Yinchang Zhang Zhidong
120-607: The Chinese Revolution can refer to: 1911 Revolution or Xinhai Revolution: the October 10, 1911 uprising against the Qing Dynasty and establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. Second Revolution (Republic of China) , the 1913 rebellion against Yuan Shikai Constitutional Protection Movement , also known as the "Third Revolution", the movement led by Sun Yat Sen to resist
240-610: A 3-year course involving techniques, strategy, tactics of the infantry, artillery engineers and both fortress and field artillery, surveying and cartography. The railway school enrolled 90 students. Zhang already possessed the relevant experience for educating officers via academies having introduced a similar program for education of officers in Liangguang during the Self-Strengthening Movement. The Nanjing Military academy cost 40,000 taels annually not including
360-468: A bodyguard of 7,750 modern trained men organised into 1 brigade of 11 battalions 8 infantry and 1 each of cavalry, artillery and engineers, however Captain Gadoffre reported that there were 14,750 foreign-trained men whilst Zhang reported 9,500 to the throne. In Hubei there were 15,700 modern trained troops including 7,000 Bannermen and 42,000 soldiers described as "armed coolies" Zhang had also standardised
480-457: A book in which he talked about the extermination of the Manchus for the 260 years of oppression, sorrow, cruelty, and tyranny, and creating new revolutionary Han figures. Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparation for uprisings they would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of the manpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. After
600-447: A company of 154 men in peacetime and 299 in wartime. A cavalry squadron 81 men. An artillery regiment 1,136 men an engineer battalion 667 men in peacetime and 1,250 when mobilised, a logistics company 748 men in peacetime with 1,640 when mobilised. Thus a division when fully mobilised would include 14,880 riflemen, 54 guns and 18 machine guns with 1,136 gunners, 1,250 engineers, 1,640 logistics personnel, 972 cavalry and 51 musicians giving
720-768: A conflict between the citizens and local police against the New Army. After revolutionary leader Ni Yingdian was killed by Qing forces, the remaining revolutionaries were quickly defeated, causing the uprising to fail. On 27 April 1911, an uprising occurred in Guangzhou, known as the Second Guangzhou Uprising ( 辛亥廣州起義 ) or Yellow Flower Mound Revolt ( 黃花岡之役 ). It ended in disaster, as 86 bodies were found (only 72 could be identified). The 72 revolutionaries were remembered as martyrs. Revolutionary Lin Juemin
840-630: A conservative the last such advisor to the Emperor was dismissed leaving the Grand Council entirely in the hands of the reformers, however the Emperor maintained Ronglu a conservative as the Viceroy of Zhili a mistake which he would regret and his position on the Board of War was given to the conservative K'ang-i. The Emperor even discussed the possibility of ordering the bannermen who were a drain on
960-474: A danger. Ultimately, little military reform was enacted by the Guangxu Emperor during the brief period of reform. A proposal for universal military training was proposed and approved by the Emperor in the largest departure from the traditional organisation of the military with all men in a given region being given military training and then act as a national reserve force for the military. The proposal
1080-816: A further 523,000 reservists in wartime though it never achieved a strength above 300,000. There was a forerunner to the effort of modernising the Chinese army, created before the end of the Sino-Japanese War: in February 1895, the Qing court assembled its Dingwu or the Pacification Army ( 定 武 軍 Dingwu jun ), consisting of 10 battalions or ying ( 営 ), totaling 4,750 men. This was initially organized by Hu Yufen [ zh ] aided by German advisor Constantin von Hanneken this force however
1200-662: A great cost saving measure. Yuan Shikai as commander of the army was ordered to form 2 divisions one of which was to be Manchu instead Yuan trained the one Manchu division and prepared a corps of 4 divisions 3 of which were Han Chinese. The 2 initial divisions were to form a Corps of 19,120 men organised into 42 battalions with a total annual cost of 2,387,600 taels not including armament. Yuan Shikai hired Japanese instructors and advisors and established many schools offering diverse courses such as topography and ballistics as well as sending cadets to be educated in Japan. Zhang had organised
1320-635: A province if it fielded solely infantry battalions it would field 15,050 (331,100 nationally) or only cavalry 9,450 (207,900). These functioned as the military police of the empire. One battalion was organised in 1908 consisting of 299 men and 82 horses. Robert Hart the Inspector-General of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service reasoned that the Qing weakness allowing Russia and Japan to wage war in Manchuria
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#17327650307691440-624: A request to abolish technical subjects in the provincial colleges and modern schools. K'ang-i the President of the Board of war was sent on an inspection tour of 1899 to improve the defenses of Liangguang and to raise money in the aspect of finances he was successful being given the sobriquet "imperial high extortioner" by the foreign press. Ronglu proposed to the Throne that the Wuwei Corps be formed from 4 divisions (later expanded to 5 with
1560-463: A revolution in family, gender and social values, would remove the need for government and coercion. Zhang Ji and Wang Jingwei were among the anarchists who defended assassination and terrorism as means to awaken the people to revolution, but others insisted that education was the only justifiable strategy. Important anarchists included Cai Yuanpei . Zhang Renjie gave Sun major financial help. Many of these anarchists would later assume high positions in
1680-461: A total manpower of 19,927 the balance likely constituting divisional level officers and the attached gendarme. A division of the Xubei jun was to contain the same organisation but its regiments had 2 battalions rather than 3 this would give a total strength of 9,840 men. The Houbei jun only fielded a brigade of 4 battalions 2,016 men numbered with its parent division. The Reserve troops consisted of
1800-485: Is given for the division: The division contains 2 infantry brigades each with 2 regiments and each with 3 battalions. One regiment of artillery with 54 guns and 18 machine guns, one regiment of cavalry of 12 squadrons, 1 engineer battalion of 4 companies, one logistics battalion of 4 companies, 51 musicians and an unspecified amount of gendarmerie. With 12,512 men in peacetime and 21,000 in wartime. An infantry battalion in peacetime contain 659 men and when mobilised 1,240,
