period." During the Second Sino-Japanese War , the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the nationalist Kuomintang party (KMT) set aside their civil war to expel

13764-438: The latest development in the industry. Then from April 18 onwards, Li Fuchun reported to Mao on the Second Five-year Plan. The entire process was Mao's longest and most comprehensive investigation on economic affairs after 1949. In the enlarged Politburo meeting from April 25 to 28, Mao made the speech on its first day. As the original agenda was about issues like agricultural cooperative, attendants did not expect Mao to make such

13912-456: The latter had insulted Mao as being a Chinese nationalist, a geopolitical adventurist, and an ideological deviationist from Marxism-Leninism. In turn, Peng insulted Khrushchev as a revisionist whose régime showed him to be a "patriarchal, arbitrary, and tyrannical" ruler. In the event, Khrushchev denounced the PRC with 80 pages of criticism to the congress of the PRC. In response to the insults, Khrushchev withdrew 1,400 Soviet technicians from

14060-529: The leader of the Kuomintang (the government of the Republic of China that ultimately relocated to Taiwan), and of destroyed and crumbling imperialist empires. He claims victory for Chinese communism and welcomes former intellectual adversaries to "learn anew" and to warm to Marxism–Leninism , a brand of communism that focuses on centralism and expanding communism first to undeveloped countries. Mao credits

14208-527: The level where the Chinese were going out of their way to humiliate the Soviet leader - for example, there was no honour guard to greet him, no Chinese leader gave a speech, and when Khrushchev insisted on giving a speech of his own, no microphone was provided. The speech in question would turn out to contain praise of the US President Eisenhower, whom Khrushchev had recently met, obviously an intentional insult to Communist China. The leaders of

14356-520: The market and an unstable currency", the supply of grain, raw materials, and daily necessities were stable in China. He urged to increase the investment in agriculture and light industry so that the accumulation of capital could be enhanced for the development of heavy industry. The focus of this part is the balance between the development in the coastal regions and interior regions, which Mao considered free from major mistakes. Yet he urged to give greater attention to development in coastal regions, because

14504-495: The mechanization of agriculture but it was questioned by the Chinese side due to its insufficiency. Another instance was that the "one-man management" factory system, which placed authority in the hands of the factory manager, was never able to gain prominence in China except in the Northeast where the Soviet influence was strongest. Both practices were graduately abandoned by the Soviet Union. Economist Chris Bramall believes that

14652-583: The middle and top cadres for political study. It was not published until after Mao's death in September 1976. In January 1956 Mao Zedong noticed that Liu Shaoqi was receiving reports from some committees of the State Council and became interested in those reports. Beginning from late last year, Liu was preparing for the political report for the forthcoming party congress and Mao then instructed to arrange different bureaus to report to him. As Mao said,

14800-603: The military threat posed by the United States had subsided and it would be unwise to abandon the coastal regions. He also mentioned in the interior regions industry should be gradually built. Similar to last part, Mao suggested that the threat posed by the United States since the Korean War had subsided and the Chinese armed forces had grown. Though China did not yet have the atom bomb, they would be able to possess it soon. Hence he urged lowering military and administrative expenses in favor of economic construction, which would eventually lead to investment in defense construction. As for

14948-462: The mistakes that the Soviet Union had made, Mao urged to mobilize the "positive elements" of the country, which were the peasants and workers, and turned the "negative elements" of reactionaries as far as possible into positive. Internationally "forces that can be united" were positive whilst reactionary forces were negative. The following are the synopses of the ten relationships, many of which were Mao's urge for balanced development and open criticism of

15096-513: The mistakes the Soviet Union had made. Mao stated that because of the complex situation of China's large population and vast scale, it was better to have both strong central and strong local governments than only a strong central government (as Mao described the Soviet Union). Mao stated that China should not be like the USSR, which Mao described as having a central government that was not flexible enough for local governments to operate. Though

15244-635: The national interests of China and the Soviet Union with the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance . The treaty improved the two countries' geopolitical relationship on political, military and economic levels. Stalin's largesse to Mao included a loan for $ 300 million; military aid, should Japan attack the PRC; and the transfer of the Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria, Port Arthur and Dalian to Chinese control. In return,

