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120-654: He is not to be confused with his contemporary Saint Cajetan , the founder of the Theatines . He was born in Gaeta , then part of the Kingdom of Naples , as Jacopo Vio . The name Tommaso was taken as his religious as a friar, while the surname Cajetan derives from his native city. At the age of fifteen, he entered the Dominican order and devoted himself to the study of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas , becoming before

240-467: A common ancestor, King Edward I of England . During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine's lady-in-waiting . There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry but this has never been proven. King Henry never acknowledged them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy. In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine's inability to produce

360-526: A confraternity in Rome called the " Oratory of Divine Love ". He intended to form a group that would combine the spirit of monasticism with the exercises of the active ministry. A new congregation was canonically erected by Pope Clement VII in the year 1524. One of his four companions was Giovanni Pietro Carafa, the Bishop of Chieti , elected first superior of the order, who later became pope as Paul IV . From

480-621: A consequence, the King was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. In 1540, Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints. In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords . Consequently, the Lords Spiritual  – as members of

600-569: A court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry's favour. This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope. After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge. With

720-629: A diplomatic coup by convincing Emperor Maximilian to join the Holy League. Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of " Most Christian King of France" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated. On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which

840-503: A fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour , being moved into new quarters, and Anne's brother, George Boleyn , being refused the Order of the Garter , which was instead given to Nicholas Carew . Between 30 April and 2 May, five men, including George Boleyn, were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with

960-405: A formal trial using bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration. Henry was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of

1080-485: A lay regime, complete with limits on the ruler. For his support of papal rights, Cajetan was made Bishop of Gaeta , and in 1517 would be made a cardinal and archbishop of Palermo by Pope Leo X . In 1517, Leo X made him cardinal presbyter of San Sisto in Rome for his services. In the following year, he became Archbishop of Palermo . He resigned Palermo in 1519 to become Bishop of Gaeta , as granted him by

1200-590: A reality. The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. Henry then pulled off

1320-522: A second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid. Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, becoming instead "princess dowager" as

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1440-616: A territorial possession of Charles, and the continued support of the Emperor. A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground. Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing. Sensing this, Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally, signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. King Henry VIII and all six of his wives were related through

1560-653: A time that his life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the Queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council , Anne had many enemies, including Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk . Even her own uncle,

1680-457: A two-pronged attack. One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil . The other, under Suffolk, laid siege to Boulogne . Henry later took personal command, and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544. However, Henry had refused Charles's request to march against Paris. Charles's own campaign fizzled, and he made peace with France that same day. Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace. Francis attempted to invade England in

1800-553: A very limited extent", whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs. Catherine is not known to have protested. In 1518, she fell pregnant again with another girl, who was also stillborn. Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation. FitzRoy married Mary Howard in 1533, but died childless three years later. At

1920-402: Is inadmissible as a council convened without a pope would be "headless" (using the scriptural analogy of the relationship between sheep and their shepherd). In the case of heresy, however, Cajetan wrote that an exceptional general council could be convened to grant the reigning pope a fair hearing, and if he was judged to be in heresy, the council could act to sever the bond between the man holding

2040-556: Is known about Henry's early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, but it is known that he received a first-rate education from leading tutors. He became fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian. In November 1501, Henry played a considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur's marriage to Catherine , the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As duke of York, Henry used

2160-438: Is known as the patron saint of Argentina and of the unemployed. Henry VIII of England Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon ) annulled . His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate

2280-464: Is not Cajetan but Gilson whose interpretation of Aquinas is a departure from the latter's beliefs. Bruce Metzger wrote that Cajetan's biblical commentaries were surprisingly "modern", anticipating biblical textual criticism . Notably, Cajetan revived earlier Christian doubts as to the apostolic authorship of the Epistles of James, Jude, 2 John, and 3 John, as well as opposing Pauline authorship of

2400-554: Is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Madge Shelton in 1535, although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton . Opposition to Henry's religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England. Some dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, both of whom refused to take

2520-474: Is unclear exactly why, for there is little evidence of differences in domestic or foreign policy. Despite his role, he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry's failed marriage. Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court, with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece Catherine's position. Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for

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2640-574: The Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne's issue declared to be next in the line of succession. With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, Parliament recognised the King's status as head of the church in England and, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532, abolished the right of appeal to Rome. It

