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66-748: Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee (born 8 June 1955), also known as TimBL , is an English computer scientist best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web , the HTML markup language , the URL system, and HTTP . He is a professorial research fellow at the University of Oxford and a professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Berners-Lee proposed an information management system on 12 March 1989 and implemented

132-485: A Memex . A Memex would hypothetically store — and record — content on reels of microfilm, using electric photocells to read coded symbols recorded next to individual microfilm frames while the reels spun at high speed, and stopping on command. The coded symbols would enable the Memex to index, search, and link content to create and follow associative trails. Because the Memex was never implemented and could only link content in

198-652: A PhD , M.S. , Bachelor's degree in computer science, or other similar fields like Information and Computer Science (CIS), or a closely related discipline such as mathematics or physics . Computer scientists are often hired by software publishing firms, scientific research and development organizations where they develop the theories and computer model that allow new technologies to be developed. Computer scientists are also employed by educational institutions such as universities . Computer scientists can follow more practical applications of their knowledge, doing things such as software engineering. They can also be found in

264-741: A model railway . From 1973 to 1976, he studied at The Queen's College, Oxford , where he received a first-class BA in physics. While there, he made a computer out of an old television set he had purchased from a repair shop. After graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole , Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown , Dorset, where he helped create typesetting software for printers. Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva , he proposed

330-493: A wiki but without hypertext punctuation, which was not invented until 1987. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental "hyperediting" functions in word processors and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later analogous to the World Wide Web . Guide , the first significant hypertext system for personal computers , was developed by Peter J. Brown at the University of Kent in 1982. In 1980, Roberto Busa , an Italian Jesuit priest and one of

396-480: A 'hypertext' (meaning editing) interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as " The Mother of All Demos ". In 1971 a system called Scrapbook , produced by David Yates and his team at the UK's National Physical Laboratory , went live. It was an information storage and retrieval system that included what would now be called word processing, e-mail and hypertext. ZOG , an early hypertext system,

462-618: A change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. In the 1990s, women and feminist artists took advantage of hypertext and produced dozens of works. Linda Dement 's Cyberflesh Girlmonster a hypertext CD-ROM that incorporates images of women's body parts and remixes them to create new monstrous yet beautiful shapes. Caitlin Fisher's award-winning online hypertext novella These Waves of Girls (2001)

528-646: A fellow. In 1989, CERN was the largest Internet node in Europe and Berners-Lee saw an opportunity to join hypertext with the Internet: I just had to take the hypertext idea and connect it to the TCP and DNS ideas and—ta-da!—the World Wide Web. Creating the web was really an act of desperation, because the situation without it was very difficult when I was working at CERN later. Most of the technology involved in

594-625: A few related authors. In 1983, Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland Human - Computer Interaction Lab led a group that developed the HyperTies system that was commercialized by Cognetics Corporation . They studied many designs before adopting the blue color for links . Hyperties was used to create the July 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM as a hypertext document and then

660-573: A hypertext document usually replace the current piece of hypertext with the destination document. A lesser known feature is StretchText , which expands or contracts the content in place, thereby giving more control to the reader in determining the level of detail of the displayed document. Some implementations support transclusion , where text or other content is included by reference and automatically rendered in place. Hypertext can be used to support very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext

726-542: A new hypertext project in response to a request for a simple, immediate, information-sharing facility, to be used among physicists working at CERN and other academic institutions. He called the project "WorldWideWeb". HyperText is a way to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will. Potentially, HyperText provides a single user-interface to many large classes of stored information, such as reports, notes, data-bases, computer documentation and on-line systems help. We propose

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792-562: A project based on the concept of hypertext , to facilitate sharing and updating information among researchers. To demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE . After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Poole's Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth, Dorset. He ran the company's technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a " real-time remote procedure call " which gave him experience in computer networking . In 1984, he returned to CERN as

858-500: A relatively crude fashion — by creating chains of entire microfilm frames — the Memex is regarded only as a proto-hypertext device, but it is fundamental to the history of hypertext because it directly inspired the invention of hypertext by Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. In 1965, Ted Nelson coined the terms 'hypertext' and 'hypermedia' as part of a model he developed for creating and using linked content (first published reference 1965). He later worked with Andries van Dam to develop

924-552: A replacement for hypertextual narrative. Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on. This can also been seen as contributing to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext may be detrimental to the development of appealing stories (in the case of hypertext Gamebooks ), where ease of linking fragments may lead to non-cohesive or incomprehensible narratives. However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on

990-638: Is broadened in the developing world, where only 31% of people are online. Berners-Lee will work with those aiming to decrease Internet access prices so that they fall below the UN Broadband Commission 's worldwide target of 5% of monthly income. Berners-Lee holds the founders chair in Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , where he heads the Decentralized Information Group and

