126-482: The tiger ( Panthera tigris ) is a large cat and a member of the genus Panthera native to Asia . It has a powerful, muscular body with a large head and paws, a long tail and orange fur with black, mostly vertical stripes. It is traditionally classified into nine recent subspecies , though some recognise only two subspecies, mainland Asian tigers and the island tigers of the Sunda Islands . Throughout
252-433: A bite to the back of the hock , severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a water buffalo . They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or head. Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers range from a low of 5% to a high of 50%. They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur, buffalo and boar. Tigers typically move kills to
378-439: A black tip marks the end. The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species. Stripes are advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade, such as trees, reeds and tall grass. This is supported by a Fourier analysis study showing that the striping patterns line up with their environment. The orange colour may also aid in concealment, as the tiger's prey is colour blind and possibly perceives
504-568: A comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) traits of all putative tiger subspecies. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the 2015 two-subspecies proposal and recognised only P. t. tigris and P. t. sondaica . Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing study of 32 samples from
630-442: A deceased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks. Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females. Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than fighting. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not come near him. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for
756-400: A female in oestrus . Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will sometimes share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions, will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it. However, a female is more tense when encountering another female at
882-708: A few also to wetlands and mountainous terrain. Their activity patterns range from nocturnal and crepuscular to diurnal , depending on their preferred prey species. Reginald Innes Pocock divided the extant Felidae into three subfamilies: the Pantherinae , the Felinae and the Acinonychinae, differing from each other by the ossification of the hyoid apparatus and by the cutaneous sheaths which protect their claws. This concept has been revised following developments in molecular biology and techniques for
1008-502: A few more weeks. They can leave the denning site after two months and around the same time they start eating meat. The mother only leaves them alone to hunt and even then she does not travel far. When she suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth. A tigress in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve maximised
1134-502: A half of the body length, although with some exceptions, like the Lynx species and margay ( Leopardus wiedii ). Cat species vary greatly in body and skull sizes, and weights: Most cat species have a haploid number of 18 or 19. Central and South American cats have a haploid number of 18, possibly due to the combination of two smaller chromosomes into a larger one. Felidae have type IIx muscle fibers three times more powerful than
1260-432: A hidden world of Greek manuscripts. Gessner's approach to research consisted of four main components: observation, dissection, travel to distant lands, and accurate description. This rising observational approach was new to Renaissance scholars because people usually relied completely upon Classical writers for their research. He died of the plague , the year after his ennoblement on 13 December 1565. Conrad Gessner
1386-488: A kill as early as 11 months and reach independence as a juvenile of 18 to 24 months of age; males become independent earlier than females. Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started leaving their natal areas at the age of 19 months. Young females are sexually mature at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years. Generation length of the tiger is about 7–10 years. Wild Bengal tigers live 12–15 years. Data from
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#17327651160611512-465: A kill. During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers rub against each other's bodies. Facial expressions include the "defence threat", which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears and widened pupils. Both males and females show a flehmen response , a characteristic curled-lip grimace, when smelling urine markings. Males also use the flehmen to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus. Tigers will move their ears around to display
1638-610: A new, comprehensive description of the Animal Kingdom. This was the first attempt by anyone to describe many animals accurately. The book unlike many works of its time was illustrated with hand-colored woodcuts drawn from personal observations by Gessner and his colleagues. Even though he sought to distinguish observed facts from myths and popular errors and was known for his accurate depiction of many animals in Historia animalium , he also included many fictional animals such as
1764-953: A number of classical authors ( see Edited works ), including Claudius Aelianus (1556) and Marcus Aurelius (1559). A number of other works appeared after his death ( posthumously ), some long after ( see Posthumous works ). His work on insects was edited by various authors, including Thomas Penny , until Thomas Muffet brought it to publication as Insectorum sive minimorum animalium theatrum (1634), finally appearing in English translation as The Theatre of Insects in Edward Topsell 's History of Four-Footed Beasts and Serpents (1658). In 1545, after four years of research, Gessner published his remarkable Bibliotheca universalis , an exhaustive catalogue of all known works in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, of all writers who had ever lived, with
1890-488: A preference for sambar deer , Manchurian wapiti , barasingha , gaur and wild boar . Abundance and body weight of prey species are assumed to be the main criteria for the tiger's prey selection, both inside and outside protected areas. It also preys opportunistically on smaller species like monkeys , peafowl and other ground-based birds, porcupines and fish. Occasional attacks on Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceroses have also been reported. More often, tigers take
2016-602: A private, usually vegetated spot no further than 183 m (600 ft), though they have been recorded dragging them 549 m (1,801 ft). They are strong enough to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance. They rest for a while before eating and can consume as much as 50 kg (110 lb) of meat in one session, but feed on a carcass for several days, leaving little for scavengers. In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes . They typically dominate both of them, though with dholes it depends on their pack size. Interactions between