1920-535: The South China Morning Post . Sun Yat-sen 's Revive China Society was established in Honolulu in 1894, with the main purpose of raising funds for revolutions. The two organizations merged in 1894. The Huaxinghui (China Revival Society) was founded in 1904 by notables like Huang Xing , Zhang Shizhao , Chen Tianhua , Sun Yat-sen, and Song Jiaoren , along with 100 others. Their motto
2040-783: The Beiyang Army ) as prime minister, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries. In Nanjing, revolutionary forces created a provisional coalition government . On 1 January 1912, the National Assembly declared the establishment of the Republic of China, with Sun Yat-sen , leader of the Tongmenghui , as President of the Republic of China . A brief civil war between the North and the South ended in compromise. Sun would resign in favor of Yuan, who would become President of
2160-599: The Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor, but others, such as Sun Yat-sen organized revolutionary groups to overthrow the dynasty rather than reform it. They could operate only in secret societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions, or exile overseas, but created a following among Chinese in North America and Southeast Asia, and within China, even in
2280-546: The Kuomintang (KMT). Many revolutionaries promoted anti-Qing/anti-Manchu sentiments and revived memories of conflict between the ethnic minority Manchu and the ethnic majority Han Chinese from the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Leading intellectuals were influenced by books that had survived from the final years of the Ming dynasty, the last dynasty of Han Chinese. In 1904, Sun Yat-sen announced that his organization's goal
2400-563: The New Army under Yuan Shikai and many concluded that Chinese society also needed to be modernized if technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor turned to reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao who offered a program inspired in large part by the reforms in Japan . They proposed basic reform in education, military, and economy in the so-called Hundred Days' Reform . The reform
2520-764: The Newly Created Army ( 新 建 陸 軍 Xinjian Lujun ), was the combined modernised army corps formed under the Qing dynasty in December 1895, following its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War . At first it consisted of a few experimental units, but after 1901 it was envisioned as a regular and professional fully trained and equipped according to Western standards with a reserve. In 1903 an imperial edict expanded it to 36 divisions of 12,500 men each, or total of 450,000 in peacetime supplemented by
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#17327650307692640-535: The Qinzhou Uprising occurred (欽州防城起義), to protest against heavy taxation from the government. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun ( 王和順 ) there to assist the revolutionary army and captured the county in September. After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou but were unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan, while Wang Heshun returned to Vietnam . On 1 December 1907,
2760-590: The Self-Strengthening Movement . In the wars against the Taiping (1851–1864), Nian (1851–1868), Yunnan (1856–1873) and Dungan (1862–1877), the court came to rely on armies raised by local officials. After a generation of relative success in importing Western naval and weapons technology, defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 was all the more humiliating and convinced many of the need for institutional change. The court established
2880-579: The Self-Strengthening movement . Many young people attended the new schools or went abroad to study in places like Japan. A new progressive class of intellectuals emerged from those students, who contributed immensely to the 1911 Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen, key figures in the revolution, such as Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren , Hu Hanmin , Liao Zhongkai , Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan. Some were young students like Zou Rong , known for writing Revolutionary Army ,
3000-557: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom era. Ma Fuyi ( 馬福益 ) and Huaxinghui was involved in an uprising in the three areas of Pingxiang , Liuyang and Liling , called "Ping-liu-li Uprising", ( 萍瀏醴起義 ) in 1905. The uprising recruited miners as early as 1903 to rise against the Qing ruling class. After the uprising failed, Ma Fuyi was executed. Wu Yue ( 吳樾) of the Guangfuhui carried out an assassination attempt at
3120-588: The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution , ended China's last imperial dynasty , the Qing dynasty , and led to the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings. Its success marked the collapse of the Chinese monarchy , the end of over two millennia of imperial rule in China and the 200-year reign of the Qing, and
3240-471: The new national government , if Yuan could secure the abdication of the Qing emperor. The edict of abdication of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor , was promulgated on 12 February 1912. Yuan was sworn in as president on 10 March 1912. In December 1915, Yuan restored the monarchy and proclaimed himself as the Hongxian Emperor, but the move was met with strong opposition from the population and
3360-539: The sexagenary cycle of the traditional Chinese calendar . The governments of Taiwan and China both consider themselves the legitimate successors to the 1911 Revolution and honor the ideals of the revolution including nationalism , republicanism , modernization of China and national unity . 10 October is the National Day of the Republic of China on Taiwan, and the Anniversary of the 1911 Revolution in
3480-430: The 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution and said, "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as having only secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like Sanhehui were able to sow widely the ideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming." The gentry's strength in local politics became apparent. From December 1908,
3600-512: The 1911 Revolution, including students and intellectuals returning from abroad, as well as participants of revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese, soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers, and others. Assistance from overseas Chinese was important in the 1911 Revolution. In 1894, the first year of the Revive China Society, the first meeting ever held by the group was held in the home of Ho Fon, an overseas Chinese who
