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127-556: The Night Watch was completed in 1642 at the peak of the Dutch Golden Age . It depicts the eponymous company moving out, led by Captain Frans Banninck Cocq (dressed in black, with a red sash ) and his lieutenant, Willem van Ruytenburch (dressed in yellow, with a white sash). Behind them, the company's colors are carried by the ensign, Jan Visscher Cornelissen. Rembrandt incorporated the traditional emblem of

254-575: A convolutional layer, the image becomes abstracted to a feature map, also called an activation map, with shape: (number of inputs) × (feature map height) × (feature map width) × (feature map channels ). Convolutional layers convolve the input and pass its result to the next layer. This is similar to the response of a neuron in the visual cortex to a specific stimulus. Each convolutional neuron processes data only for its receptive field . Although fully connected feedforward neural networks can be used to learn features and classify data, this architecture

381-488: A convolutional neural network, the hidden layers include one or more layers that perform convolutions. Typically this includes a layer that performs a dot product of the convolution kernel with the layer's input matrix. This product is usually the Frobenius inner product , and its activation function is commonly ReLU . As the convolution kernel slides along the input matrix for the layer, the convolution operation generates

508-521: A cylinder. The rolled painting was stored for four years in a special safe that was built to protect many works of art in the caves of Maastricht, Netherlands. After the end of the war, the canvas was re-mounted, restored, and returned to the Rijksmuseum. On 11 December 2003, The Night Watch was moved to a temporary location, due to a major refurbishment of the Rijksmuseum. The painting was detached from its frame, wrapped in stain-free paper, put into

635-420: A feature map, which in turn contributes to the input of the next layer. This is followed by other layers such as pooling layers , fully connected layers, and normalization layers. Here it should be noted how close a convolutional neural network is to a matched filter . In a CNN, the input is a tensor with shape: (number of inputs) × (input height) × (input width) × (input channels ) After passing through

762-458: A given dataset rather than the biases of a poorly-populated set. Convolutional networks were inspired by biological processes in that the connectivity pattern between neurons resembles the organization of the animal visual cortex . Individual cortical neurons respond to stimuli only in a restricted region of the visual field known as the receptive field . The receptive fields of different neurons partially overlap such that they cover

889-412: A house with an ornamented façade that befitted their new status. In the countryside, many new castles and stately homes were built; but most of them have not survived. Early in the 17th century late Gothic elements still prevailed, combined with Renaissance motifs. After a few decades French classicism gained prominence: vertical elements were stressed, less ornamentation was used, and natural stone

1016-476: A major victory at the Synod of Dort (1618–19). The variety of sects may well have worked to make religious intolerance impractical. Renaissance Humanism , of which Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance. Tolerance towards Catholics was not so easy to uphold, as religion had played an important part in

1143-404: A means to greater economic power and prestige. Universities became career pathways to public office. Rich merchants and aristocrats sent their sons on a so-called Grand Tour through Europe. Often accompanied by a private tutor, preferably a scientist himself, these young people visited universities in several European countries. This intermixing of patricians and aristocrats was most prominent in

1270-492: A meeting-place for the well-to-do, who were proud to play a prominent part and paid well to see this preserved for posterity by means of a group portrait. The latter were associations at a city level that fostered literary activities, like poetry, drama and discussions, often through contests. Cities took pride in their associations and promoted them. In the Dutch Golden Age, the meals of the middle class consisted of

1397-689: A position previously occupied by the Portuguese and Spanish . The maps used by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba to attack Dutch cities were made by Dutch mapmakers. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was founded. It was one of the first-ever multinational corporations , financed by shares that established the Amsterdam Stock Exchange . The company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade, which it would keep for two centuries, and it became

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1524-617: A predominantly Catholic background, such as Utrecht and Gouda , did not enjoy the benefits of the Golden Age. As for the Protestant towns, unity of belief was also far from standard. At the beginning of the century bitter controversies between strict Calvinists and more permissive Protestants , known as Remonstrants , split the country. The Remonstrants denied predestination and championed freedom of conscience, while their more dogmatic adversaries (known as Contra-Remonstrants) gained

1651-405: A pyramidal structure as in the neocognitron, it performed a global optimization of the weights instead of a local one. TDNNs are convolutional networks that share weights along the temporal dimension. They allow speech signals to be processed time-invariantly. In 1990 Hampshire and Waibel introduced a variant that performs a two-dimensional convolution. Since these TDNNs operated on spectrograms,

1778-656: A relatively secluded life. Unlike other European artistic traditions, Dutch art rarely depicts elderly women as disgusting or grotesque creatures, but rather they are idolized as figures of piety and purity whom the younger generations of women can look up to. Calvinism was the state religion in the Dutch Republic, though this does not mean that unity existed. Although the Netherlands was a tolerant nation compared to neighboring states, wealth and social status belonged almost exclusively to Protestants. The cities with

1905-401: A restricted area of the previous layer called the neuron's receptive field . Typically the area is a square (e.g. 5 by 5 neurons). Whereas, in a fully connected layer, the receptive field is the entire previous layer . Thus, in each convolutional layer, each neuron takes input from a larger area in the input than previous layers. This is due to applying the convolution over and over, which takes

2032-423: A rich variety of dishes. During the 15th century haute cuisine began to emerge, largely limited to the aristocracy, but from the 17th century onward dishes of this kind became available to the wealthy citizens as well. The Dutch Empire enabled spices, sugar, and exotic fruits to be imported to the country. By the late 17th century, tea and coffee consumption were increasing and becoming part of everyday life. Tea