2142-562: A reduction in leopard population densities. Similarly, at two sites in central India the size of dhole packs was negatively correlated with tiger densities. Leopard and dhole distribution in Kui Buri correlated with both prey access and tiger scarcity. In Jigme Dorji National Park , tigers were found to inhabit the deeper parts of forests while the smaller predators were pushed closer to the fringes. The tiger generally mates all year round, particularly between November and April. A tigress
2268-478: A reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to kill favoured prey while leopards and dholes increased their consumption of small prey. Both leopards and dholes can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover. Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in Rajaji National Park during the 2000s led to
2394-749: A scattered range in the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula , Sumatra, northeastern China and the Russian Far East . As of 2020, India had the largest extent of global tiger habitat with 300,508 km (116,027 sq mi), followed by Russia with 195,819 km (75,606 sq mi). The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable. Records in Central Asia indicate that it primarily inhabited Tugay riverine forests and hilly and lowland forests in
2520-443: A secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter. Litters consist of as many as seven cubs, but two or three are more typical. Newborn cubs weigh 785–1,610 g (27.7–56.8 oz) and are blind and altricial . The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viciously defends them from any potential threat. Cubs open their eyes at the age of three to 14 days and their vision becomes clear after
2646-441: A transient in another male's home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Tigers mark their home ranges by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks, clawing or scent rubbing trees and marking trails with faeces , anal gland secretions and ground scrapings. Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity. Unclaimed home ranges, particularly those that belonged to
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#17327651160612772-400: A typical felid morphology, with a muscular body, shortened legs, strong forelimbs with wide front paws, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body. It has five digits, including a dewclaw , on the front feet and four on the back, all of which have retractile claws that are compact and curved, and can reach 10 cm (3.9 in) long. The ears are rounded and
2898-436: A watering hole for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days. It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, it crouches with the head lowered and hides in foliage. It switches between creeping forward and staying still. A tiger may even doze off and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day, waiting for prey and launch an attack when the prey is close enough, usually within 30 m (98 ft). If
3024-409: Is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale sepia-brown ringed tail. White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus, respectively. The snow-white variation is caused by polygenes with both white and wideband loci. The breeding of white tigers is controversial, as they have no use for conservation. Only 0.001% of wild tigers have
3150-399: Is absent, so that ligers grow far larger than either parent species. By contrast, the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene while the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene; hence, tigons are around the same size as their parents. Since they often develop life-threatening birth defects and can easily become obese, breeding these hybrids is regarded as unethical. The tiger has
3276-584: Is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene. Around 37% of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature, which has been linked to genetic isolation . The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey, northern Iran and Afghanistan to Central Asia and from northern Pakistan through the Indian subcontinent and Indochina to southeastern Siberia, Sumatra, Java and Bali. As of 2022, it inhabits less than 7% of its historical distribution and has
3402-481: Is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth. In friendlier situations, tigers prusten , a soft, low-frequency snorting sound similar to purring in smaller cats. Tiger mothers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with miaows . When startled, they "woof". They produce a deer-like "pok" sound for unknown reasons, but most often at kills. The tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator feeding mainly on large and medium-sized ungulates, with
3528-517: Is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They roar multiple times in a row and others respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away. Aggressive encounters involve growling , snarling and hissing. An explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl"
3654-433: Is in oestrus for three to six days at a time, separated by three to nine week intervals. A resident male mates with all the females within his home range, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking. Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant, resident male drives the usurper off. During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she
3780-613: Is known to occur in Siberian tigers. A morbillivirus infection was the likely cause of death of a tigress in the Russian Far East that was also tested positive for feline panleukopenia and feline coronavirus . Blood samples from 11 adult tigers in Nepal showed antibodies for canine parvovirus -2, feline herpesvirus , feline coronavirus, leptospirosis and Toxoplasma gondii . The tiger has been listed as Endangered on
3906-435: Is less capable of climbing trees than many other cats due to its size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so. An adult was recorded climbing 10 m (33 ft) up a smooth pipal tree . Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives within home ranges or territories , the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. Males and females defend their home ranges from those of
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4032-449: Is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with her tail to the side. Copulation typically lasts no more than 20 seconds, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him. Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times. Gestation lasts around or over three months. A tigress gives birth in