3720-467: The 2nd and 3rd rank and to await enrollment in military schools in the expectation of their establishment, to obtain a steady and large flow of trained officers an edict mandated all provinces to open military academies and those with academies (Yuan, Zhang and Liu) were to create a national regulation regarding military education. In 1902 even bannermen were obligated to attend the Military schools though
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3840-617: The Army, leading to his abdication in March 1916 and the reinstatement of the Republic. Yuan's failure to consolidate a legitimate central government before his death in June 1916 led to decades of political division and warlordism , including an attempt at imperial restoration of the Qing dynasty . The revolution is named Xinhai because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai ( 辛亥 ) stem-branch in
3960-624: The Beijing Zhengyangmen East Railway station ( 正陽門車站 ) in an attack on five Qing officials on 24 September 1905. The Huanggang Uprising ( 黃岡起義 ) was launched on 22 May 1907, in Chaozhou . The revolutionary party, along with Xu Xueqiu ( 許雪秋 ), Chen Yongpo ( 陳湧波 ) and Yu Tongshi ( 余通實 ), launched the uprising and captured Huanggang city. After the uprising began, the Qing government quickly and forcefully suppressed it. Around 200 revolutionaries were killed. In
4080-606: The Beiyang fleet and the cost of re-organisation in Manchuria. The 100 Days reform initiated by the Guangxu emperor also affected military affairs as the Emperor desired a comprehensive reform of the state. The Throne complained of the lack of reform enacted in the provinces especially the continued corruption and military bloat caused by padded muster-rolls and the failure to disband the Green Standard Army, within
4200-574: The Beiyang government from 1917 to 1922 Northern Expedition , a military campaign by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist forces against the Beiyang government in 1926–28, leading to the establishment of the Nationalist government in Nanking. Chinese Civil War , the conflict between the Nationalist government and the Communists from 1927 to 1949 Chinese Communist Revolution , the victory of
4320-624: The Beiyang region, 30,000 in the Nanyang region, 20,000 each in Guangdong and Hubei with the other provinces raising 10,000 each. For a total of 250,000 troops (Manchuria had not yet been organised into provinces). Constantin von Hanneken a German advisor to the Qing military proposed raising 100,000 men this recommendation was supported by the Duban Junwu chu, or the War council assembled during
4440-453: The Board of war, Imperial Commissioner over the forces of Song Qing, Yuan Shikai, Nie Sicheng and Dong Fuxiang, thus centralising all forces around the capital under a loyalist Manchu official. The commander of the forces in the Beiyang region (the area around the Bohai bay ), the new Manchu Viceroy, was to assist him. Cixi did not extend such centralisation to the other provinces but did continue
4560-669: The Chinese Communist Party in the final stage of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 Cultural Revolution , a sociopolitical purge movement led by Mao Zedong against capitalist and traditionalist elements of Chinese society from 1966 to 1976 See also [ edit ] List of rebellions in China Boxer Rebellion Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
4680-540: The Empire and to then later form the new army (Lujun) the reserves served as a safe haven for the old-style units allowing them to continue existing despite repeated orders to disband them. In 1902 the Throne informed the provinces once again of their intent to demobilise the greater portion of the Green Standard and that land formerly allotted to the maintenance of soldiers in substitution of pay would devolve back to
4800-567: The Empress Dowager, prompted another foreign invasion of Beijing in 1900. After the Allies imposed a punitive settlement , the Qing court carried out basic fiscal and administrative reforms , including local and provincial elections. These moves did not secure trust or wide support among political activists. Many, like Zou Rong , felt strong anti-Manchu prejudice and blamed them for China's troubles. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao formed
4920-613: The Heilongjiang general complained that it was too expensive to equip his entire force with rifles and instead asked for permission to make breech loaded jingals a weapon similar in cost. General Nie Shicheng took 30 battalions of the yong ying and organised them into a 15,000 strong force based on German organisational patterns and established a military school where 2 Germans taught language and technical subjects, However Nie's army whilst better than other Chinese armies did not approach that of Yuan's or Zhang's. The estimates for
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5040-482: The Imperial Guardsmen were still tested in their proficiency with the bow. The throne also ordered once again to demobilise the Green Standard and militia to a more efficient force by discharging the useless. The remaining forces were then to be organised into a standing army (Changbei Jun) a first reserve (Xubei jun) and a gendarmerie (Xunjing jun). Standing army units were to gradually proliferate across
5160-586: The Japanese equivalent and that the chief of the General Staff be a competent professional soldier not just a Noble or Imperial Clansmen this could have centralised military forces and allowed for a standardisation of training, pay and equipment and become an engine of reform however the Throne did not approve it until 1909. Though the 2 officials did get the Throne to abolish the military exam in 1901 replacing it with direct application to provincial armies by
5280-785: The New Army. The central foci of the uprisings were mostly connected with the Tongmenghui and Sun Yat-sen, including subgroups. Some uprisings involved groups that never merged with the Tongmenghui. Sun Yat-sen may have participated in 8–10 uprisings; all uprisings failed before the Wuchang Uprising. In the spring of 1895, the Revive China Society , based in Hong Kong, planned the First Guangzhou Uprising [ zh ] . Lu Haodong
5400-641: The PRC. Nationalism (Mínzú) Democracy (Mínquán) Socialism (Mínshēng) After suffering its first defeat by the West in the First Opium War in 1842, a conservative court culture constrained efforts to reform and did not want to cede authority to local officials. Following defeat in the Second Opium War in 1860, the Qing began efforts to modernize by adopting Western technologies through
5520-402: The Qing government created some apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen to participate in politics. These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they became disenchanted when the Qing government created a cabinet with Prince Qing as prime minister . By early 1911, an experimental cabinet had thirteen members, nine of whom were Manchus selected from