15392-449: The necessity of suppressing the counter-revolutionaries campaign in the early 1950s, Mao distanced himself from the Great Purge of Stalin and insisted that counter-revolutionaries like Hu Feng still existed and hence execution was needed in some cases to safeguard socialism and the dictatorship of the proletariat . In this section Mao focused on those who made mistakes in the past, which include "dogmatists headed by Wang Ming " who led

15540-416: The notion that democratic reform was desirable. The on-going aggression at the time that China was trying to modernize in spite of dapped the resources China needed to enact that democratic reform and to dissuade Chinese people from enacting similar, aggressive and imperialistic forms of government. Mao then talks passionately about the early years of the Chinese communist revolution against Chiang Kai-shek ,

15688-478: The number of deaths caused by the Great Chinese Famine , which resulted from three years of drought and poor weather. An estimated 30 million Chinese people starved to death, more than any other famine in recorded history. Mao and his government largely downplayed the deaths. In 1954, Soviet first secretary Nikita Khrushchev repaired relations between the USSR and the PRC with trade agreements,

15836-602: The one that Mao uses has neutral connotations ("专政", which could be translated into: "monopoly on government", or "supreme government", rather than "person who rules with an iron first and absolute power", the word used for dictator in English). Mao addresses the fact that there is still some class division in China and that only "the people" deserve benevolence. He states that peaceful "reactionaries" will be given some land and forced to work until they become part of "the people". He further states that claims of totalitarianism from

15984-476: The party "picking up the bad aspect of Stalin's style of work". Mao used Lu Xun 's " The True Story of Ah Q " to illustrate it was "bad either to bar people outside the Party from the revolution or to prohibit erring comrades inside the Party from making amends." He suggested to observe those Communists who had erred but not those "who cling to their mistakes and fail to mend their ways after repeated admonition". In

16132-403: The peasants "disgruntled, and there were a lot of complaints both inside and outside the Party." In 1955, the amount of grain purchased by the state decreased and there was a good harvest, reversing the peasants' opinion on the party. In historian Yang Kuisong 's analysis, in the 1950s Mao was actually deeply concerned about the livelihood of peasants but his view on the state purchase of grain and

16280-510: The people nothing, except revolution, they would scratch their heads and say: 'Isn't it better to have good goulash? ' " In the 1960s, public displays of acrimonious quarrels about Marxist-Leninist doctrine characterized relations between hardline Stalinist Chinese and post-Stalinist Soviet Communists. At the Romanian Communist Party Congress , the CCP's senior officer Peng Zhen quarrelled with Khrushchev, after

16428-449: The period between April 1956 and June 1957 was Mao at his most conservative and the speech reinstated Mao's economic policy of balanced development which was different from the Soviet emphasis on heavy industry. However, historian Shen Zhihua suggests that for adjusting the ratio of investment between heavy and light industries, altering the plan for industrial development, and improving people's living standard, Mao's development strategy in

16576-580: The personal worship of Mao within the party already began in the Yan'an era , so it had a long historical root in the party. Though the criticism of Stalin relieved Mao of the pressure from the Soviet Union, it also made the personality cult of his own problematic. That is the reason why he highlighted that "in China some people are following their example" as a reminder that Mao was supportive of his own cult, but critical of that of Stalin. Chris Bramall opines that in actual practice Mao did not follow what he stated in

16724-444: The planners was whether such increased led to massive death of peasants, which in 1955 a higher number of unnatural of death was indeed recorded. Other than Internal Reference , Mao also knew about the problem from the democrats who wrote to Mao to report the severity of increased state purchase. As a response, Mao instructed Chen Yun to lower the purchase and for 1955 and a lower amount was purchased. In part ten Mao mentioned that "in

16872-533: The principles of equality and of unanimity through consultation. Public, one-sided censure of any fraternal party does not help unity and is not helpful in resolving problems. To bring a dispute between fraternal parties or fraternal countries into the open in the face of the enemy cannot be regarded as a serious Marxist-Leninist attitude." Subsequently, on 21 October, Zhou visited the Lenin Mausoleum (then still entombing Stalin's body), laying two wreaths at