4158-538: Is scarce. The tiger is legally protected in all range countries. National conservation measures consist of action plans, anti-poaching patrols and schemes for monitoring tiger populations. In several range countries, wildlife corridors have been established and tiger reintroduction is planned. The tiger is among the most popular of the world's charismatic megafauna . It has been kept in captivity since ancient times and has been trained to perform in circuses and other entertainment shows. The tiger featured prominently in
4284-441: Is surrounded by black. The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes, which are uniquely patterned in each individual. The stripes are mostly vertical, but those on the limbs and forehead are horizontal. They are more concentrated towards the backside and those on the trunk may reach under the belly. The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some may split up or split and fuse again. Tail stripes are thick bands and
4410-785: Is the oldest known cat that occurred after the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 33.9 million years ago ; fossil remains were excavated in France and Mongolia's Hsanda Gol Formation . Fossil occurrences indicate that the Felidae arrived in North America around 18.5 million years ago . This is about 20 million years later than the Ursidae and the Nimravidae , and about 10 million years later than
4536-609: Is the oldest known pantherine cat dated to the late Messinian to early Zanclean ages about 5.95 to 4.1 million years ago . A fossil skull was excavated in 2010 in Zanda County on the Tibetan Plateau . Panthera palaeosinensis from North China probably dates to the Late Miocene or Early Pliocene . The skull of the holotype is similar to that of a lion or leopard. Panthera zdanskyi dates to
4662-415: Is usually thin, though the Siberian tiger develops a particularly thick winter coat. The tiger has lines of fur around the face and long whiskers, especially in males. It has an orange colouration that varies from yellowish to reddish. White fur covers the underside, from head to tail, along with the inner surface of the legs and parts of the face. On the back of the ears, it has a prominent white spot, which
4788-546: The Historiae animalium (1551–1558), he amassed a very large collection of notes and wood engravings of plants, but only published two botanical works in his lifetime, Historia plantarum et vires (1541) and the Catalogus plantarum (1542) in four languages. It was in the last decade of his life that he began to compile his major botanical work, Historia plantarum . Although he died prior to its completion, his work
4914-652: The Carolinum in Zürich , then later entered the Fraumünster seminary. There he studied classical languages , appearing as Penia (Poverty) in Aristophanes ' Plutus , at the age of 15. In school, he impressed his teachers so much that a few of them helped sponsor him so that he could further his education, including arranging a scholarship for him to attend university in France to study theology (1532–1533) at
5040-644: The Canidae . In the Early Miocene about 20 to 16.6 million years ago , Pseudaelurus lived in Africa. Its fossil jaws were also excavated in geological formations of Europe's Vallesian , Asia's Middle Miocene and North America's late Hemingfordian to late Barstovian epochs. In the Early or Middle Miocene, the saber-toothed Machairodontinae evolved in Africa and migrated northwards in
5166-573: The Caucasus . In the Amur - Ussuri region of Russia and China, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ; riparian forests serve as dispersal corridors, providing food and water for both tigers and ungulates . On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests , temperate broadleaf and mixed forests , tropical moist evergreen forests , tropical dry forests , alluvial plains and
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5292-761: The Feliformia . All members of the cat family have the following characteristics in common: The colour, length and density of their fur are very diverse. Fur colour covers the gamut from white to black, and fur patterns from distinctive small spots, and stripes to small blotches and rosettes . Most cat species are born with spotted fur, except the jaguarundi ( Herpailurus yagouaroundi ), Asian golden cat ( Catopuma temminckii ) and caracal ( Caracal caracal ). The spotted fur of lion ( Panthera leo ), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and cougar ( Puma concolor ) cubs change to uniform fur during their ontogeny . Those living in cold environments have thick fur with long hair, like
5418-583: The Gelasian about 2.55 to 2.16 million years ago . Several fossil skulls and jawbones were excavated in northwestern China. Panthera gombaszoegensis is the earliest known pantherine cat that lived in Europe about 1.95 to 1.77 million years ago . Living felids fall into eight evolutionary lineages or species clades . Genotyping of the nuclear DNA of all 41 felid species revealed that hybridization between species occurred in
5544-567: The Gnepfstein (1920 m), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain . Gessner is credited with a number of the first descriptions of species in Europe, both animals such as the brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ), guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ) and turkey ( Meleagris ), as well as plants such as the tulip ( Tulipa gesneriana ). He first saw a tulip in April 1559, growing in the garden of
5670-523: The IUCN Red List since 1986 and the global tiger population is thought to have continuously declined from an estimated population of 5,000–8,262 tigers in the late 1990s to 3,726–5,578 individuals estimated as of 2022. During 2001–2020, landscapes where tigers live declined from 1,025,488 km (395,943 sq mi) to 911,901 km (352,087 sq mi). Habitat destruction , habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts are
5796-772: The Late Miocene . With their large upper canines , they were adapted to prey on large-bodied megaherbivores . Miomachairodus is the oldest known member of this subfamily. Metailurus lived in Africa and Eurasia about 8 to 6 million years ago . Several Paramachaerodus skeletons were found in Spain. Homotherium appeared in Africa, Eurasia and North America around 3.5 million years ago , and Megantereon about 3 million years ago . Smilodon lived in North and South America from about 2.5 million years ago . This subfamily became extinct in
5922-607: The Late Pleistocene . Results of mitochondrial analysis indicate that the living Felidae species descended from a common ancestor , which originated in Asia in the Late Miocene epoch. They migrated to Africa, Europe and the Americas in the course of at least 10 migration waves during the past ~11 million years. Low sea levels and interglacial and glacial periods facilitated these migrations. Panthera blytheae
6048-436: The city physician ( Stadtarzt ). In addition to his duties there, and apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in his native land, and illnesses, he was able to devote himself to research and writing. His expeditions frequently involved visits to mountainous country, below the snow-line . Although primarily for purposes of botanical collection, he also extolled mountain climbing for