2760-741: The Emperor Charles V for whose election De Vio had laboured zealously. In 1518, Cajetan was sent as legate to the Diet of Augsburg and at the behest of the Frederick III, Elector of Saxony was entrusted with examining the teachings of Martin Luther . According to Hilaire Belloc , "[Luther] had not been treated roughly by his opponents, the roughness had been on his side. But things had gone against him, and he had been made to look foolish; he had been cross-examined into denying, for instance,

2880-763: The English Reformation , separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries , for which he was excommunicated by the pope. Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England , expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy . He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without

3000-465: The Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily, and he did not want to antagonise Catherine's nephew, Charles V, whose troops had recently sacked Rome . Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from Clement VII. Although Clement agreed to the creation of such

3120-532: The Italian War in favour of his new ally. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. In preparation for it, Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under his young nephew, James V . The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542, and James died on 15 December. Henry now hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marrying his son Edward to James's successor, Mary . The Scottish regent Lord Arran agreed to

3240-479: The King's "great matter" . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine, as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry's death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age. Probably seeing

3360-709: The Laws in Wales Act 1535 , which legally annexed Wales , uniting England and Wales into a single nation. This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Succession to the Crown Act 1536), which declared Henry's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The King was granted the power to further determine

3480-622: The Oath of Supremacy to the King. Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves. Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act 1534 , which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on

3600-507: The Palace of Whitehall , Whitehall , London, in Anne's closet, by Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester . With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats, and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms, domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry's priority in the first half of the 1530s. In 1536, for example, Henry granted his assent to

3720-622: The Reformation Parliament . He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , King James V of Scotland , and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise . He founded

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3840-538: The Republic of Venice . But he was not ordained a priest until the year 1516. With the death of Pope Julius II in 1513, Cajetan withdrew from the papal court. Recalled to Vicenza by the death of his mother, he founded in 1522 a hospital for incurables there. By 1523, he had established a hospital in Venice, as well. His interests were as much or more devoted to spiritual healing than the physical kind, and he joined

3960-640: The Royal Navy , oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 . Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as

4080-564: The Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will. In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the government termed "idolatry" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral . As

4200-415: The male heir he desired, he became enamoured of Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen's entourage. Anne, however, resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister had. It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as

4320-519: The "most important" in English history. He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI . Born on 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of

4440-667: The 1570 edition of his celebrated commentary on Aquinas ' Summa , the objectionable passages were expunged. In this spirit, he wrote commentaries upon portions of Aristotle and upon the Summa of Aquinas , and towards the end of his life made a careful translation of the Old and New Testaments, excepting Solomon's Song , the Prophets and the Revelation of St John . Cajetan also wrote opinions on subjects of practical importance, such as

4560-467: The Duke of Norfolk, had come to resent her attitude to her power. The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally, but the King's favour had swung towards the latter (partly because of Cromwell), damaging the family's influence. Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity. A second annulment

4680-497: The English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. Among the dead was the Scottish king, thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war. These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired. However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during

4800-653: The Epistle to the Hebrews . Saint Cajetan Gaetano dei Conti di Thiene CR (6 October 1480 – 7 August 1547), known as Saint Cajetan , was an Italian Catholic priest and religious reformer, co-founder of the Theatines . He is recognised as a saint in the Catholic Church , and his feast day is 7 August. Cajetan was born in October 1480, the son of Gaspar, lord of Thiene , and Mary Porta, persons of

4920-496: The King. Soon after marrying Henry, Catherine conceived. She gave birth to a stillborn girl on 31 January 1510. About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant. On 1 January 1511, New Year's Day, a son Henry was born. After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held, including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament . However,

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5040-430: The Pope had lacked the authority to grant a dispensation from this impediment. It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack. In going public, all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet was lost. Henry sent his secretary, William Knight , to appeal directly to

5160-410: The Queen. Anne was arrested, accused of treasonous adultery and incest. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. On 17 May 1536, Henry and Anne's marriage was annulled by Archbishop Cranmer at Lambeth Palace and the accused men were executed. Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on

5280-529: The Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for " affinity ", which took account of the possibility of consummation. Cohabitation was not possible because Henry was too young. Isabella's death in 1504, and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters. Ferdinand II preferred Catherine to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated. Catherine

5400-487: The Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light, it is more likely that the portrait was accurate; Holbein remained in favour at court. After seeing Holbein's portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old King agreed to wed Anne. When Henry met Anne, however, he