2159-564: A sexual encounter would result in the transmission of syphilis or other venereal diseases. Dutch women were also allowed to take communion alongside men, and widows were able to inherit property and maintain control over their finances and husband's wills. However, a woman's sphere of authority still primarily lay in household duties, though historical evidence exists showing certain cases of wives maintaining considerable control in family businesses. Manuals written by men instructing women and wives in various aspects of domestic duties proliferated,

2286-860: A short time, the Republic seemed very successful in Brazil . The Dutch had succeeded in taking the coast between the mouth of the Amazon and the São Francisco (a river south of Recife ) from the Portuguese. Under governor John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen (1637-1644), the lucrative sugar trade was largely in Dutch hands. Curaçao was conquered in 1634. By 1648, Aruba and Bonaire were also in Dutch hands. A promising colony in North America

2413-742: A token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years' War) became a gathering place for intellectuals. Jan Amos Comenius , the Czech educator and writer, was known for his theories of education , but also as a pioneer of Czech Protestantism during the 17th century. To escape the Counter-Reformation , he migrated to the Dutch Republic and is buried in Naarden , North Holland . Comenius accepted

2540-562: A wet nurse would prevent a bond from forming between mother and child. The Dutch believed that a mother's milk came from the blood originally in her womb and that feeding the infant such substances would also reap physiological and health related benefits. Seventeenth-century Dutch society dictated that children should first begin to learn religion at home. Therefore, along with their husbands, women used family meal times to discuss religious topics and to focus on prayer. Seventeenth-century Dutch culture maintained contradictory attitudes regarding

2667-605: A wooden frame which was put into two sleeves, driven on a cart to its new destination, hoisted, and brought into its new home through a special slit. While the refurbishment took place, The Night Watch could be viewed in its temporary location in the Philipsvleugel of the Rijksmuseum. When the refurbishment was finished in April 2013, the painting was returned to its original place in the Nachtwachtzaal ( Room of

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2794-518: Is a modified Neocognitron by keeping only the convolutional interconnections between the image feature layers and the last fully connected layer. The model was trained with back-propagation. The training algorithm was further improved in 1991 to improve its generalization ability. The model architecture was modified by removing the last fully connected layer and applied for medical image segmentation (1991) and automatic detection of breast cancer in mammograms (1994) . A different convolution-based design

2921-426: Is a spatial convolution applied independently over each channel of the input tensor, while the pointwise convolution is a standard convolution restricted to the use of 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} kernels. Convolutional networks may include local and/or global pooling layers along with traditional convolutional layers. Pooling layers reduce the dimensions of data by combining

3048-433: Is connected to all neurons in the next layer . The "full connectivity" of these networks makes them prone to overfitting data. Typical ways of regularization, or preventing overfitting, include: penalizing parameters during training (such as weight decay) or trimming connectivity (skipped connections, dropout, etc.) Robust datasets also increase the probability that CNNs will learn the generalized principles that characterize

3175-458: Is constrained by the availability of computing resources. It was superior than other commercial courtesy amount reading systems (as of 1995). The system was integrated in NCR 's check reading systems, and fielded in several American banks since June 1996, reading millions of checks per day. A shift-invariant neural network was proposed by Wei Zhang et al. for image character recognition in 1988. It

3302-421: Is generally impractical for larger inputs (e.g., high-resolution images), which would require massive numbers of neurons because each pixel is a relevant input feature. A fully connected layer for an image of size 100 × 100 has 10,000 weights for each neuron in the second layer. Convolution reduces the number of free parameters, allowing the network to be deeper. For example, using a 5 × 5 tiling region, each with

3429-757: Is the transpose of a convolutional layer. Specifically, a convolutional layer can be written as a multiplication with a matrix, and a deconvolutional layer is multiplication with the transpose of that matrix. An unpooling layer expands the layer. The max-unpooling layer is the simplest, as it simply copies each entry multiple times. For example, a 2-by-2 max-unpooling layer is [ x ] ↦ [ x x x x ] {\displaystyle [x]\mapsto {\begin{bmatrix}x&x\\x&x\end{bmatrix}}} . Deconvolution layers are used in image generators. By default, it creates periodic checkerboard artifact, which can be fixed by upscale-then-convolve. CNN are often compared to

3556-667: Is thought the painting was completed in a lean-to in Rembrandt's garden as it is too large to fit into his Amsterdam studio. The Night Watch first hung in the Groote Zaal (Great Hall) of Amsterdam's Kloveniersdoelen . This structure currently houses the Doelen Hotel. In 1715, the painting was moved to the Amsterdam Town Hall, for which it was trimmed on all four sides. This was done, presumably, to fit

3683-595: The Bay of Biscay and the Baltic . Seville and Lisbon and the Baltic ports were too far apart for direct trade between the two terminal points, enabling the Dutch to provide profitable intermediation, carrying salt, wine, cloth and later silver, spices, and colonial products eastward while bringing Baltic grains, fish, and naval stores to the west. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of

3810-588: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) for trade with Japan through its trading post on Dejima , an island in the bay of Nagasaki . From here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the shōgun . Until 1854, the Dutch were Japan's sole window to the Western world. The collection of scientific learning introduced from Europe became known in Japan as Rangaku or Dutch Learning. The Dutch were instrumental in transmitting to Japan some knowledge of

3937-666: The Eighty Years War , the two countries were diametrically opposed when the Republic captured a large colonial empire . This led to the Anglo-Dutch Wars . The prosperity gained from this was accompanied by horrors against the local population. For example, in 1621, Jan Pieterszoon Coen had almost all the inhabitants of the Banda Islands massacred, see Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands . For