6174-421: The classification of the tiger as of 2005, and also reflect the classification recognised by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017. Snow leopard [REDACTED] Tiger [REDACTED] Jaguar [REDACTED] Leopard [REDACTED] Lion [REDACTED] The tiger shares the genus Panthera with the lion , leopard , jaguar and snow leopard . Results of genetic analyses indicate that
6300-788: The mangrove forests of the Sundarbans . In the Eastern Himalayas , it was documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan, of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills and of 3,139 m (10,299 ft) in Mêdog County , southeastern Tibet. In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests. In Sumatra, it inhabits lowland peat swamp forests and rugged montane forests . Camera trapping during 2010–2015 in
6426-525: The monsoon ; three males had 84–147 km (32–57 sq mi) large home ranges in winter, 82–98 km (32–38 sq mi) in summer and 81–118 km (31–46 sq mi) during monsoon seasons. In Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve , 14 females had home ranges 248–520 km (96–201 sq mi) and five resident males of 847–1,923 km (327–742 sq mi) that overlapped with those of up to five females. When tigresses in
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#17327651160616552-458: The snow leopard ( Panthera uncia ) and the Pallas's cat ( Otocolobus manul ). Those living in tropical and hot climate zones have short fur. Several species exhibit melanism with all-black individuals, cougars are notable for lacking melanism but leucism and albinism are present in cougars along with many other felids. In the great majority of cat species, the tail is between a third and
6678-623: The Catholic-Protestant divide. In fact, Catholic booksellers in Venice protested the Inquisition's blanket ban on Gessner's books, and some of his work was eventually allowed after it had been "cleaned" of its doctrinal errors. Gessner has been described as the father of modern scientific botany and zoology, and the father of modern bibliography. To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist. Despite his traveling ways and
6804-489: The International Tiger Studbook 1938–2018 indicate that captive tigers lived up to 19 years. The father does not play a role in raising the young, but he encounters and interacts with them. The resident male appears to visit the female–cub families within his home range. They socialise and even share kills. One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died. By defending his home range,
6930-649: The Middle-Late Pleistocene of Japan. Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers have a common ancestor that lived between 108,000 and 72,000 years ago. Genetic studies suggest that the tiger population contracted around 115,000 years ago due to glaciation. Modern tiger populations originated from a refugium in Indochina and spread across Asia after the Last Glacial Maximum . As they colonised northeastern China,
7056-704: The Unicorn and the Basilisk, which he had only heard about from medieval bestiaries. But when Gessner doubted the accuracy of the opinions he relayed in his own writings, or the validity of the illustrations he included, he clearly said so. Besides any plant or animal's potential advantage to people, Gessner was interested in learning about them because of the moral lessons they could teach and the divine truths they might tell. He went into as much detail about some unreal animals as he did about real ones. Later in 1556 he also combined real and fictional creatures in his edition of
7182-564: The age of 17. There he attended the University of Bourges and University of Paris . Religious persecution forced him to leave Paris for Strasbourg , but being unable to secure employment, he returned to Zürich. One of his teachers in Zürich acted as a foster father to him after the death of his father at the Battle of Kappel (1531), another provided him with three years of board and lodging, while yet another arranged his further education at
7308-591: The analysis of morphological data. Today, the living Felidae are divided into two subfamilies: the Pantherinae and Felinae, with the Acinonychinae subsumed into the latter. Pantherinae includes five Panthera and two Neofelis species , while Felinae includes the other 34 species in 12 genera . The first cats emerged during the Oligocene about 25 million years ago , with the appearance of Proailurus and Pseudaelurus . The latter species complex
7434-469: The ancestors of the South China tiger intermixed with a relict tiger population. Tigers can interbreed with other Panthera cats and have done so in captivity. The liger is the offspring of a female tiger and a male lion and the tigon the offspring of a male tiger and a female lion. The lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger
7560-481: The ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and has continued to appear in culture worldwide. The Old English tigras derives from Old French tigre , from Latin tigris , which was a borrowing from Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris'. Since ancient times, the word tigris has been suggested to originate from the Armenian or Persian word for 'arrow', which may also be
7686-495: The basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size of specimens in natural history museum collections that are not necessarily representative for the entire population. It was proposed to recognise only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia and the smaller P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands . This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 through
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#17327651160617812-433: The course of evolution within the majority of the eight lineages. Modelling of felid coat pattern transformations revealed that nearly all patterns evolved from small spots. Traditionally, five subfamilies had been distinguished within the Felidae based on phenotypical features: the Pantherinae , the Felinae , the Acinonychinae, and the extinct Machairodontinae and Proailurinae . Acinonychinae used to only contain
7938-459: The cuttings as needed. In the words of science writer Anna Pavord, "He was a one-man search engine, a 16th-century Google with the added bonus of critical evaluation." To his contemporaries, Gessner was known as "the Swiss Pliny." According to legend, when he knew his time was near, he asked to be taken to his library where he had spent so much of his life, to die among his favorite books. At
8064-406: The deciduous and subtropical pine forest of Jim Corbett National Park , northern India revealed a stable tiger population density of 12–17 individuals per 100 km (39 sq mi) in an area of 521 km (201 sq mi). In northern Myanmar, the population density in a sampled area of roughly 3,250 km (1,250 sq mi) in a mosaic of tropical broadleaf forest and grassland