5520-550: The age of thirty a doctor of theology at Padua , and subsequently professor of metaphysics . A public disputation at Ferrara (1494) with Pico della Mirandola made his reputation as a theologian . He became general procurator in 1507 and general of the Dominicans a year later in 1508. In 1511 a group of dissident cardinals called the Conciliabulum of Pisa (1511–1512) against Pope Julius II , who had ignored

5640-585: The allegations, Dereham confessed. It took another meeting of the council, however, before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage, blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Catherine's relationship with Culpeper. Culpeper and Dereham were both executed, and Catherine too

5760-523: The ancient Greek quest for the cause of being, which could rightly be called 'Christian philosophy'. In Gilson's account, it was in Cajetan's thought that this link was first broken, since Cajetan, influenced by Scotism , reduced Thomas Aquinas 's metaphysics of the existential act of being to an ontology of substance. Cajetan and his successors therefore, in Gilson's account, represented Thomas as focused on

5880-464: The arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine . He was further honoured on 9 February 1506 by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , who made him a Knight of the Golden Fleece . In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother. The 10-year-old Henry became

6000-459: The authority of a General Council — which authority was the trump card to play against the Papacy." In 1519, Cajetan helped in drawing up the bill of excommunication against Luther. Having proved to be an able diplomat and administrator, Cajetan was employed in several other negotiations and transactions. In conjunction with Cardinal Giulio de' Medici in the conclave of 1521–1522 , he secured

6120-669: The best elements of the humanist revival in harmony with Catholic orthodoxy illumined by a revived appreciation of the Augustinian doctrine of justification. In the field of Thomistic philosophy, he showed striking independence of judgment, expressing liberal views on marriage and divorce, denying the existence of a material Hell and advocating the celebration of public prayers in the vernacular. Some Dominicans regarded his views as too independent of those of Saint Thomas. The Sorbonne in Paris found some of these views heterodox, and in

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6240-402: The campaign but had received little in return; England's coffers were now empty. With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become Louis's wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time. Charles V ,

6360-548: The ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father, "our time is spent in continuous festival". Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way. Henry returned some of

6480-506: The chance for an annulment lost, Cardinal Wolsey bore the blame. He was charged with praemunire in October 1529, and his fall from grace was "sudden and total". Briefly reconciled with Henry (and officially pardoned) in the first half of 1530, he was charged once more in November 1530, this time for treason, but died while awaiting trial. After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders, Thomas More took on

6600-499: The child died seven weeks later. Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1513 and 1515, but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl, Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained, but they eased slightly after Mary's birth. Although Henry's marriage to Catherine has since been described as "unusually good", it is known that Henry took mistresses. It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of

6720-467: The church is Piazza San Gaetano, with a statue. He was beatified on 8 October 1629 by Pope Urban VIII . On 12 April 1671, Cajetan was canonized by Pope Clement X . Saint Cajetan's feast day is celebrated on 7 August. Jesuit missionary Eusebio Kino in 1691 established the mission San Cayetano de Tumacácori in honour of Cajetan. It is now Tumacacori National Historical Park in Arizona . He

6840-532: The clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known – were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal . The 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured, eventually degenerating into renewed war. With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead, relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably, and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter

6960-453: The courtier Thomas Culpeper . She also employed Francis Dereham , who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. The Privy Council was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away; Thomas Cranmer was dispatched to investigate, and he brought evidence of Queen Catherine's previous affair with Dereham to the King's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe

7080-471: The decision of the Council of Basel . Cajetan died on August 9th in Rome in 1534. As a philosopher and logician, Cajetan defended the idea of analogy . Though as a theologian Cajetan was a scholastic of the older Thomist type, his general position was that of the moderate reformers of the school to which Reginald Pole , later archbishop of Canterbury , also belonged; i.e.,  he desired to retain

7200-539: The decision rejecting the petition made by Henry VIII of England for the annulment of his marriage to Catharine of Aragon . Appointed by Clement VII to the commission of cardinals assigned to report on the "Nuremberg Recess", De Vio, in opposition to the majority, recommended certain concessions to the Lutherans, notably the marriage of the clergy as in the Greek Church and communion in both kinds according to

7320-513: The disposition of plundered goods whose ownership could not be determined. Of the Reformation he remained a steadfast opponent, composing several works directed against Martin Luther , and taking an important part in shaping the policy of the papal delegates in Germany. Learned though he was in the scholastics , he recognized that to fight the reformers he would need a deeper knowledge of the Scriptures than he possessed. To this study he devoted himself with characteristic zeal, wrote commentaries on