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4064-512: The New World . Economists Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O'Rourke attribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Protestant work ethic based on Calvinism , which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to "the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe. The abundance of capital made it possible to maintain an impressive stock of wealth , embodied not only in

4191-602: The Rhine river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the Baltic lands and returned with grain for countries around the Mediterranean Sea . By the 1680s, an average of nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the Baltic Sea each year, to trade with markets of the fading Hanseatic League . The Dutch were able to gain control of much of the trade with the nascent English colonies in North America; and after

4318-522: The School of Delft , the Leiden fijnschilders , and Dutch classicism . Dutch architecture was taken to a new height in the Golden Age. Cities expanded greatly as the economy thrived. New town halls, weighhouses and storehouses were built. Merchants who had made their fortune ordered a new house along one of the many new canals that were dug out in and around many cities (for defense and transport purposes),

4445-730: The Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht ( Dutch : Unie van Utrecht ) started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years' War . Before the Low Countries could be completely reconquered, a war between England and Spain , the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585-1604 , broke out. English intervention forced Spanish troops to halt their advances and left them in control of

4572-477: The arquebusiers in the figure of the young girl who carries a dead chicken on her belt, referencing the clauweniers (arquebusiers) and a type of drinking horn used at group banquets. The painting was commissioned around 1639 by Captain Banninck Cocq and seventeen members of his Kloveniers ( civic militia guards ). Eighteen names appear on a shield, painted circa 1715, in the center-right background, as

4699-585: The signal-processing concept of a filter , and demonstrated it on a speech recognition task. They also pointed out that as a data-trainable system, convolution is essentially equivalent to correlation since reversal of the weights does not affect the final learned function ("For convenience, we denote * as correlation instead of convolution. Note that convolving a(t) with b(t) is equivalent to correlating a(-t) with b(t)."). Modern CNN implementations typically do correlation and call it convolution, for convenience, as they did here. The time delay neural network (TDNN)

4826-404: The 17th-century Dutch household revolved around the home and domestic tasks. In Dutch culture , the home was regarded as a safe-haven from the lack of Christian virtue and immorality of the outside world. Additionally, the home represented a microcosm of the Dutch Republic, in that the smooth running of an ideal household reflected the relative stability and prosperity of the government. The home

4953-589: The Dutch Republic, where he became a professor of history and philosophy at the Illustrious School of Rotterdam. He lived in Rotterdam until his death in 1706. As Bertrand Russell noted in his A History of Western Philosophy (1945), "He [Descartes] lived in Holland for twenty years (1629–49), except for a few brief visits to France and one to England, all on business. It is impossible to exaggerate

5080-403: The Dutch were arguably the most economically wealthy and scientifically advanced of all European nations, which put them in a privileged position to transfer Western knowledge to Japan. The Dutch also dominated trade between European countries. The Low Countries were favorably positioned at a crossing of east–west and north–south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through

5207-460: The Eighty Years' War of independence against Spain (with political and economic freedom being other important motives). Intolerant inclinations, however, could be overcome by money. Thus Catholics could buy the privilege of holding ceremonies in a conventicle (a house doubling inconspicuously as a church), but public offices were out of the question. Catholics tended to keep to themselves in their own section of each town, even though they were one of

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5334-495: The Night Watch ). In 2021, the painting was exhibited from June to September with the trimmed-off sections recreated using convolutional neural networks , an artificial intelligence (AI) algorithm, based on the copy by Lundens. The recreation corrected for perspective (Lundens must have been sitting on the left side of the painting when he made his copy), and used colors and brush-strokes as used by Rembrandt. The trimming of

5461-552: The Republic would not face the dire repercussions of a bad harvest and the starvation it accompanied, instead profiting when this happened in other states (bad harvests were commonplace in France and England in the 17th century, which also contributed to the Republic's success in that time). According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O'Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic, contributing to its wealth. They write, "The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between

5588-436: The average value. Fully connected layers connect every neuron in one layer to every neuron in another layer. It is the same as a traditional multilayer perceptron neural network (MLP). The flattened matrix goes through a fully connected layer to classify the images. In neural networks, each neuron receives input from some number of locations in the previous layer. In a convolutional layer, each neuron receives input from only

5715-541: The banquet hall of the newly built Kloveniersdoelen (Musketeers' Meeting Hall) in Amsterdam. Some have suggested that the occasion for Rembrandt's commission and the series of other commissions given to other artists was the visit of the French queen, Marie de' Medici , in 1638. Even though she was escaping from her exile from France ordered by her son Louis XIII , the queen's arrival was met with great pageantry. It

5842-462: The cities. The invention of the wind powered sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading and for military defense of the republic's economic interests. In the 17th century the Dutch – traditionally able seafarers and keen mapmakers – began to trade with the Far East , and as the century wore on, they gained an increasingly dominant position in world trade,

5969-496: The coefficients had to be laboriously hand-designed. Following the advances in the training of 1-D CNNs by Waibel et al. (1987), Yann LeCun et al. (1989) used back-propagation to learn the convolution kernel coefficients directly from images of hand-written numbers. Learning was thus fully automatic, performed better than manual coefficient design, and was suited to a broader range of image recognition problems and image types. Wei Zhang et al. (1988) used back-propagation to train