8190-442: The different subspecies and populations vary greatly in size and weight, the tiger's average size may be less than the lion's, while the largest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts. The tiger's coat usually has short hairs, reaching up to 35 mm (1.4 in), though the hairs of the northern-living Siberian tiger can reach 105 mm (4.1 in). Belly hairs tend to be longer than back hairs. The density of their fur
8316-403: The eyes have a round pupil. The snout ends in a triangular, pink tip with small black dots, the number of which increase with age. The tiger's skull is robust, with a constricted front region, proportionally small, elliptical orbits , long nasal bones and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest . It resembles a lion's skull, but differs from it in the concave or flattened underside of
8442-430: The favor – and kept helpful specimens coming – by naming plants after correspondents and friends. Over his lifetime, Gessner amassed a considerable collection of plants and seeds and made extensive notes and wood engravings . In the last decade of his life he began to compile his major botanical work, Historia plantarum . although he died prior to its publication his materials were utilised by many subsequent authors for
8568-492: The following cladogram: Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi) Clouded leopard ( N. nebulosa ) Tiger (P. tigris) Snow leopard (P. uncia) Jaguar (P. onca) Lion ( P. leo ) Leopard ( P. pardus ) Serval (L. serval) African golden cat ( C. aurata ) Caracal ( C. caracal ) Andean mountain cat ( L. jacobita ) Conrad Gessner Conrad Gessner ( / ˈ ɡ ɛ s n ər / ; Latin : Conradus Gesnerus 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565)
8694-612: The fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene. Middle- to late-Pleistocene tiger fossils have been found throughout China, Sumatra and Java. Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P. t. soloensis of Java and Sumatra and P. t. acutidens of China; late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers have also been found in Borneo and Palawan, Philippines. Fossil specimens of tigers have also been reported from
8820-735: The fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, especially in the Eastern Plains. Inbreeding depression coupled with habitat destruction, insufficient prey resources and poaching is a threat to the small and isolated tiger population in the Changbai Mountains along the China–Russia border. In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting
8946-528: The genes for this colour morph and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding . Hence, their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers. Pseudo- melanistic tigers with thick, merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos; a population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype
9072-866: The genus Acinonyx but this genus is now within the Felinae subfamily. The following cladogram based on Piras et al. (2013) depicts the phylogeny of basal living and extinct groups. † Proailurus bourbonnensis † Proailurus lemanensis † Proailurus major † Pseudaelurus quadridentatus † Pseudaelurus cuspidatus † Pseudaelurus guangheesis † Machairodontinae [REDACTED] † Hyperailurictis intrepidus † Hyperailurictis marshi † Hyperailurictis stouti † Hyperailurictis validus † Hyperailurictis skinneri † Sivaelurus chinjiensis † Styriofelis turnauensis † Styriofelis romieviensis Felinae [REDACTED] † Miopanthera lorteti † Miopanthera pamiri Pantherinae [REDACTED] The phylogenetic relationships of living felids are shown in
9198-597: The greatest diversity in fur patterns of all terrestrial carnivores. Cats have retractile claws , slender muscular bodies and strong flexible forelimbs. Their teeth and facial muscles allow for a powerful bite. They are all obligate carnivores , and most are solitary predators ambushing or stalking their prey. Wild cats occur in Africa , Europe , Asia and the Americas . Some wild cat species are adapted to forest and savanna habitats , some to arid environments, and
9324-525: The islands of Java and Bali . Today, the tiger's range is severely fragmented. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , as its range is thought to have declined by 53% to 68% since the late 1990s. Major threats to tigers are habitat destruction and fragmentation due to deforestation , poaching for fur and the illegal trade of body parts for medicinal purposes. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict as they attack and prey on livestock in areas where natural prey
9450-450: The job of maintaining his own gardens, Gesner probably spent most of his time inside his own extensive library. He listed among his History of Animals sources more than 80 Greek authors and at least 175 Latin authors, as well as works by German, French, and Italian authors. He even attempted to establish a "universal library" of all books in existence. The project might sound strange to the modern mind, but Gessner invested tremendous energy in
9576-438: The lower jaw and in its longer nasals. The tiger has 30 fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6.4–7.6 cm (2.5–3.0 in). The tiger has a head-body length of 1.4–2.8 m (4 ft 7 in – 9 ft 2 in) with a 0.6–1.1 m (2 ft 0 in – 3 ft 7 in) tail and stands 0.8–1.1 m (2 ft 7 in – 3 ft 7 in) at
9702-637: The magistrate Johann Heinrich Herwart at Augsberg , and called it Tulipa turcarum , the Turkish tulip. He is also credited with being the first person to describe brown adipose tissue , in 1551, in 1565 the first to document the pencil, and in 1563 among the first Europeans to write about the effects of tobacco. Gessner's first work was a Latin-Greek Dictionary, the Lexicon Graeco-Latinum (1537), compiled during his studies in Basel. This
9828-495: The major threats that contributed to the decrease of tiger populations in all range countries. Protected areas in central India are highly fragmented due to linear infrastructure like roads, railway lines, transmission lines , irrigation channels and mining activities in their vicinity. In the Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar, deforestation coupled with mining activities and high hunting pressure threatens
9954-822: The male protects the females and cubs from other males. When a new male takes over, dependent cubs are at risk of infanticide as the male attempts to sire his own young with the females. A seven-year long study in Chitwan National Park revealed that 12 of 56 detected cubs and juveniles were killed by new males taking over home ranges. Tigers are recorded as hosts for various parasites including tapeworms like Diphyllobothrium erinacei , Taenia pisiformis in India and nematodes like Toxocara species in India and Physaloptera preputialis , Dirofilaria ursi and Uiteinarta species in Siberia. Canine distemper