5640-514: The Qing government to re-establish the Han-led government. The earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wan 's Furen Literary Society , created in Hong Kong in 1890. There were 15 members, including Tse Tsan-tai , who did political satire such as "The Situation in the Far East", one of the first manhua , and who later became one of the core founders of
5760-447: The Railway Protection Movement, a mass protest against the Qing government's seizure and handover of local railway development ventures to foreign powers. Banner officers like Duanfang , the railroad superintendent, and Zhao Erfeng led the New Army against the Railway Protection Movement. New Army The New Army ( Traditional Chinese : 新軍, Simplified Chinese : 新军; Pinyin : Xīnjūn, Manchu : Ice cooha ), more fully called
5880-533: The Right of Yuan Shikai of the 5 divisions Yuan was regarded as the best force among them all. Cixi further ordered the training of 12,000 Anhui army soldiers and 19,000 Disciplined army soldiers for an additional 31,000. Name The 5 divisions were to have 8 ying (battalions) 5 of infantry and 1 each of cavalry, artillery and engineers each division was to also have a training battalion attached with each battalion having 4 companies of 250 (old-style formations had their Ying at 500 nominally in practice around 300) again
6000-429: The Self-Strengthening Army of Zhang Zhidong and the Newly Created Army of Yuan Shikai. It is important to note that despite the criticism of the old-style and inefficient Green standard and Yong Ying were common there were no immediate proposals for reform of the 8 banners by the Han officials the Manchus still closely guarding the 8 banners. In late 1895 Yinchang was ordered to choose and instruct Manchu officers at
6120-624: The Throne to centralise reform and enact it centrally Prince Qing was named director and Yuan Shikai and Tieh'liang as assistant directors. A division of the Changbei Jun was to consist of 2 infantry brigades a cavalry and artillery regiment, an engineer and transport battalion and a band. Each Brigade was to possess 2 regiments which itself contained 3 battalions and with 4 companies per battalion and 3 platoons per company and below platoon strength organisation varied. A Mixed Brigade possessed 2 infantry regiments an artillery and cavalry battalion and an engineer and transport company. An infantry division
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#17327650307696240-446: The Throne. The reform edicts were not followed as the Throne complained in 1902 that the Manchu-Generals, Viceroys and Governors were dragging their heels. The increasing uselessness of the Bannermen spurred the Throne into action as military power increasingly became Han Chinese the Throne sought to balance this, Yuan Shikai was ordered to train 3,000 Bannermen and later it was planned for an additional 3,000 to be trained. Ronglu also
6360-411: The Tianjin Military academy in anticipation of them taking command. Zhang Zhidong declared in 1896 in a memorial to the Throne that the reason for German military pre-eminence was the universal education of its officer corps and asked for a military academy and railway school to be established in Nanjing this was approved and Zhang organised the training of 150 Chinese cadets under German instruction on
6480-411: The Tongmenghui's establishment in Hubei. In July 1907, several members of Tongmenghui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of the Yangtze . Liu Quiyi ( 劉揆一 ), Jiao Dafeng ( 焦達峰 ), Zhang Boxiang ( 張伯祥 ) and Sun Wu ( 孫武 ) established the Gongjinhui ( 共進會 ). In January 1911, the revolutionary group Zhengwu Xueshe (振武學社) was renamed as Wenxueshe (Literary Society) ( 文學社 ). Jiang Yiwu ( 蔣翊武 )
6600-501: The Zhennanguan Uprising (鎮南關起事) took place at Zhennanguan along the Chinese-Vietnamese border. Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang ( 黃明堂 ) to monitor the pass, which was guarded by a fort. With the assistance of supporters among the fort's defenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing and Hu Hanmin personally went to the tower to command the battle. The Qing government sent troops led by Long Jiguang and Lu Rongting to counterattack, and
6720-404: The additional Centre division) the Throne agreed and the Corps was formed the 5 Divisions being the Centre under Ronglu, the Front of Nie Shicheng trained by Germans then Russians and armed with Mauser rifles artillery and Maxim guns but poorly disciplined, the Left of Song Qing possessed similar arms to the Front division, the Rear of Dong Fuxiang poorly equipped and armed but potentially useful and
6840-479: The adoption of modern drill and they were to possess true discipline and modern weapons with traditional weapons to be discarded. The Emperor took the Empress Dowager Cixi to inspect new army units but this did not prevent the Coup against the Emperor. Cixi following the coup began improving her control over the military namely by maintaining the decentralised command of the military so as to deny any one official too much military power whilst simultaneously increasing
6960-458: The aims were not met and only the Centre and Right divisions actually conformed to the new organisation. Ronglu also obtained large amounts of funds some 400,000 taels from the Hubu for his force of 10,000 (on paper) simultaneously the Banner army at least 200,000 and potentially up to 350,000 strong had less than 5 million taels and many officers were transferred from across the empire to this army at Ronglu's request. The Qing government recognised
7080-463: The anti-Manchu Tongmenghui revolutionary alliance. The Black Dragon Society hosted the Tongmenghui in its first meeting. The Black Dragon Society had very intimate, long term and influential relations with Sun Yat-sen who sometimes passed himself off as Japanese. According to an American military historian, Japanese military officers were part of the Black Dragon Society. The Yakuza and Black Dragon Society helped arrange in Tokyo for Sun Yat-sen to hold
7200-516: The armament of his forces using the Hanyang Arsenal and arms imported from Germany. Gaddofre also reported that the modern units were proficient in drill and on the parade ground but in sustained exercises and manoeuvres the control over units broke down, artillery was underutilised generally and marksmanship was mediocre. Zhang began to transfer the modern officers from his bodyguard to the Provincial forces only for these officers to neglect their foreign principles and revert to their old ways, this spurred