17020-530: The proposal; Mao was in an ideological furor and would not accept. The meeting ended with an agreement to construct the previously rejected radio station with Soviet loans. Further damage was caused by the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis toward the end of August. China did not notify or consult the Soviet Union before initiating the conflict, contradicting China's previous desire to share information for foreign affairs and violating - at least

17168-572: The rank-and-file of the Soviet Armed Forces , and of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). In light of de-Stalinization, the CPSU's changed ideological orientation – from Stalin's confrontation of the West to Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence with it – posed problems of ideological credibility and political authority for Mao, who had emulated Stalin's style of leadership and practical application of Marxism–Leninism in

17316-550: The relations "that had seemed possible after Khrushchev's fall evaporated after the Soviet minister of defense, Rodion Malinovsky ... approached Chinese Marshal He Long , member of the Chinese delegation to Moscow, and asked when China would finally get rid of Mao like the CPSU had disposed of Khrushchev." Back in China, Zhou reported to Mao that Brezhnev's Soviet government retained the policy of peaceful coexistence which Mao had denounced as " Khrushchevism without Khrushchev"; despite

17464-413: The relationship between the state and society, Mao urged for more openness and delegation of powers to the individual units of production and producers. Workers should be given improved working conditions and welfare, and increased and more equal wages as a reward for their political consciousness and over-fulfillment of production quotas. Factories should also been given more autonomy in operation. Unlike in

17612-502: The representatives from Yugoslavia, he said that for the speech he just summarized others' opinions and that was not his own creation. In May 1957, he mentioned that if he was not satisfied with some drafts even after revision, they would remained unpublished, indicating that the speech was not up to his standard. Other than the quality of the draft of the speech, another possible reason is the timing of political events. When Liu Shaoqi approached Mao in December 1965, Mao had already approved

17760-640: The revolution of [the] Vietnam people, [of the] Arabs, as well as [those of] Asian, African, and Latin-American peoples, to US imperialists". To regain political supremacy in the PRC, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to counter the Soviet-style bureaucracies (personal-power-centres) that had become established in education, agriculture, and industrial management. Abiding Mao's proclamations for universal ideological orthodoxy, schools and universities closed throughout China when students organized themselves into politically radical Red Guards . Lacking

17908-604: The roots of grass to live, we won't take anything from Russia.' China is not guilty of chauvinism , and immediately sent food to our brother country." During his opening speech at the CPSU's 22nd Party Congress on 17 October 1961 in Moscow, Khrushchev once again criticized Albania as a politically backward state and the Albanian Party of Labour as well as its leadership, including Enver Hoxha , for refusing to support reforms against Stalin's legacy, in addition to their criticism of rapprochement with Yugoslavia , leading to

18056-655: The same period, Mao was also involved in the drafting of another document titled On the Historical Experience of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat ( 关于无产阶级专政的历史经验 ), which, published on April 5 on the People's Daily , was an immediate response of the Chinese Communist Party to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . After listening to the first round of reports, from April 12 to 17 Mao visited an exhibition of mechanics to see

18204-451: The situations in the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries . Mao was concerned about the speed of capital accumulation and the production of the means of production . He was of the opinion that China was on the right course of balancing heavy industry on one hand, and light industry and agriculture on the other. Unlike in the Soviet Union and some Eastern European countries, where the disequilibrium resulted in "a shortage of goods on

18352-410: The speech and such view was echo by columnist Li Kwok-sing who claims that "China has never followed the theory of the ten relationship." During and immediately after the Great Leap Forward, Mao went further on the repudiation of the Soviet development model through thoroughly criticizing two Soviet books, Political Economy: A Textbook and Stalin's Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR . As for

18500-510: The speech did not differed significantly from the one in Khrushchev's speech made in the party congress in the same year and their 6th Five-year Plan as well. In Shen's view, China and the Soviet Union were both searching for the path for furthering socialist development. In part four, Mao said that the party "did make a mistake on the question of grain." In 1954, a decrease in production was accompanied by an increase in state purchase, making