10080-516: The more vulnerable calves. They sometimes prey on livestock and dogs in close proximity to settlements. Tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for dietary fibre and supplements. Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, though the ability to hunt may be partially inborn. Depending on the size of the prey, they typically kill weekly though mothers must kill more often. Families hunt together when cubs are old enough. They search for prey using vision and hearing. A tiger will also wait at
10206-553: The morning. A three-year-long camera trap survey in Shuklaphanta National Park revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight. In northeastern China, tigers were crepuscular and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and dusk; they were largely active at the same time as their prey. The tiger is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses rivers as wide as 8 km (5.0 mi); it immerses in water, particularly on hot days. In general, it
10332-532: The mother and fatal injuries. After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting. Young bond through play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill. Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts. A cub can make
10458-486: The muscle fibers of human athletes. The family Felidae is part of the Feliformia , a suborder that diverged probably about 50.6 to 35 million years ago into several families. The Felidae and the Asiatic linsangs are considered a sister group , which split about 35.2 to 31.9 million years ago . The earliest cats probably appeared about 35 to 28.5 million years ago . Proailurus
10584-424: The next two hundred years. These included some 1,500 engravings of plants and their important flowers and seeds, most of which were original. The scale and scientific rigour of these were unusual for the time, and Gessner was a skilled artist, producing detailed drawings of specific plant parts that illustrated their characteristics, with extensive marginal notation discussing their growth form and habitation. Finally,
10710-524: The origin of the name for the river Tigris . However, today, the names are thought to be homonyms , and the connection between the tiger and the river is doubted. In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris , as the genus Felis was being used for all cats at the time. His scientific description was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi . In 1929, Reginald Innes Pocock placed
10836-401: The prey spots it before then, the cat does not pursue further. A tiger can sprint 56 km/h (35 mph) and leap 10 m (33 ft); it is not a long-distance runner and gives up a chase if prey outpaces it over a certain distance. The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during
10962-521: The project. He sniffed through remote libraries along with the collections of the Vatican Library and catalogs of printers and booksellers. By assembling this universal library of information, Gessner put together a database centuries before computers would ease such work. He cut relevant passages out of books, grouped the cuttings by general theme, subdivided the groups into more specific categories, and boxed them. He could then retrieve and arrange
11088-540: The sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to his treatise on milk and milk products, Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis a letter addressed to his friend Jacob Avienus (Vogel) of Glarus on the wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise his body. In 1555 he issued his narrative Descriptio Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati of his excursion to
11214-664: The same reserve had cubs of up to four months of age, they reduced their home ranges to stay near their young and steadily enlarged them until their offspring were 13–18 months old. The tiger is a long-ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas. Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mothers' while males migrate further than their female counterparts. Four radio-collared females in Chitwan dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi) and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi). A subadult male lives as
11340-417: The same sex and the home range of a male encompasses that of multiple females. Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10.6 and 14.1 km (4.1 and 5.4 sq mi). In Panna Tiger Reserve , the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53–67 km (20–26 sq mi) in winter to 55–60 km (21–23 sq mi) in summer and to 46–94 km (18–36 sq mi) during
11466-520: The same sex. The range of a male tiger overlaps with that of multiple females with whom he mates. Females give birth to usually two or three cubs that stay with their mother for about two years. When becoming independent, they leave their mother's home range and establish their own. Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and are locally extinct in West and Central Asia , in large areas of China and on
11592-399: The same time and place, and was suggested to be a sister species of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014. However, as of 2023, at least two subsequent studies considered P. zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P. palaeosinensis , noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation. The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in
11718-445: The shoulder. The Siberian and Bengal tigers are the largest. Male Bengal tigers weigh 200–260 kg (440–570 lb), and females weigh 100–160 kg (220–350 lb); island tigers are the smallest, likely due to insular dwarfism . Male Sumatran tigers weigh 100–140 kg (220–310 lb), and females weigh 75–110 kg (165–243 lb). The tiger is popularly thought to be the largest living felid species; but since tigers of
11844-569: The six living putative subspecies—the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South China, Siberian and Sumatran tiger—found them to be distinct and separate clades . These results were corroborated in 2021 and 2023. The Cat Specialist Group states that "Given the varied interpretations of data, the [subspecific] taxonomy of this species is currently under review by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group." The following tables are based on
11970-408: The son of Ursus Gessner, a poor Zürich furrier . His early life was one of poverty and hardship, but Gessner's father realized his talents, and sent him to live with and be schooled by a great uncle, who grew and collected medicinal herbs for a living. Here the boy became familiar with many plants and their medicinal purposes which led to a lifelong interest in natural history. Gessner first attended
12096-478: The species in the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris . Nine recent tiger subspecies have been proposed between the early 19th and early 21st centuries, namely the Bengal , Malayan , Indochinese , South China , Siberian , Caspian , Javan , Bali and Sumatran tigers . The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 as most putative subspecies were distinguished on