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7440-580: The dissolution of the monasteries, Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco-German invasion. Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne , the 25-year-old sister of William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg , who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the Duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism . Other potential brides included Christina of Denmark, Anna of Lorraine , Louise of Guise and Amalia of Cleves . Hans Holbein

7560-423: The disturbances ended. On 8 January 1536, news reached the King and Queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. The following day, Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feather in his bonnet. Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware that there might be consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Later that month, the King was thrown from his horse in a tournament and was badly injured; it seemed for

7680-405: The election of Adrian Boeyens, then Bishop of Tortosa , as Pope Adrian VI . He retained influence under Pope Clement VII , suffered a short term of imprisonment after the storming of Rome by the Constable of Bourbon and by Frundsberg (1527), retired to his diocese for a few years, and, returning to Rome in 1530, assumed his old position of influence with Pope Clement, on whose behalf he drafted

7800-428: The electoral capitulations he had accepted before being elected. Cajetan displayed vigorous support for the papacy in a series of publications. These were condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burnt by order of King Louis XII . At the Fifth Lateran Council (1512–17) which Pope Julius II set up in opposition to that of Pisa, De Vio played the leading role. During the second session of the council, in which he gave

7920-453: The establishment of his Congregation of Clerks Regular . In 1533, he founded a house in Naples. The year 1540 found him in Venice again and from there he extended his work to Verona . He founded a bank to help the poor and offer an alternative to usurers (who charged high interest rates). It later became the Banco di Napoli . Cajetan died in Naples on 7 August 1547. His remains are in the church of San Paolo Maggiore in Naples; outside

8040-459: The evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General – and both were executed in the summer of 1535. These suppressions, as well as the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 , in turn, contributed to a more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536. Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of

8160-516: The extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ("Defence of the Seven Sacraments") earned him the title of Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) from Pope Leo X. The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms. It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage. Certainly, by 1527, he had convinced himself that Catherine had produced no male heir because their union

8280-532: The extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat. The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated , preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings , which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. The theory that Henry had syphilis has been dismissed by most historians. Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy , which

8400-456: The failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne. He was subsequently attainted and beheaded. On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, a first cousin and lady-in-waiting of Anne Boleyn. He was delighted with his new queen and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery. Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with

8520-417: The first person to make mistaken interpretations of the thought of Thomas Aquinas . Fergus Kerr wrote a 2002 book, After Aquinas , attacking Cajetan on this. Among others, he cited Étienne Gilson , who was responding to arguments that 'philosophy' and 'Christianity' were incompatible disciplines, there existed in Hellenistic Judaism, patristic thought and the medieval period a way of thinking, animated by

8640-531: The first rank among the nobility of the territory of Vicenza , in Veneto Region. His father died when he was two years of age. Quiet and retiring by nature, he was predisposed to piety by his mother. Cajetan studied law in Padua , receiving his degree as doctor utriusque juris (i.e., in civil and canon law) at age 24. In 1506 he worked as a diplomat for Pope Julius II , with whom he helped reconcile

8760-506: The forms and essences of beings only, and not on the existence of all things as participation in the pure actuality which is God. Accordingly, for Gilson, 'philosophy' and 'Christianity' are only incompatible if Christian thought is understood in its tradition post-Cajetan—a tradition which is worse than the older, more distinguished tradition of Christian thought. Henri de Lubac wrote in Surnaturel (1946), an account of Aquinas’ views on

8880-663: The formulation of the liquidity preference . However his views on usury were still conservative, as showed by his condemnation of mounts of piety (that he tried unsuccessfully to ban during the Fifth Council of the Lateran ), his disapproval of usury or his prohibition of contractum trinius . In the mid-twentieth century, Cajetan's thought came to be assessed negatively by certain Catholic commentators who, in reacting against neo-Thomist thought, portrayed Cajetan as

9000-588: The friars' church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509. Henry claimed descent from Constantine the Great and King Arthur and saw himself as their successor. On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day. It was a grand affair: the King's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth. Following

9120-576: The greater part of the Old and the New Testament, and in the exposition of his text, which he treated critically, allowed himself considerable latitude in departing from literal and traditional interpretations. Cajetan was a man of austere piety and fervent zeal. And from the standpoint of the Dominican idea of the supreme necessity of maintaining ecclesiastical discipline, he defended the rights of