6096-467: The colonization of the Americas would have looked very different. Asian slaves were also traded extensively. The slave was indispensable in the economy of the Dutch colonial empire in the Golden Age as a labor force; in the second half of the seventeenth century, half of the inhabitants of Batavia were unfree. Amsterdam's dominant position as a trade center was strengthened in 1640 with a monopoly for

6223-412: The concept of max pooling, a fixed filtering operation that calculates and propagates the maximum value of a given region. They did so by combining TDNNs with max pooling to realize a speaker-independent isolated word recognition system. In their system they used several TDNNs per word, one for each syllable . The results of each TDNN over the input signal were combined using max pooling and the outputs of

6350-470: The convolution kernels of a CNN for alphabets recognition. The model was called shift-invariant pattern recognition neural network before the name CNN was coined later in the early 1990s. Wei Zhang et al. also applied the same CNN without the last fully connected layer for medical image object segmentation (1991) and breast cancer detection in mammograms (1994). This approach became a foundation of modern computer vision . In 1990 Yamaguchi et al. introduced

6477-523: The cortex to form a complete map of visual space. The cortex in each hemisphere represents the contralateral visual field . Their 1968 paper identified two basic visual cell types in the brain: Hubel and Wiesel also proposed a cascading model of these two types of cells for use in pattern recognition tasks. Inspired by Hubel and Wiesel's work, in 1969, Kunihiko Fukushima published a deep CNN that uses ReLU activation function . Unlike most modern networks, this network used hand-designed kernels. It

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6604-434: The de-facto standard in deep learning -based approaches to computer vision and image processing, and have only recently have been replaced -- in some cases -- by newer deep learning architectures such as the transformer . Vanishing gradients and exploding gradients, seen during backpropagation in earlier neural networks, are prevented by using regularized weights over fewer connections. For example, for each neuron in

6731-526: The decades to train the weights of a neocognitron. Today, however, the CNN architecture is usually trained through backpropagation . The term "convolution" first appears in neural networks in a paper by Toshiteru Homma, Les Atlas, and Robert Marks II at the first Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems in 1987. Their paper replaced multiplication with convolution in time, inherently providing shift invariance, motivated by and connecting more directly to

6858-508: The elderly, in particular, elderly women. Some Dutch writers idealized old age as a poetic transition from life to death. Others regarded aging as an illness in which one is gradually deteriorating until they reach their final destination, while some lauded the elderly as wise and people who deserve the highest forms of respect. However, treatises on behaviour for elderly women and widows stressed not necessarily their inherent wisdom, but that they should maintain piety, practice moderation, and live

6985-475: The end of the war with Spain in 1648, Dutch trade with that country also flourished. National industries expanded as well. Shipyards and sugar refineries are prime examples. As more and more land was utilized, partially through transforming lakes into polders such as the Beemster , Schermer and Purmer , local grain production and dairy farming soared. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, social status

7112-502: The entire visual field. CNNs use relatively little pre-processing compared to other image classification algorithms . This means that the network learns to optimize the filters (or kernels) through automated learning, whereas in traditional algorithms these filters are hand-engineered . This independence from prior knowledge and human intervention in feature extraction is a major advantage. A convolutional neural network consists of an input layer, hidden layers and an output layer. In

7239-619: The family Trip. Napoleon ordered it returned, but after the occupation ended in 1813, the painting again moved to the Trippenhuis , which now housed the Dutch Academy of Sciences . It remained there until it moved to the new Rijksmuseum when its building was finished in 1885. The painting was removed from the Rijksmuseum in September 1939, at the onset of World War II . The canvas was detached from its frame and rolled around

7366-411: The fine nuances of the painting's complex color palette. The new illumination uses LED lights with a color temperature of 3,200  kelvin , similar to warm-white light sources such as tungsten halogen . It has a color rendering index of over 90, which makes it suitable for the illumination of artifacts such as The Night Watch . Using the new LED lighting, the museum saves 80% on energy and offers

7493-543: The foremost maritime and economic powers of the world during the era has been referred to as the "Dutch Miracle" by historian K. W. Swart . The term "Dutch Golden Age" has been controversial in the 21st century due to the extensive Dutch involvement in slavery and colonialism during the period, and it has been deprecated by several museums in the Netherlands , including the Amsterdam Museum . In 1568,

7620-458: The full original; the augmentations are a scientific, rather than an artist's, interpretation. For much of its existence, the painting was coated with a dark varnish, which gave the incorrect impression that it depicted a night scene, leading to the name by which it is now commonly known. On 13 January 1911, a jobless shoemaker and former Navy chef attempted to slash the painting with a shoemaker's knife protesting his inability to find work. However,

7747-478: The fully-connected layer, 10,000 weights would be required for processing an image sized 100 × 100 pixels. However, applying cascaded convolution (or cross-correlation) kernels, only 25 neurons are required to process 5x5-sized tiles. Higher-layer features are extracted from wider context windows, compared to lower-layer features. Some applications of CNNs include: CNNs are also known as shift invariant or space invariant artificial neural networks , based on

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7874-471: The great number of " scenes of everyday life " or genre paintings, and other secular subjects. Landscapes and seascapes, for example, reflect the land reclaimed from the sea and the sources of trade and naval power that mark the Republic's Golden Age. One subject that is quite characteristic of Dutch Baroque painting is the large group portrait, especially of civic and militia guilds , such as Rembrandt van Rijn 's Night Watch . A special genre of still life

8001-408: The hired drummer was added to the painting for free. A total of 34 characters appear in the painting. Rembrandt was paid 1,600 guilders for the painting (each person paid one hundred), a large sum at the time. This was one of a series of seven similar paintings of the militiamen ( Dutch : Schuttersstuk ) commissioned during that time from various artists. The painting was commissioned to hang in