7320-402: The army to disperse. Accordingly, this uprising also failed. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern participated in this uprising. A very short uprising occurred from 25 to 28 January 1903, to establish a "Great Ming Heavenly Kingdom" ( 大明順天國 ). This involved Tse Tsan-tai , Li Jitang ( 李紀堂 ), Liang Muguang ( 梁慕光 ) and Hong Quanfu ( 洪全福 ), who formerly took part in the Jintian uprising during
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#17327650307697440-417: The attached railway school. Yuan was appointed as commander of the brigade in December 1895 and immediately began reform of the unit. The infantry was divided into 2 regiments with 2-3 battalions each, the artillery into 2 regiments with 2-3 battalions each with a QF, heavy and reserve component, the cavalry into 4 troops and the engineers into 6 groups based on their tasks. The 7,000 man upper strength limit
7560-446: The beginning of China's early republican era . The Qing had struggled for a long time to reform the government and resist foreign aggression, but the program of reforms after 1900 was opposed by conservatives in the Qing court as too radical and by reformers as too slow. Several factions, including underground anti-Qing groups , revolutionaries in exile, reformers who wanted to save the monarchy by modernizing it, and activists across
7680-421: The brigade were 70,000 taels (840,000 taels annually). The Newly Created Army (or simply the New Army) that was 7,000 men strong then became the most formidable of the three army groups stationed near Beijing and proved effective against the Boxers in Shandong province. Yuan refused to obey the Imperial Court's orders to halt his suppression of the Boxers when the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China during
7800-520: The cities of Qinzhou and Lianzhou in Guangdong. The struggle continued for fourteen days but was forced to stop after the revolutionaries ran out of supplies. In April 1908, another uprising was launched in Yunnan , Hekou, called the Hekou Uprising ( 雲南河口起義 ). Huang Mingtang ( 黃明堂 ) led two hundred men from Vietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April. Other participating revolutionaries included Wang Heshun ( 王和順 ) and Guan Renfu ( 關仁甫 ). They were outnumbered and defeated by government troops, however, and
7920-427: The cost of the militia, Defense Army, Disciplined forces and new-style troops to cost over 20,000,000 taels the only accurate figures are that of expenditure on the arsenals at 3,385,000 taels the Green standard including the Disciplined forces (the modernised Green standard) were reportedly costing 10,000,000 taels annually and the Bannermen 4,000,000 taels and 1,000,000 piculs of rice (60,000,000 kg). The reason for
8040-402: The country debated how or whether to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The flash-point came on 10 October 1911, with the Wuchang Uprising , an armed rebellion among members of the New Army . Similar revolts then broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in all provinces of the country renounced the Qing dynasty. On 1 November 1911, the Qing court appointed Yuan Shikai (leader of
8160-578: The country. Sun Yat-sen was the leader of this unified group. Other revolutionaries who worked with the Tongmenghui include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin . When the Tongmenghui was established, more than 90% of the Tongmenghui members were between 17 and 26 years of age. Some of the work in the era includes manhua publications such as the Journal of Current Pictorial . In February 1906, Rizhihui ( 日知會 ) also had many revolutionaries, including Sun Wu ( 孫武 ), Zhang Nanxian ( 張難先 ), He Jiwei and Feng Mumin. A nucleus of attendees at this conference evolved into
8280-452: The disgracing of Li Hongzhang in the First Sino-Japanese war the Manchu Ronglu was made chief commander of the forces in Zhili and eventually Viceroy of Zhili in 1898 he was also minister of war for most of this period. During and following the Qing defeat(s) in the First Sino-Japanese war many officials advocated reform of the military. Hu Yufen a progressive official, advocated for a completely new army to be trained and raised with 50,000 in
8400-428: The empire but not universally and even this change was often just one in name and the new organisation was not followed. The previous reforms were deemed insufficient and in the face of the Russo-Japanese war the Throne acted much more decisively and formed the Commission for Army reorganisation disparaging the fact that whilst reform had been called for little of substance had been achieved and it became necessary for
8520-472: The finances of the state could not simultaneously support a large modern army and a very large unmodernised army. Cixi however did maintain the loyalty of the troops something the Guangxu Emperor failed to achieve as she generously gave the troops of Yuan Dong and Nie money for their support against the Guangxu emperor and his reformers. Ronglu, a Manchu, was given unprecedented military power being appointed simultaneously as Grand Councillor, Controller of
8640-504: The first Kuomintang meetings, and were hoping to flood China with opium and overthrow the Qing and deceive the Chinese into overthrowing the Qing to Japan's benefit. After the revolution was successful, the Japanese Black Dragons started infiltrating China and spreading opium. The Black Dragons pushed for the takeover of Manchuria by Japan in 1932. Sun Yat-sen was married to a Japanese woman, Kaoru Otsuki . The New Army
8760-436: The forces under her command and those under the control of the Manchus, she continued the adoption of western drill and the importation of weaponry but the necessary support services for a modern army remained neglected. Cixi continued and re-issued the edicts regarding the disbandment of old units however they continued to exist alongside the newer modern western-style units leading to a large cost which hindered further reform as
8880-577: The formation of military schools for Commissioned and Non-Commissioned officers. Liu Kunyi as Viceroy of Liangjiang controlled the vital lower Yangtze region and began to organise new military forces. Liu used the Defense Army (yong ying) to organise 2 standing Army units the remaining 40 battalions were to be re-organised as first-class reserves. However, Liu maintained the old-style organisation in his bodyguard his troops were ill-trained and ill-equipped and trained officers were not given admittance to
9000-510: The formation. Liu also organised military schools similar to Zhang Zhidong's but used Chinese graduates from these schools to train his men rather than directly by foreigners and all officers under the rank of Lt. Col were ordered to partake in lectures on military science. In other provinces modernisation was limited to the German goosestep and issuing men repeating rifles though men were organised into standing army and first-class reserves across