9240-471: The ideas of the Protestant Reformers, but the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position. This was approved by the Pope, unaware of the King's nascent plans for the Church. Henry

9360-470: The infant Edward would marry one of Charles's daughters. It was suggested the widowed Henry might marry Christina, Dowager Duchess of Milan . However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster. Enriched by

9480-590: The kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured. Henry met King Francis on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment. Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict

9600-404: The largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne's constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. Henry

9720-492: The line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue. On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI . The birth was difficult, and Queen Jane died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor. The euphoria that had accompanied Edward's birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife. At the time, Henry recovered quickly from

9840-636: The marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. The result was eight years of war between England and Scotland, a campaign later dubbed "the Rough Wooing ". Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death. Despite the early success with Scotland, Henry hesitated to invade France, annoying Charles. Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with

9960-466: The money supposedly extorted by the two ministers. By contrast, Henry's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father's had been. Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned. Others went unreconciled; Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against

10080-454: The name of the city of Chieti (in Latin : Theate ), arose the name by which the order is known, the " Theatines ". The order grew at a fairly slow pace: there were only twelve Theatines during the sack of Rome in 1527 , during which Cajetan was tortured by mutinous soldiers of Charles V . The Theatines managed to escape to Venice. There Cajetan met Jerome Emiliani , whom he assisted in

10200-406: The natural and the supernatural, that Cajetan's interpretation of Aquinas, while influential, was incorrect. De Lubac argued that Cajetan treated Aquinas as an Aristotelian, working with a definition of nature from Aristotle's Physics , which effectively turned human nature into a reality essentially closed in on itself, with its own intrinsic powers, desires and goals. De Lubac did not think Aquinas

10320-535: The nephew of Henry's wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. When Louis XII of France died in 1515, he was succeeded by his cousin Francis I . These accessions left three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London (1518) , aimed at uniting

10440-458: The new Duke of Cornwall , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1504. Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public. As a result, he ascended the throne "untrained in the exacting art of kingship". Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to

10560-496: The new reforms from challenge, convincing the public of their legitimacy, and exposing and dealing with opponents. Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself. With this process complete, in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. With

10680-517: The northern nobility. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues. Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises to them, so when further violence occurred after Henry's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and

10800-470: The opening oration, he obtained the approval of a decree recognizing the superiority of papal authority to that of councils. Cajetan composed in defence of his position the Tractatus de Comparatione auctoritatis Papæ et conciliorum ad invicem . Jacques Almain answered this work, and Cajetan replied in his Apologia . Cajetan refused to accept Almain's argument that the Church's polity had to be similar to

10920-499: The papacy and proclaimed that the pope should be "the mirror of God on earth." Against the Council of Pisa's advocacy of conciliarism , which placed the authority of a general council above the pope's authority, Cajetan responded that a general council could only judge a pope if the pope had become a heretic. In the case of a wicked but non-heretical pope, Cajetan insisted that resistance is sufficient to reduce abuses, while deposition

11040-467: The papacy and the office itself. However, he denied that this action constituted the council acting over the pope, which he regarded as theologically impossible. Rather, he considered that such an action merely indicated that the council could undo the election of that particular man to the office of the pope (since the election was also performed by human beings). Cajetan, building on similar discussions from John of Paris and Augustinus Triumphus regarding

11160-406: The papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine. Whether or not this was true, it was convenient. Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter Eleanor , Catherine's niece, to Henry; she had now been jilted. Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at

11280-414: The possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry, and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine. Henry's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on. Henry himself, at least in the early part of his reign, was a devout and well-informed Catholic to

11400-437: The prior liaison between Henry and Anne's sister Mary, which in canon law meant that Henry's marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void. At 8 am on 19 May 1536, Anne was executed on Tower Green . The day after Anne's execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting . They were married ten days later at

11520-445: The removal of heretical popes, interpreted Titus 3:10 as saying that a heretical pope should be deposed after two admonitions. In light of the contemporary economic development, Cajetan cogitated a lot about the morality of trade. More conservative than the future School of Salamanca , his reflections were nonetheless quite modern with utilisation of practical consideration outside of pure theorical thinking and some relevant ideas, like

11640-438: The rest. I can have none appetite for displeasant airs. I have left her as good a maid and I found her. Henry wished to annul the marriage as soon as possible so he could marry another. Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated. Anne's previous betrothal to Francis of Lorraine provided further grounds for the annulment. The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received