8128-546: The hostilities. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Eighty Years' War between the Dutch Republic and Spain, and the Thirty Years' War between other European superpowers, brought the Dutch Republic formal recognition and independence from the Spanish crown. Protestants were especially well-represented among the skilled craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp. Under

8255-444: The immigration of many French Huguenots , many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. However, some figures, such as the philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), experienced social stigma. Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance, the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. In particular, the renowned University of Leiden (established in 1575 by the Dutch stadtholder Willem van Oranje as

8382-576: The importance of Holland in the 17th century, as the one country where there was freedom of speculation. Hobbes had to have his books printed there; Locke took refuge there during the five worst years of reaction in England before 1688; Bayle (of the Dictionary ) found it necessary to live there; and Spinoza would hardly have been allowed to do his work in any other country." Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international law of

8509-553: The important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent , but without control of Antwerp , which was then arguably the most important port in the world. Antwerp fell on 17 August 1585, after a siege, and the division between the Northern and Southern Netherlands (the latter mostly modern Belgium ) was established. The United Provinces (roughly today's Netherlands ) fought on until the Twelve Years' Truce , which did not end

8636-405: The industrial and scientific revolution then occurring in Europe. The Japanese purchased and translated numerous scientific books from the Dutch, obtained from them Western curiosities and manufactures (such as clocks) and received demonstrations of various Western innovations (such as electric phenomena, and the flight of a hot air balloon in the early 19th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries,

8763-459: The invitation of Laurens de Geer to visit Amsterdam, where he lived the last 14 years of his life (1656–1670). He published his most important works there: 43 volumes in all, about half of his total output. French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) lived in Holland from 1628 until 1649. He also had his most important works published in Amsterdam and Leiden. Another French-born philosopher, Pierre Bayle , left France in 1681 for

8890-410: The large fleet but in the plentiful stocks of an array of commodities that were used to stabilize prices and take advantage of profit opportunities." Several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of cheap energy from windmills and from peat , easily transported by canal to

9017-593: The largely Calvinistic population. The major force behind new developments was the citizenry, notably in the western provinces: first and foremost in Holland, to a lesser extent Zeeland and Utrecht . Where rich aristocrats often became patrons of art in other countries, because of their comparative absence in the Netherlands this role was played by wealthy merchants and other patricians. Centres of cultural activity were town militia (Dutch: schutterij ) and chambers of rhetoric ( rederijkerskamer ). The former were created for town defence and policing, but also served as

9144-459: The largest commercial enterprise of the 17th-century world. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits due to the efforts and risks involved and to demand. This is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur , (as expensive as pepper) meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the growing trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam

9271-534: The largest single denominations: for example, the Catholic painter Johannes Vermeer lived in the "Papist corner" of the town of Delft . The same applied to Anabaptists and Jews . Overall, the country was tolerant enough to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from Portugal who brought much wealth with them. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France in 1685 resulted in

9398-410: The most popular being Jacob Cats' Houwelyck . As evidenced by numerous 17th-century Dutch genre paintings, the most important domestic tasks performed by women included supervising maids, cooking, cleaning, needlework, and spinning. As seen in art and literature at the time, unmarried young women were valued for maintaining their modesty and diligence as this time in a woman's life was regarded to be

9525-481: The most precarious. From a young age, burgher women were taught various household-related duties by their mothers, including reading, so as to prepare them for their lives as housewives. Dutch art at this time shows the idealized situation in which an unmarried young girl ought to conduct herself in situations such as courtship, which commonly included themes relating to gardens or nature, music lessons or parties, needlework, and receiving love letters. However, ideals of

9652-422: The outputs of neuron clusters at one layer into a single neuron in the next layer. Local pooling combines small clusters, tiling sizes such as 2 × 2 are commonly used. Global pooling acts on all the neurons of the feature map. There are two common types of pooling in popular use: max and average. Max pooling uses the maximum value of each local cluster of neurons in the feature map, while average pooling takes

9779-427: The painting a safer environment because of the absence of UV radiation and heat. On 13 May 2020, the Rijksmuseum published a 44.8 gigapixel image of The Night Watch made from 528 different still photographs. "The 24 rows of 22 pictures were stitched together digitally with the aid of neural networks", the museum said. It was primarily created for scientists to view the painting remotely, and to track how ageing affects

9906-444: The painting between two columns and was a common practice before the 19th century. This alteration resulted in the loss of two characters on the left side of the painting, the top of the arch, the balustrade, and the edge of the step. The missing portions have not been found; Taco Dibbits, director of the Rijksmuseum, has some hope that possibly at least the left-hand side might not have been destroyed as it contained three figures, and at

10033-509: The painting put the lieutenants in the center, but the original placed them off-center, marching towards an empty space now reinstated, creating a dynamic of the troops marching towards the left of the painting. The cutdown painting by Rembrandt with the AI recreation of the missing portions attached was placed on exhibition for three months. The augmented painting will not be on permanent display so as not to "trick" viewers into thinking they were seeing

10160-522: The painting. The photograph can be viewed online and zoomed into to see fine detail. Dutch Golden Age The Dutch Golden Age ( Dutch : Gouden Eeuw [ˈɣʌudən ˈeːu, ˈɣʌudə ˈʔeːu] ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands which roughly lasted from 1588, when the Dutch Republic was established, to 1672, when the Rampjaar occurred. During this period, Dutch trade , scientific developments , art and overseas colonisation