9120-433: The former Luying (Green Standard troops) and Braves (yong ying) they were re-designated as reserve troops in 1907. The reserve troops were to serve as a militarised police in peacetime and auxiliary troops to the line troops in times of war. Each province was not permitted to maintain more than 50 battalions of infantry or cavalry. An infantry battalion consisted of 301 men and a cavalry battalion of 189 men and 135 horses. Thus
9240-538: The governors-general of Hunan and Hubei. About twenty conspirators were arrested and executed. On 8 October 1900, Sun Yat-sen ordered the launch of the Huizhou Uprising ( 惠州起義 ). The revolutionary army was led by Zheng Shiliang and initially included 20,000 men, who fought for half a month. However, after Japanese prime minister Hirobumi Ito prohibited Sun Yat-sen from carrying out revolutionary activities on Taiwan, Zheng Shiliang had no choice but to order
9360-565: The idea of Hu Yufen. However, the Zongli Yamen retorted that disbanding such a large army would be extremely difficult and came out in favour of a more gradual program of reform with modernisation being extended to the existing forces. The Throne approved the creation of 2 German-style brigades but unlike previous reforms this was not a mere copy of drill and weapons but it followed German organisation patterns as well as German training and tactics in addition to drill and weaponry these were
9480-522: The imperial family. Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some supporters and participants of the 1911 Revolution were foreigners; among them, the Japanese were the most active group. Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. Miyazaki Touten was the closest Japanese supporter; others included Heiyama Shu and Ryōhei Uchida . Homer Lea , an American, who became Sun Yat-sen's closest foreign advisor in 1910, supported Sun Yat-sen's military ambitions. British soldier Rowland J. Mulkern also took part in
9600-411: The military exam which was agreed to be phased out by 1900, the 10,000 strong Peking Field Force left to languish since 1865 was to be given a refresher course in western-style training. However, when the experienced and more politically able Prince Gong (who avoided raising the ire of the conservatives) passed away the pace of reform accelerated even further. Weng Tonghe, the Emperor's former tutor and
9720-448: The need for officials to rely on corruption to support themselves. The proposal was rejected due to provincial opposition though they were not revolutionary as previous similar proposals were made by the Throne and officials themselves but not acted upon. The report called for the implementation of a western and Japanese style army system in China and to maintain a middle path between over and underspending respectively. The general purpose
9840-455: The new armies. The famine in 1906 and 1907 was also a major contributor to the revolution. Following the death of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, the throne was inherited by the two-year-old Xuantong Emperor , with Prince Chun as a regent. The Prince continued the reform path of Cixi, but conservative Manchu elements in the court opposed it, causing further support for revolutionaries. Many revolutionaries and groups wanted to overthrow
9960-544: The number "6348". In 1900, after the Boxer Rebellion started, Tang Caichang ( 唐才常 ) and Tan Sitong of the previous Foot Emancipation Society organized the Independence Army. The Independence Army Uprising ( 自立軍起義 ) was planned to occur on 23 August 1900. Their goal was to overthrow Empress Dowager Cixi to establish a constitutional monarchy under the Guangxu Emperor. Their plot was discovered by
10080-575: The number of modernised troops was made in the period from 1897 to the Boxer rebellion whilst the support for reform was almost universal even amongst the Tartar-Generals the actual extent of reform was minimal. The Tartar-General of Heilongjiang even praised the ability of his forces in fighting bandits and their lack of reform whilst simultaneously admitting they would be useless in true combat additionally, spears and bows were still commonplace and
10200-531: The number of the breakdown exceeding the total is due to the significant overlapping between units and therefore their numbers and their related cost with provinces often subsidising other provinces and the central government also subsidising them whilst some provinces provided and received subsidies, for example in 1894 Zhejiang provided not only for its own military but also that of the Manchu and Chinese in Beijing,
10320-567: The officer corps something not rectified until several years later with the abolition of the military examination. The pace of reform and its extent was diluted and slowed by the corruption, favourtism and general negligence in the bureaucracy and the throne often issued edicts and demanded the bureaucrats fire the old, incompetent and weak and report them to the Board of Punishment but the bureaucrats rarely did this instead shielding one another especially at higher levels this did not create an environment conducive for reform. Only minor increases in
10440-461: The ones organized by Sun and supported Japanese taking over Manchuria. The anti-Qing Tongmenghui was founded and based in exile in Japan where many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered. The Japanese had been trying to unite anti-Manchu groups made out of Han people to take down the Qing. The Japanese were the ones who helped Sun Yat-sen unite all anti-Qing, anti-Manchu revolutionary groups together, and there were Japanese like Tōten Miyazaki inside of
10560-598: The opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing army once again in Bazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of revolutionary forces increased to two hundred men at its height. The uprising, however, ultimately failed. On 6 July 1907, Xu Xilin of Guangfuhui led an uprising in Anqing , Anhui, which became known as the Anqing Uprising ( 安慶起義) . Xu Xilin at
10680-548: The rebellion and refused to obey orders to fight the alliance. The New Army was gradually expanded and upgraded in the following years. Yuan became increasingly disrespectful of the dynasty and only loyal to the party from which he benefited; his defection to Cixi against the Guangxu Emperor was a major blow to the Hundred Days' Reform . After 1900, Yuan's troops were the only militia that the Qing court could rely on amidst revolutionary uprisings throughout China. Following