11760-472: The role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister. Intelligent and able, but a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment, More initially cooperated with the King's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time and was keenly absorbed and engaged with

11880-563: The shock. Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent. In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of King John III of Portugal , Elizabeth would marry one of the sons of King Ferdinand I of Hungary and

12000-425: The sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses, considered by some to be few for a virile young king. Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses "only to

12120-502: The summer of 1545 but his forces reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed in the Battle of the Solent . Financially exhausted, France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546. Henry secured Boulogne for eight years. The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000). Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England

12240-539: The time of his death in July 1536, parliament was considering the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king. In 1510, France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council. Certainly, war with the combined might of

12360-447: The title of "The King's Sister", two houses, and a generous allowance. It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catherine Howard , the Duke of Norfolk's niece. This worried Cromwell, for Norfolk was his political opponent. Shortly after, the religious reformers (and protégés of Cromwell) Robert Barnes , William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour although it

12480-443: The two powers would have been exceedingly difficult. Shortly thereafter, however, Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand II of Aragon. After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Ferdinand's lead and brought England into the new League. An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France

12600-455: The widow of Arthur. In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The Queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Following the marriage, there was a period of consolidation, taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues, whilst protecting

12720-409: The widowed Catherine. Henry VII and Queen Isabella were both keen on the idea, which had arisen very shortly after Arthur's death. On 23 June 1503, a treaty was signed for their marriage, and they were betrothed two days later. A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and

12840-534: The young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three – his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales , and sisters Margaret and Mary  – survived infancy. He was baptised by Richard Foxe , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He

12960-490: Was "blighted in the eyes of God". Indeed, in marrying Catherine, his brother's wife, he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21, a justification Thomas Cranmer used to declare the marriage null. Martin Luther , on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce . Henry now believed

13080-410: Was an Aristolean, and that subsequent Catholic thought produced mistaken readings of Thomas Aquinas's account of the relationship between nature and grace. In 2006, Ralph McInerny and other scholars challenged the negative assessment of Cajetan's work made by De Lubac and Gilson. McInerny writes that the criticisms of Cajetan are not in fact supported by evidence from his works, and furthermore that it

13200-476: Was beheaded on 13 February 1542. Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr , in July 1543. A reformer at heart, she argued with Henry over religion. Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism; the reactionary mood that had gained ground after Cromwell's fall had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it. Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth. In 1543,

13320-523: Was inevitable. Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis. Charles brought his realms into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France but sought to secure an alliance with the Netherlands , then

13440-399: Was married to Catherine for 24 years. Their divorce has been described as a "deeply wounding and isolating" experience for Henry. In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted Francis's support for his new marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant, and there was

13560-424: Was much displeased with her appearance. The King was reportedly taken aback and told his courtiers "I promise you, I see no such thing as hath been shown me of her, by pictures and report. I am ashamed that men have praised her as they have done, and I love her not!" Despite his protests, Henry knew that the situation was too far gone and he would have to wed his bride. The marriage took place in January 1540, but it

13680-439: Was never consummated. The morning after their wedding night, Henry complained about his new wife to Cromwell, stating: Surely, my lord, I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse! She is nothing fair, and have very evil smells about her. I took her to be no maid by reason of the closeness of her breasts and other tokens, which, when I felt them, strake me so to the heart, that I had neither will nor courage to prove

13800-402: Was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell's anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed. Anne's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage. Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians. Early signs of

13920-478: Was once again facing bankruptcy. Late in life, Henry became obese , with a waist measurement of 54 inches (140 cm), and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical devices. He was covered with painful, pus -filled boils and possibly had gout . His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident on 24 January 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. The accident reopened and aggravated an injury he had sustained years earlier, to

14040-462: Was only then that Pope Clement VII took the step of excommunicating the King and Cranmer, although the excommunication was not made official until some time later. The King and Queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for

14160-402: Was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes. Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximilian; Tournai , a more significant settlement, followed. Henry had led the army personally, complete with a large entourage. His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis. Nevertheless,

14280-633: Was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three and was made a Knight of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter . The reason for giving such appointments to a small child was to enable his father to retain personal control of lucrative positions and not share them with established families. Not much

14400-689: Was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14. Ferdinand's solution was to make his daughter ambassador, allowing her to stay in England indefinitely. Devout, she began to believe that it was God's will that she marry the Prince despite his opposition. Henry VII died in April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning

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