18648-450: The speech was distributed to local level, "bearing in mind lessons drawn from the Soviet Union" was understood differently. In early 1957, it was reported that many local units began to lose enthusiasm in Soviet experts, did not learn from them, and even became rude to them. Soviet experts were not assigned works and leaders in some bureaus did not form a close relationship with them. Some bureaucrats even refused to work with them. In response,

18796-467: The speech was the ratio of investment between heavy industry on one hand and light industry and agriculture on the other. In June 1956, the ratio of heavy industry to light industry was reduced from 8:1 to 7:1 and a few months later the proposed investment in agriculture had also increased from 7% to 10%. Also, the State Council planned to decentralize the administration of economic organizations and

18944-401: The spirit - the Sino-Soviet friendship treaty. This may have been partially in response to what the Chinese viewed as the timid Soviet response to the West in the 1958 Lebanon crisis and 1958 Iraqi coup d'état . The Soviets opted to publicly support China at the end of August, but became concerned when the US replied with veiled threats of nuclear war in early September and mixed-messaging from

19092-431: The state purchase of grain were what exerted burden on the peasants. After 1949, the state purchase of grain had been on the rise and the increase was the most prominent after the implementation of the state monopoly in 1953. In 1956–1967, the figure dropped and it did not increase until the Great Leap Forward . Mao himself had directly intervened the policy on state purchase of grain in the early 1950s, requesting to lower

19240-414: The strong or bad points from other countries to pick up. He used the example of the setting of a Ministry of Culture and a Bureau of Cinematography, instead of a Ministry of Cinematography and a Bureau of Culture like the case of the Soviet Union, to illustrate the importance of making a decision that best fitted the situations of China. Regarding to the denouncement of the cult of personality of Stalin in

19388-453: The tenth point, Mao emphasized the importance of "learning the strengths of all peoples and all countries." Mao viewed the policy of learning from the other countries (implying the Soviet Union) had been right so far. Yet since that every nation had its weak points, China "mustn't copy everything indiscriminately and transplant mechanically" and "pick up their shortcomings and weak points." The Chinese Communists must be able to discern what were

19536-419: The trend of anti-personality cult was prevalent in the socialist camp after 1953, Shen argues that Mao only opposed the public use of Mao Zedong Thought, but not saw it as a problem itself. Hu Qiaomu explained that not mentioning Mao Zedong Thought was related to the Soviet Union who refused to accept the idea. And since China still relied on the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, so that was Mao's policy to downplay

19684-449: The two Socialist states would not meet again for the next 30 years. In June 1960, at the zenith of de-Stalinization, the USSR denounced the People's Republic of Albania as a politically backward country for retaining Stalinism as government and model of socialism. In turn, Bao Sansan said that the CCP's message to the cadres in China was: "When Khrushchev stopped Russian aid to Albania, Hoxha said to his people: 'Even if we have to eat

19832-471: The two countries signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance ( 中苏友好同盟互助条约 ) which promised the Soviet Union's commitment to help build socialism in the newly founded People's Republic of China. From 1950 to 1956, a total of 5,092 Soviet experts were sent to China for technical assistant and the total number of visits of the Soviet experts was over 18,000 throughout

19980-401: The two weaknesses of China, one being the lack of confidence among the people due to its colonial and semi-colonial past and the imperialist encroachment, and another being the delay of revolution which came only in 1949, four decades after the bourgeois revolution in 1911 . In Mao Zedong's own works, "in the first eight years we copied foreign experiences, but since the ten major relationships

20128-421: The use of indirect planning and market mechanisms were proposed and experimented in late 1956. Yet the attempt was soon curtailed because of the difficulties involved and opposition from economic planners. Teiwes reminds that the Soviet Union themselves had also tried to decentralize in mid-1955 and it contributed to China's reaction. An instance of such influence was the use of Soviet machine tractor for spreading