10287-492: The period of their ascendancy." Outside of Europe, the Republic also prospered. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC) not only obtained a monopoly on the spice trade , their ships also controlled the world's seas. This was very much against the wishes of England, which was envious of the economic success of the Republic. Although they had both fought the Spanish during

10414-413: The pooling layers were then passed on to networks performing the actual word classification. LeNet-5, a pioneering 7-level convolutional network by LeCun et al. in 1995, classifies hand-written numbers on checks ( British English : cheques ) digitized in 32x32 pixel images. The ability to process higher-resolution images requires larger and more layers of convolutional neural networks, so this technique

10541-401: The powerful Dutch States Navy . The Dutch also dominated the triangular trade and Atlantic slave trade during this period. Dutch culture experienced a renaissance during this period as well. However, by the end of the 17th century, conflicts with neighbouring powers as well as declining economic influence led to the end of this period. The process by which the Dutch Republic became one of

10668-407: The prevailing public opinion concerning marriage. He and other cultural authorities were influenced by Calvinist ideals that stressed an equality between husband and wife, considered companionship a primary reason for marriage, and regarded procreation as a mere consequence of that companionship. However, non-egalitarian ideas still existed regarding women as the weaker sex, and the image of the turtle

10795-409: The previous layer. The function that is applied to the input values is determined by a vector of weights and a bias (typically real numbers). Learning consists of iteratively adjusting these biases and weights. The vectors of weights and biases are called filters and represent particular features of the input (e.g., a particular shape). A distinguishing feature of CNNs is that many neurons can share

10922-404: The receptive field size without increasing the number of parameters by interleaving visible and blind regions. Moreover, a single dilated convolutional layer can comprise filters with multiple dilation ratios, thus having a variable receptive field size. Each neuron in a neural network computes an output value by applying a specific function to the input values received from the receptive field in

11049-430: The resulting phoneme recognition system was invariant to both time and frequency shifts, as with images processed by a neocognitron. TDNNs improved the performance of far-distance speech recognition. Denker et al. (1989) designed a 2-D CNN system to recognize hand-written ZIP Code numbers. However, the lack of an efficient training method to determine the kernel coefficients of the involved convolutions meant that all

11176-407: The same filter. This reduces the memory footprint because a single bias and a single vector of weights are used across all receptive fields that share that filter, as opposed to each receptive field having its own bias and vector weighting. A deconvolutional neural network is essentially the reverse of a CNN. It consists of deconvolutional layers and unpooling layers. A deconvolutional layer

11303-444: The same shared weights, requires only 25 neurons. Using regularized weights over fewer parameters avoids the vanishing gradients and exploding gradients problems seen during backpropagation in earlier neural networks. To speed processing, standard convolutional layers can be replaced by depthwise separable convolutional layers, which are based on a depthwise convolution followed by a pointwise convolution. The depthwise convolution

11430-444: The sea and commercial law . Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) played a leading part in the foundation of international law . He invented the concept of the "Free seas" or Mare liberum , which was fiercely contested by England, the Netherlands' main rival for domination of world trade. He also formulated laws on conflicts between nations in his book De lure Belli ac pacis ("On the law of war and peace"). Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)

11557-463: The sea. Leeghwater added a considerable amount of land to the republic by converting several large lakes into polders , pumping the water out with windmills. Cultural development in the Low Countries stood out from neighboring countries. With some exceptions (notably Dutch playwright Joost van den Vondel ) the Baroque movement did not gain much influence. Its exuberance did not fit the austerity of

11684-421: The second half of the century. After aristocrats and patricians came the affluent middle class, consisting of Protestant ministers, lawyers, physicians, small merchants, industrialists and clerks of large state institutions. Lower status was attributed to farmers, craft and tradesmen, shopkeepers, and government bureaucrats. Below that stood skilled laborers, maids, servants, sailors, and other persons employed in

11811-455: The service industry. At the bottom of the pyramid were "paupers": impoverished peasants, many of whom tried their luck in a city as a beggar or day laborer. Workers and laborers were generally paid better than in most of Europe, and enjoyed relatively high living standards, although they also paid higher than normal taxes. Farmers prospered from mainly cash crops needed to support the urban and seafaring population. The central role of women in

11938-433: The shared-weight architecture of the convolution kernels or filters that slide along input features and provide translation- equivariant responses known as feature maps. Counter-intuitively, most convolutional neural networks are not invariant to translation , due to the downsampling operation they apply to the input. Feed-forward neural networks are usually fully connected networks, that is, each neuron in one layer

12065-404: The tendencies that dominated Baroque art in other parts of Europe, such as Caravaggism and naturalism , but was the leader in developing the subjects of still life , landscape , and genre painting . Portraiture was also popular, but history painting – traditionally the most-elevated genre – struggled to find buyers. Church art was virtually non-existent, and little sculpture of any kind

12192-519: The terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population (if unwilling to reconvert) were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city and Habsburg territory. Similar arrangements were made in other places. More Protestants moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the other direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam , transforming what

12319-488: The thick coating of varnish protected the painting from any damage at that time. The varnish was removed only in the 1940s. On 14 September 1975, the work was attacked with a bread knife by an unemployed school teacher, Wilhelmus de Rijk, resulting in several large zig-zagged slashes up to 30 cm long. De Rijk, who suffered from mental illness , claimed he "did it for the Lord" and that he "was ordered to do it". The painting