12222-434: The struggle and tries to pull it to the ground. The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its victim dies of strangulation . It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3 newtons . Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of horns, antlers, tusks and hooves. Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey may be disabled by
12348-624: The study of natural sciences. Today it is one of the oldest Swiss scientific societies. The society's annual publication, the Neujahrsblatt der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich was devoted to a biography of Gessner in 1966, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of his death. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus named Tulipa gesneriana , the type species of the Tulipa genus , in his honour. The flowering plant genus Gesneria and its family Gesneriaceae are named after him. A genus of moths
12474-418: The three predators involve chasing, stealing kills and direct killing. Large dhole packs may kill tigers. Tigers, leopards and dholes coexist by hunting different sized prey. In Nagarhole National Park , the average weight for tiger kills was found to be 91.5 kg (202 lb), compared to 37.6 kg (83 lb) for leopards and 43.4 kg (96 lb) for dholes. In Kui Buri National Park , following
12600-494: The tiger and snow leopard are sister species whose lineages split from each other between 2.70 and 3.70 million years ago. The tiger's whole genome sequencing shows repeated sequences that parallel those in other cat genomes. The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924, but modern cladistics places it as basal to modern Panthera . Panthera zdanskyi lived around
12726-438: The tiger as green and blended in with the vegetation. The three colour variants of Bengal tigers – nearly stripeless snow-white, white and golden – are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia -brown stripes. The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish-brown stripes. The snow-white tiger
12852-475: The tiger population in far eastern Russia, where logging roads facilitate access for poachers and people harvesting forest products that are important for prey species to survive in winter. Felidae Felidae ( / ˈ f ɛ l ɪ d iː / ) is the family of mammals in the order Carnivora colloquially referred to as cats . A member of this family is also called a felid ( / ˈ f iː l ɪ d / ). The 41 extant Felidae species exhibit
12978-584: The tiger population. In Thailand, nine of 15 protected areas hosting tigers are isolated and fragmented, offering a low probability for dispersal between them; four of these have not harboured tigers since about 2013. In Peninsular Malaysia, 8,315.7 km (3,210.7 sq mi) of tiger habitat was cleared during 1988–2012, most of it for industrial plantations . Large-scale land acquisitions of about 23,000 km (8,900 sq mi) for commercial agriculture and timber extraction in Cambodia contributed to
13104-448: The tiger's range, it inhabits mainly forests, from coniferous and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the Russian Far East and Northeast China to tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests on the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . The tiger is an apex predator and preys mainly on ungulates , which it takes by ambush. It lives a mostly solitary life and occupies home ranges , defending these from individuals of
13230-482: The time of his death, Gesner had published 72 books, and written 18 more unpublished manuscripts. His work on plants was not published until centuries after his death. In 1576 George Baker published a translation of the Evonymus of Conrad Gessner under the title of The Newe Jewell of Health, wherein is contained the most excellent Secretes of Physicke and Philosophie divided into fower bookes . Amongst his students
13356-794: The time spent with her cubs by reducing her home range, killing larger prey and returning to her den more rapidly than without cubs; when the cubs started to eat meat, she took them to kill sites, thereby optimising their protection and access to food. In the same reserve, one of 21 cubs died in over eight years of monitoring and mortality did not differ between male and female juveniles. Tiger monitoring over six years in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve indicated an average annual survival rate of around 85 percent for 74 male and female cubs; survival rate increased to 97 percent for both males and female juveniles of one to two years of age. Causes of cub mortality include predators, floods, fires, death of
13482-467: The title indicated that twenty one parts were intended, only nineteen books were included. Part 20, intended to include his medical work, was never finished and part 21, a theological encyclopaedia, was published separately in 1549. Gessner's great zoological work, Historia animalium , is a 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals that appeared in Zürich in 4 volumes between 1551 and 1558: quadrupeds , amphibians, birds, and fishes. A fifth folio on snakes
13608-481: The titles of their works, and brief annotations. The work, which included his own bio-bibliography, listed some three thousand authors alphabetically, and was the first modern bibliography published since the invention of printing. Through it, Gessner became known as the "father of bibliography." In all, about twelve thousand titles were included. A second part, a thematic index to the work, Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium libri xxi , appeared in 1548. Although
13734-557: The upper school in Strasbourg, the Strasbourg Academy. There he broadened his knowledge of ancient languages by studying Hebrew. In 1535, religious unrest drove him back to Zürich, where he made what some considered an imprudent marriage at the age of 19, of a woman from another poor family who had no dowry . Although some of his friends again came to his aid, he was appointed to obtaining a teaching position for him, this
13860-459: The white spots, particularly during aggressive encounters and between mothers and cubs. They also use their tails to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low. Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations. They roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation
13986-486: The work was published in 1754. There was extreme religious tension at the time that Historia animalium came out. Under Pope Paul IV the Pauline Index felt that the religious convictions of an author contaminated all his writings. Since Gessner was a Protestant his works were included in this index of prohibited books. Even though religious tensions were high, Gessner maintained friendships on both sides of