10800-431: The revenue of the central government range from 87,979,000 taels to 92,285,000, with roughly half the amount (45 million taels) going to the military including all forms of expenditure naval and land. The local armies navies and fortresses were estimated to cost 27,00,000 taels with 10,000,000 for the Beiyang and Nanyang fleets with 8,000,000 for the forts and their guns . The Board of War and Board of Revenue jointly reported
10920-407: The revolution. Some foreigners, such as English explorer Arthur de Carle Sowerby , led expeditions to rescue foreign missionaries in 1911 and 1912. The far right-wing Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society supported Sun Yat-sen's activities against the Manchus, believing that overthrowing the Qing would help the Japanese take over the Manchu homeland and that Han Chinese would not oppose
11040-527: The revolutionaries were forced to retreat into the mountainous areas. After this uprising's failure, Sun was forced to move to Singapore due to anti-Sun sentiments within the revolutionary groups. He would not return to the mainland until after the Wuchang Uprising. On 27 March 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid, later known as the Qin-lian Uprising ( 欽廉上思起義 ), from a base in Vietnam and attacked
11160-494: The same edict the Throne called for new local militia and volunteer units to be raised and to replace the Green Standard; this was the same approach used 30 years earlier by Zeng Guofan and whilst it might have brought about a temporary boost to military power it would inevitably devolve back into corruption and stagnation as the Yong Ying had done. However, the throne did pass an edict on the recommendation of Hu Yufen to abolish
11280-426: The same year, Sun Yat-sen sent more revolutionaries to Huizhou to launch the "Huizhou Qinühu Uprising" ( 惠州七女湖起義 ). On 2 June, Deng Zhiyu ( 鄧子瑜 ) and Chen Chuan ( 陳純 ) gathered some followers, and together they seized Qing arms in the lake, 20 km (12 mi) from Huizhou. They killed several Qing soldiers and attacked Taiwei ( 泰尾 ) on 5 June. The Qing army fled in disorder, and the revolutionaries exploited
11400-414: The soldiers under their command from Yuan's own HQ under his personal supervision. Yuan like Zhang was one of the few Chinese officials who not only paid his troops well but actually paid them on time. The incompetence of the officers and the technical defincies of the military were routinely attacked by imperial censors and the Throne ordered the Board of War to deliberate on the matter of modernisation of
11520-404: The state treasury to enter a different occupation and not live solely on the state stipend given to them. The Throne also ordered the provinces to disband the useless soldiers and the provinces raised their opposition some counter-proposed the reduction of militia and Green standard troops or stated that they had reduced their military forces to the extent that any further downsizing would constitute
11640-535: The takeover. Toyama believed that the Japanese could easily take over Manchuria and that Sun Yat-sen and other anti-Qing revolutionaries would not resist and help the Japanese take over and enlarge the opium trade in China, while the Qing was trying to destroy the opium trade. The Japanese Black Dragons supported Sun Yat-sen and anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing collapsed. The far right-wing Japanese ultranationalist Gen'yōsha leader Tōyama Mitsuru supported anti-Manchu, anti-Qing revolutionary activities including
11760-456: The time was the police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. He led an uprising that aimed to assassinate the provincial governor of Anhui, En Ming ( 恩銘 ). They were defeated after four hours of fighting. Xu was captured, and En Ming's bodyguards cut out his heart and liver and ate them. His cousin Qiu Jin was executed a few days later. From August to September 1907,
11880-547: The title Chinese Revolution . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Revolution&oldid=1212003889 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages 1911 Revolution [REDACTED] Qing dynasty The 1911 Revolution , also known as
12000-430: The universal military service program ordering officials to encourage such organisations and to hire ex-bandits and criminals and give them a legitimate career in the military not conducive to an effective military but cheaper than fighting the bandits. Cixi re-instated the military exam on the path to abolishment by order of Guangxu adding a category on firearms in addition to archery and swordsmanship she did also turn down
12120-688: The uprising failed. On 19 November 1908, the Mapaoying Uprising ( 馬炮營起義 ) was launched by revolutionary group Yuewanghui ( 岳王會 ) member Xiong Chenggei ( 熊成基) in Anhui . Yuewanghui, at this time, was a subset of Tongmenghui . This uprising also failed. In February 1910, the Gengxu New Army Uprising ( 庚戌新軍起義 ), also known as the Guangzhou New Army Uprising ( 廣州新軍起義 ), took place. This involved
12240-701: The war, it then memorialised the Grand Council calling for reform whilst the Manchus of the Council supported the reform the Han members did not. In response to von Hanneken's proposal Sheng Xuanhuai proposed that due to the expenditure of the Green standard and the Yong YIng amounting to over 20mil taels each annually it would be better to disband these forces numbering some 800,000 and replace them with 300,000 western-style troops raised according to local conditions akin to
12360-485: The weakness of its domestic armaments industry and sought foreign imports to bridge the gap. In 1899 the Imperial Army ordered 460,000 Mauser rifles and 3,000,000 cartridges and by 1900 the Qing had imported some 207 machine guns, 71 fortress guns and 123 field guns with another 200 Krupp mountain guns being ordered. Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi jointly proposed the formation of an Imperial General Staff modelled on
12480-543: Was "Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise". The Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) was also founded in 1904, in Shanghai, by Cai Yuanpei . Other notable members include Zhang Binglin and Tao Chengzhang. Despite professing the anti-Qing cause, the Guangfuhui was highly critical of Sun Yat-sen. One of the most famous female revolutionaries was Qiu Jin , who fought for women's rights and
12600-581: Was "to expel the Tatar barbarians, to revive Zhonghua , to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people." ( 驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權 ). Many underground groups promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming" (反清復明) that had been around since the days of the Taiping Rebellion . Others, such as Zhang Binglin , spread calls to "slay the Manchus" ( 興漢滅胡 ) and the concept of "Anti-Manchuism" ( 排滿主義 ). Many groups supported