12446-738: The time the painting was trimmed Rembrandt paintings were already expensive. A 17th-century copy of the painting by Gerrit Lundens (1622–1683), on loan from the National Gallery, London , to the Rijkmuseum, shows the original composition. When Napoleon occupied the Netherlands, the Town Hall became the Palace on the Dam and the magistrates moved the painting to the Trippenhuis of

12573-455: The two basic types of layers: In a variant of the neocognitron called the cresceptron , instead of using Fukushima's spatial averaging with inhibition and saturation, J. Weng et al. in 1993 introduced a method called max-pooling where a downsampling unit computes the maximum of the activations of the units in its patch. Max-pooling is often used in modern CNNs. Several supervised and unsupervised learning algorithms have been proposed over

12700-438: The value of a pixel into account, as well as its surrounding pixels. When using dilated layers, the number of pixels in the receptive field remains constant, but the field is more sparsely populated as its dimensions grow when combining the effect of several layers. To manipulate the receptive field size as desired, there are some alternatives to the standard convolutional layer. For example, atrous or dilated convolution expands

12827-487: The varnish layer of the painting, and it was fully restored. In July 2019, a long and complex restoration effort began. The restoration took place in public, in a specially made glass enclosure built and placed in the Rijksmuseum and was livestreamed . The plan was to move the 337 kg painting into the enclosure starting when the museum closed for the day on 9 July, then to map the painting "layer by layer and pigment by pigment", and plan conservation work according to what

12954-528: The way the brain achieves vision processing in living organisms . Work by Hubel and Wiesel in the 1950s and 1960s showed that cat visual cortices contain neurons that individually respond to small regions of the visual field . Provided the eyes are not moving, the region of visual space within which visual stimuli affect the firing of a single neuron is known as its receptive field . Neighboring cells have similar and overlapping receptive fields. Receptive field size and location varies systematically across

13081-467: The wife in the domestic and private), women in 17th-century Dutch society still enjoyed a wide range of freedoms within their own sphere of control. Unmarried young women were known to enjoy various freedoms with their lovers and suitors, while married women enjoyed the right to publicly shame their husbands who patronized brothels. Moreover, married women could legally reject the sexual desires of their husbands if there were proof or reason to believe that

13208-439: The young women espoused by genre painting and Petrarchian poetry did not reflect the reality. Accounts from travellers described the various freedoms young women were provided in the realm of courtship. The prevalence of Calvinist sermons regarding the consequences of leaving young women unsupervised also spoke to a general trend of a lack of parental oversight in the matters of young love. Dutch writers, such as Jacob Cats , held

13335-543: Was New Amsterdam (in present-day New York City). The role that the Netherlands was able to play in the transatlantic slave trade was the result of a series of conquests against the Portuguese. Trade routes of African slaves in the seventeenth century ran largely through Elmina in Ghana to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands . Elmina was conquered in 1637, Axim in 1642. In 1641, led by Cornelis Jol , Angola

13462-593: Was 20 times faster than an equivalent implementation on CPU . In 2005, another paper also emphasised the value of GPGPU for machine learning . The first GPU-implementation of a CNN was described in 2006 by K. Chellapilla et al. Their implementation was 4 times faster than an equivalent implementation on CPU. In the same period, GPUs were also used for unsupervised training of deep belief networks . In 2010, Dan Ciresan et al. at IDSIA trained deep feedforward networks on GPUs. In 2011, they extended this to CNNs, accelerating by 60 compared to training CPU. In 2011,

13589-430: Was a famous astronomer , physicist and mathematician . He invented the pendulum clock , which was a major step forward towards exact timekeeping. Among his contributions to astronomy was his explanation of Saturn's planetary rings . He also contributed to the field of optics . The most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics is Antonie van Leeuwenhoek , who was the first to methodically study microscopic life—he

13716-482: Was a small harbor into one of the most important ports and commercial centres in the world by 1630. In addition to the mass migration of Protestant natives from the southern Netherlands to the northern Netherlands, there were also influxes of non-native refugees who had previously fled from religious persecution, particularly Sephardi Jews from Portugal and Spain , and later Protestants from France . The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to

13843-446: Was also conquered. It is estimated that more than 550,000 people were brought to America in slavery by Dutch ships. Conditions during these voyages were miserable, and it was commonplace for large numbers of enslaved people to die before they reached their destination. In addition to the personal hardships of enslaved people, the trade also massively disrupted African societies. Estimates of the direct profitability vary, but without slavery

13970-636: Was among the most prominent in Europe. The first half of the period spanned from the beginning of the Eighty Years' War until its conclusion in 1648, with the second half lasting until the outbreak of the Franco-Dutch War . During the period, Dutch colonialists, many of them affiliated with the East India Company and West India Company , established trading posts and colonies in the Americas , Southern Africa and Asia , protected by

14097-402: Was an integral part of public life in Dutch society. Public passers-by could clearly view the entrance halls of Dutch homes decorated to show off a particular family's wealth and social standing. The home was also a place for neighbors, friends, and extended family to interact, further cementing its importance in the social lives of 17th-century Dutch burghers. The physical space of the Dutch home

14224-422: Was commonly used to express the separate spheres and strengths of both genders. In addition to supervising maids, cooking, cleaning, and prating needlework, women were also encouraged to maintain some financial control over domestic affairs, such as going to market and buying their own food. Maternity and motherhood were highly valued in Dutch culture. Mothers were encouraged to breastfeed their children, as using

14351-471: Was constructed along gender lines. In the front of the house, the men had control over a small space where they could do their work or conduct business, known as the Voorhuis, while women controlled most every other space in the house, such as the kitchens and private family rooms. Although there was a clear separation in spheres of power between husband and wife (the husband had authority in the public realm,