20276-434: The view of economic planners and supported the state monopoly of the purchasing and marketing of grain. As the state monopoly was imposed, the state now had a better understanding of the amount of grain in the hands of peasants and in 1953, a total of 825 billion catties of grain was purchased, higher than the planned 708 billion. Emboldened by this increase, Chen Yun increased the amount even higher in 1954. The only concern for

20424-503: The world as the "third force" of the communist world. Romania's independence - achieved in the early 1960s through its freeing from its Soviet satellite status - was tolerated by Moscow because Romania was not bordering the Iron Curtain - being surrounded by socialist states - and because its ruling party was not going to abandon communism. North Korea under Kim Il Sung also remained neutral because of its strategic status after

20572-502: The years. The areas they provided assistance included government bureaus, military, large enterprises, and higher institutions. In the countryside, from late 1955 to early 1956, China's agricultural sector completed the Socialist High Tide, transforming from having only 14.2% (16.9 million out of 120 million) of peasant families collectivized to 91.2% of them joining the co-operatives and 61.9% joining collectives. Likewise in

20720-481: Was also rejected. In June, China requested Soviet assistance to develop nuclear attack submarines. The following month, the Soviets proposed the construction of a joint strategic submarine fleet, but the proposal as delivered failed to mention the type of submarine. The proposal was strongly rejected by Mao under the belief that the Soviet wanted to control China's coast and submarines. Khrushchev secretly visited Beijing in early August in an unsuccessful attempt to salvage

20868-455: Was concerned. The result was a growing Chinese reluctance to cooperate with the Soviet Union. The deterioration of the relationship manifested throughout the year. In April, the Soviets proposed the construction of a joint radio transmitter. China rejected it after counter-proposing that the transmitter be Chinese owned and that Soviet usage be limited to wartime. A similar Soviet proposal in July

21016-455: Was different from the party constitution in the last congress which stated Mao Zedong Thought as one of the guiding principles, alongside Marxism and Leninism, for the Chinese revolution. Since Mao himself had more than once opposed the use of the term in internal communication, so its removal in the 8th party congress did not necessarily indicate that Mao's status had been challenged as argued by some historians like Roderick MacFarquhar . Though

21164-567: Was dishonestly realized with the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and the 1860 Convention of Peking . The Soviet government ignored the matter. In 1968, the Soviet Army had massed along the 4,380-kilometre (2,720 mi) border with the PRC, especially at the Xinjiang frontier, in north-west China , where the Soviets might readily induce the Turkic peoples into a separatist insurrection. In 1961,

21312-487: Was dissatisfied with it and opined that further revision was needed. It remained for circulation among cadres only and was not for publication. In December, the party central instructed cadres to study the speech and express their views on it. In summer 1975, Deng Xiaoping directed the editorial work of the fifth volume of the Selected Works of Mao Zedong and suggested the inclusion of the speech. A further revision of

21460-517: Was pinned as a revisionist. Popular sentiment within China regarded Khrushchev as a representative of the upper-class, and Chinese Marxist-Leninists viewed the leader as a blight on the communist project. While the two nations had significant ideological similarities, domestic instability drove a wedge between the nations as they began to adopt different visions of communism following the death of Stalin in 1953. Popular sentiment within China changed as Khrushchev's policies changed. Stalin had accepted that

21608-435: Was proposed in 1956, [the party] had found a path suitable for China." The speech was credited for setting the tone for the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party to be held in the second half of 1956, the first national congress after the founding of the new country in 1949. During the drafting process for the political report for the congress, Mao's original idea was to set "anti-rightist conservative thought" as

21756-405: Was revised by Mao himself and soon published on People's Daily in June the same year, but the former was only circulated among the middle and top cadres and remained unpublished until after Mao's death. Contrary to his usual practice of editing his own drafts, Mao had left the speech untouched after 1956. In 1965, Liu Shiqi suggested to Mao the publication of the speech due to its importance but Mao

21904-618: Was the gradual worsening of relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) during the Cold War . This was primarily caused by doctrinal divergences that arose from their different interpretations and practical applications of Marxism–Leninism , as influenced by their respective geopolitics during the Cold War of 1947–1991. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Sino-Soviet debates about

#910089