12720-590: Was a failure. Under pressure from the Qing government, the government of Hong Kong banned the two men from the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting the Chinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada, and Britain. In 1901, following the Huizhou Uprising, Yeung Ku-wan was assassinated by Qing agents in Hong Kong. After his death, his family protected his identity by not putting his name on his tomb, just
12840-433: Was abruptly canceled by a conservative coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi . The Emperor was put under house arrest in June 1898, where he remained until his death in 1908. Reformers Kang and Liang exiled themselves to avoid being executed. The Empress Dowager controlled policy until her death in 1908, with support from officials such as Yuan. Attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians in the Boxer Rebellion , encouraged by
12960-578: Was after 1 year of training regarded as not having been trained sufficiently to western standards. The command of this Pacification Army was turned over to Yuan Shikai by mid-December 1895, and within a few months was renamed the Newly Created Army ( 新 建 陸 軍 Xinjian Lujun ) and expanded to 7,000 men. (Yuan's Newly Created Army was later to become the Guards Army 's Right Division ( Wuwei Youjun ). ) The monthly expenses of
13080-632: Was also from Guangfuhui. Gelaohui (Elder Brother Society) was another group, with Zhu De , Wu Yuzhang , Liu Zhidan ( 劉志丹 ) and He Long . This revolutionary group would eventually develop a strong link with the later Communist Party . Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Huaxinghui and Guangfuhui in the summer of 1905, thereby establishing the unified Tongmenghui (United League) in August 1905 in Tokyo. While it started in Tokyo, it had loose organizations distributed across and outside
13200-527: Was chosen as the leader. These two organizations would play a big role in the Wuchang Uprising. Many young revolutionaries adopted the anarchist program . In Tokyo, Liu Shipei proposed to overthrow the Manchus and return to Chinese classical values. In Paris, well-connected young intellectuals, Li Shizhen, Wu Zhihui and Zhang Renjie , agreed with Sun's revolutionary program and joined the Tongmenghui, but argued that simply replacing one government with another would not be progress; fundamental cultural change,
13320-716: Was due to fiscal weakness he therefore proposed a uniform land tax at a low rate that would yield 400,000,000 taels to the Dynasty to be controlled by the Central Government. This money would firstly be used to form 4 armies of 50,000 each with each army supported by first and second class reserves. Then 3 modern squadrons of warships could be obtained and the establishment of 4 modern arsenals could be organised to produce equipment and 4 military schools to produce officers. The military would cost 90,000,000 taels and 160,000,000 taels would be spent on affording good pay to reduce
13440-545: Was enacted with the most fervour in Southeastern China particularly Guangxi and Guangdong where the strength of the reformers was the most apparent. However, the Throne still did not take the lead even in this reform program instead delegating the program to the Viceroys and Governors who had in the previous decades failed to deliver thus it was likely for this program to end in failure too. The Emperor also decreed
13560-411: Was formed in 1901 after the defeat of the Qing in the First Sino-Japanese War . They were launched by a decree from eight provinces. New Army troops were by far the best trained and equipped. Recruits were of a higher quality than the old army and received regular promotions. Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Sun Yat-sen and the revolutionaries infiltrated
13680-507: Was one of the 72. On the eve of battle, he wrote "A Letter to My Wife" ( 與妻訣別書 ), later to be considered a masterpiece in Chinese literature. The Literary Society ( 文學社 ) and the Progressive Association ( 共進會 ) were revolutionary organizations involved in the uprising that mainly began with a Railway Protection Movement protest. In the late summer, some Hubei New Army units were ordered to neighboring Sichuan to quell
13800-459: Was rapidly achieved by the unit. A German language school was established and 3 foreign officers instructed the cavalry, artillery and infantry, the upper organisation and staff components of the unit were also westernised as was the maintenance of telegraph communications and the introduction of night fighting something previously avoided by Chinese armies. To combat corruption Yuan instituted a new system where officers personally handed their funds to
13920-474: Was rumoured to have begun the training of 30,000 bannermen in 1901, but his death ended this before it even began. The Throne also ordered that the green standard and braves be reduced by 20-30% in within a year. Given the lack of reliable figures this would amount from 200,000-400,000 men being dismissed by the army, a large decrease equivalent to the entire standing armies of other countries. Given these troops were of little real military value, this represented
14040-411: Was standardisation and modernisation of all areas of the army from organisation and pay to training and equipment. The basic system of provincially managed armies that could be mobilised in wartime was maintained but with new formations and supported by a centralised logistical system, thus recruitment training and finances of the new troops were held by the provinces but the overall command was invested at
14160-424: Was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' Blue Sky with a White Sun flag. On 26 October 1895, Yeung Ku-wan and Sun Yat-sen led Zheng Shiliang and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing to capture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the Qing government. The government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed. The First Guangzhou Uprising
14280-487: Was the leader of the first Chinese Church of Christ. Overseas Chinese supported and actively participated in funding revolutionary activities, especially the Southeast Asian Chinese of British Malaya . Many of these groups were reorganized by Sun, who was referred to as the "father of the Chinese revolution". The Qing government established new schools and encouraged students to study abroad as part of
14400-428: Was to possess (excluding officers) 12,500 men a brigade 3,024 a regiment 1,512, battalions 504 men, companies 168 men and platoons 42 men. A cavalry regiment was to possess 864 men (including officers). An artillery regiment was to possess 3 battalions with 3 batteries each with each battery possessing 141 men (including officers) and 6 guns. This made a total of 54 guns and 1,269 men. An alternate table of organisation
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