14478-615: Was divided, although exercising social control in many areas to an even greater extent than under the Catholic Church. That is not to say that aristocrats were without social status. On the contrary, wealthy merchants bought themselves into the nobility by becoming landowners and acquiring a coat of arms and a seal. Aristocrats also mixed with other classes for financial reasons: they married their daughters to wealthy merchants, became traders themselves or took up public or military office. Merchants also started to value public office as

14605-786: Was established in 1609, the precursor to, if not the first true central bank . Although the trade with the Far East was the more famous of the VOC's exploits, the main source of wealth for the Republic was, in fact, its trade with the Baltic states and Poland (then the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ). Called the "Mothertrade" ( Dutch : Moedernegotie ), the Dutch imported enormous amounts of bulk resources like grain and wood, stockpiling them in Amsterdam so Holland would never lack for basic goods, as well as being able to sell them on for profit. This meant that, unlike their main rivals,

14732-407: Was found. Taco Dibbits , the Rijksmuseum's general director, said that despite working there for 17 years, he had never seen the top of the painting; "We know so little on how [Rembrandt] worked on making The Night Watch ." On 26 October 2011, the Rijksmuseum unveiled new, sustainable LED lighting for The Night Watch . With new technology, it is the first time LED lighting has been able to render

14859-408: Was introduced in 1987 by Alex Waibel et al. for phoneme recognition and was one of the first convolutional networks, as it achieved shift-invariance. A TDNN is a 1-D convolutional neural net where the convolution is performed along the time axis of the data. It is the first CNN utilizing weight sharing in combination with a training by gradient descent, using backpropagation . Thus, while also using

14986-415: Was largely determined by income. The landed nobility had relatively little importance, since they mostly lived in the more underdeveloped inland provinces, and it was the urban merchant class that dominated Dutch society. The clergy did not have much worldly influence either: the Catholic Church had been more or less suppressed since the onset of the Eighty Years' War with Spain. The new Protestant movement

15113-441: Was not used in his neocognitron, since all the weights were nonnegative; lateral inhibition was used instead. The rectifier has become the most popular activation function for CNNs and deep neural networks in general. The " neocognitron " was introduced by Kunihiko Fukushima in 1979. The kernels were trained by unsupervised learning . It was inspired by the above-mentioned work of Hubel and Wiesel. The neocognitron introduced

15240-665: Was preferred above bricks. In the last decades of the century this trend towards sobriety intensified. From around 1670 the most prominent feature of a house front was its entrance, with pillars on each side and possibly a balcony above it, but no further decoration. Convolutional neural network A convolutional neural network ( CNN ) is a regularized type of feed-forward neural network that learns features by itself via filter (or kernel) optimization. This type of deep learning network has been applied to process and make predictions from many different types of data including text, images and audio. Convolution-based networks are

15367-466: Was produced. While art collecting and painting for the open market was also common elsewhere, art historians point to the growing number of wealthy Dutch middle-class and successful mercantile patrons as driving forces in the popularity of certain pictorial subjects. This trend, along with the lack of Counter-Reformation church patronage that dominated the arts in Catholic Europe, resulted in

15494-484: Was proposed in 1988 for application to decomposition of one-dimensional electromyography convolved signals via de-convolution. This design was modified in 1989 to other de-convolution-based designs. Although CNNs were invented in the 1980s, their breakthrough in the 2000s required fast implementations on graphics processing units (GPUs). In 2004, it was shown by K. S. Oh and K. Jung that standard neural networks can be greatly accelerated on GPUs. Their implementation

15621-445: Was served with sweets, candy or marzipan and cookies. A rich Dutch mealtime of the time contained many extravagant dishes and drinks. The elite wore black clothes as a status symbol. This status originated from the difficulty of the dyeing process and the cost of elaborate embellishments, and is contrary to the popular belief that it was done exclusively out of Puritan self-restraint. Dutch Golden Age painting followed many of

15748-466: Was soon adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic . Today, the best-known painters of the Dutch Golden Age are the period's most dominant figure Rembrandt , the Delft master of genre Johannes Vermeer , the innovative landscape painter Jacob van Ruisdael , and Frans Hals , who infused new life into portraiture. Some notable artistic styles and trends include Haarlem Mannerism , Utrecht Caravaggism ,

15875-413: Was successfully restored after four years, but some evidence of the damage is still visible up close. De Rijk died by suicide in April 1976, before he could have been charged. On 6 April 1990, an escaped psychiatric patient sprayed acid onto the painting with a concealed pump bottle. Security guards intervened, stopping the man and quickly spraying water onto the canvas. Ultimately, the acid only penetrated

16002-415: Was the first person to describe bacteria—thus laying the foundations for the field of microbiology . The "microscopes" were simple magnifiers, not compound microscopes. His skill in grinding lenses (some as small as 1mm in diameter) resulted in a magnification as high as 245x. Famous Dutch hydraulic engineer Jan Leeghwater (1575–1650) gained important victories in the Netherlands' eternal battle against

16129-518: Was the so-called pronkstilleven (Dutch for 'ostentatious still life'). This style of ornate still-life painting was developed in the 1640s in Antwerp by Flemish artists such as Frans Snyders , Osias Beert , Adriaen van Utrecht and a whole generation of Dutch Golden Age painters. They painted still lifes that emphasized abundance by depicting a diversity of objects, fruits, flowers and dead game, often together with living people and animals. The style

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