14112-583: The works of Claudius Aelianus . Historia animalium includes sketches for many well-known animals, and some fictional ones, including unicorns and mermaids. He accomplished many of his works in a large part due to the web of acquaintances he established with leading naturalists throughout Europe, who included John Caius , English court physician to the Tudors and second founder of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge . Not only did they send him their ideas, but also sent him plants, animals and gems. He returned
14238-679: Was Felix Plater , who became a professor of medicine, and accumulated many plant specimens, but also illustrations of animals used in Historiae animalium . A year after his death, his friend Josias Simler published a biography of Gessner. Gessner and others founded the Physikalische Gesellschaft in Zurich, which later became the Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Zürich (NGZH) in 1746, to promote
14364-531: Was a Swiss physician, naturalist , bibliographer , and philologist . Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his talents and supported him through university, where he studied classical languages, theology and medicine. He became Zürich's city physician , but was able to spend much of his time on collecting, research and writing. Gessner compiled monumental works on bibliography ( Bibliotheca universalis 1545–1549) and zoology ( Historia animalium 1551–1558) and
14490-532: Was a Renaissance polymath , a physician, philosopher, encyclopaedist , bibliographer , philologist , natural historian and illustrator. In 1537, at the age of 21, his publication of a Graecolatin dictionary led to his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne (then belonging to Bern ). Here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany, and earn money to further his medical studies. After three years of teaching at Lausanne, Gessner
14616-539: Was a revision of an original work by the Italian cleric, Varinus Phavorinus or Guarino of Favera (d. 1537), Magnum ac perutile dictionarium (1523). Over his lifetime he was able to produce some 70 publications on many different subjects. His next major work was his unique Bibliotheca (1545), a landmark in the history of bibliography, in which he set out to catalogue all the writers who had ever lived and their works. In addition to his monumental work on animal life,
14742-400: Was able to travel to the medical school at the University of Montpellier , where he received his doctoral degree (1541) from Basel. He then returned to Zürich to practice medicine, which he continued to do for the rest of his life. There he was also appointed to the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the Carolinum , the precursor of the University of Zürich . After 1554 he became
14868-586: Was ancestral to two main lines of felids: the cats in the extant subfamilies and a group of extinct "saber-tooth" felids of the subfamily Machairodontinae , which range from the type genus Machairodus of the late Miocene to Smilodon of the Pleistocene. The "false saber-toothed cats", the Barbourofelidae and Nimravidae , are not true cats but are closely related. Together with the Felidae, Viverridae , hyenas and mongooses , they constitute
14994-514: Was considered the last important site for the tiger in Laos, but it has not been recorded there at least since 2013; this population likely fell victim to indiscriminate snaring. Anti-poaching units in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat landscape removed 362 tiger snare traps and seized 91 tiger skins during 2005–2016; annual poaching rates increased with rising skin prices. Poaching is also the main threat to
15120-417: Was estimated to be 0.21–0.44 tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi) as of 2009. Population density in mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of Thailand's Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary was estimated at 2.01 tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi); during the 1970s and 1980s, logging and poaching had occurred in the adjacent Mae Wong and Khlong Lan National Parks , where population density
15246-517: Was in the lowest class and attracted a stipend barely more than a pittance. However, he then obtained a paid leave of absence to study medicine at the University of Basel (1536). Throughout his life Gessner was interested in natural history, and collected specimens and descriptions of wildlife through travel and extensive correspondence with other friends and scholars. In 1543 Arnoldus Arlenius invited Gessner to Venice. Gessner travelled to Italy that same summer. He encountered Venetian printing and
15372-496: Was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled Thierbůch was published in Zürich in 1563. This book was considered to be the first modern zoological work. It built a bridge between ancient, medieval and modern science. In Historia animalium Gessner combines data from old sources, such as the Old Testament, Aristotle, Pliny, folklore, and medieval bestiaries, adding his own observations. He created
15498-852: Was much lower, estimated at only 0.359 tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi) as of 2016. Population density in dipterocarp and montane forests in northern Malaysia was estimated at 1.47–2.43 adult tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi) in Royal Belum State Park , but 0.3–0.92 adult tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi) in the unprotected selectively logged Temengor Forest Reserve. Camera trap data show that tigers in Chitwan National Park avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than during day. In Sundarbans National Park , six radio-collared tigers were most active from dawn to early morning and reached their zenith around 7:00 o'clock in
15624-570: Was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in South China since 2001. Tiger populations in India have been targeted by poachers since the 1990s and were extirpated in two tiger reserves in 2005 and 2009. Between March 2017 and January 2020, 630 activities of hunters using snares , drift nets, hunting platforms and hunting dogs were discovered in a reserve forest of about 1,000 km (390 sq mi) in southern Myanmar. Nam Et-Phou Louey National Park
15750-461: Was utilised by many other authors over the next two centuries, but was finally published in 1754. Not content with scientific works, Gessner was also active as a linguist and bibliographer, putting forth in 1555 his book entitled Mithridates. De differentiis linguarum [...] , an account of about 130 known languages, with the Lord's Prayer in twenty-two languages. He also produced edited works of
15876-411: Was working on a major botanical text at the time of his death from plague at the age of 49. He is regarded as the father of modern scientific bibliography, zoology and botany. He was frequently the first to describe species of plants or animals in Europe, such as the tulip in 1559. A number of plants and animals have been named after him. Conrad Gessner was born on 26 March 1516, in Zürich, Switzerland,
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