1056-605: Is leading Solid , a joint project with the Qatar Computing Research Institute that aims to radically change the way Web applications work today, resulting in true data ownership as well as improved privacy. In October 2016, he joined the Department of Computer Science at Oxford University as a professorial research fellow and as a fellow of Christ Church , one of the Oxford colleges. From

1122-509: Is set in three time periods of the protagonist exploring polymorphous perversity enacted in her queer identity through memory. The story is written as a reflection diary of the interconnected memories of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It consists of an associated multi-modal collection of nodes includes linked text, still and moving images, manipulable images, animations, and sound clips. Adrienne Eisen (pen name for Penelope Trunk ) wrote hypertexts that were subversive narrative journeys into

1188-538: Is the World Wide Web , written in the final months of 1990 and released on the Internet in 1991. In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges published " The Garden of Forking Paths ", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext. In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called " As We May Think ", about a futuristic proto-hypertext device he called

1254-507: Is the theoretical study of computing from which these other fields derive. A primary goal of computer scientists is to develop or validate models, often mathematical, to describe the properties of computational systems ( processors , programs, computers interacting with people, computers interacting with other computers, etc.) with an overall objective of discovering designs that yield useful benefits (faster, smaller, cheaper, more precise, etc.). Most computer scientists are required to possess

1320-647: The Chapel Royal , St. James's Palace in London. Leith is a Canadian Internet and banking entrepreneur and a founding director of Berners-Lee's World Wide Web Foundation . The couple also collaborate on venture capital to support artificial intelligence companies. Berners-Lee was raised as an Anglican , but he turned away from religion in his youth. After he became a parent, he became a Unitarian Universalist (UU). When asked whether he believes in God, he stated: "Not in

1386-463: The Ferranti Mark 1 , the first commercially-built computer. He has three younger siblings; his brother, Mike , is a professor of ecology and climate change management. Berners-Lee attended Sheen Mount Primary School, then attended Emanuel School (a direct grant grammar school at the time) from 1969 to 1973. A keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with

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1452-534: The Greek prefix "ὑπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond"; it has a common origin with the prefix "super-" which comes from Latin. It signifies the overcoming of the previous linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is often used where the term " hypermedia " might seem appropriate. In 1992, author Ted Nelson  – who coined both terms in 1963  – wrote: By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but

1518-606: The Hypertext Editing System (text editing) in 1967 at Brown University . It was implemented using the terminal IBM 2250 with a light pen which was provided as a pointing device . By 1976, its successor FRESS was used in a poetry class in which students could browse a hyperlinked set of poems and discussion by experts, faculty and other students, in what was arguably the world's first online scholarly community which van Dam says "foreshadowed wikis, blogs and communal documents of all kinds". Ted Nelson said in

1584-697: The Internet Governance Forum in Berlin, Berners-Lee and the WWWF launched Contract for the Web , a campaign initiative to persuade governments, companies and citizens to commit to nine principles to stop "misuse", with the warning that "if we don't act now – and act together – to prevent the web being misused by those who want to exploit, divide and undermine, we are at risk of squandering [its potential for good]". "He wove

1650-811: The World Wide Web Foundation . In April 2009, he was elected as Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences . Berners-Lee was previously a senior researcher and holder of the 3Com founder's chair at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative (WSRI) and a member of the advisory board of the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence . In 2011, he

1716-468: The 1960s that he began implementation of a hypertext system he theorized, which was named Project Xanadu , but his first and incomplete public release was finished much later, in 1998. Douglas Engelbart independently began working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated

1782-420: The 1990s. Judy Malloy 's Uncle Roger (1986) and Michael Joyce 's afternoon, a story (1987) are generally considered the first works of hypertext fiction. An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes,

1848-621: The 2016 Association for Computing Machinery 's Turing Award for his invention of the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and their fundamental protocols and algorithms. Berners-Lee has said "I like to keep work and personal life separate." Berners-Lee married Nancy Carlson, an American computer programmer, in 1990. She was also working in Switzerland at the World Health Organization . They had two children and divorced in 2011. In 2014, he married Rosemary Leith at

1914-587: The EME specification became a formal W3C recommendation in September 2017. On 30 September 2018, Berners-Lee announced his new open-source startup Inrupt to fuel a commercial ecosystem around the Solid project, which aims to give users more control over their personal data and lets them choose where the data goes, who's allowed to see certain elements and which apps are allowed to see that data. In November 2019, at

1980-787: The East Dorset Heritage Trust, having previously lived in Colehill in Wimborne , East Dorset . In December 2004, he accepted a chair in computer science at the School of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton , Hampshire, to work on the Semantic Web . In a Times article in October 2009, Berners-Lee admitted that the initial pair of slashes ("//") in a web address were "unnecessary". He told

2046-464: The Internet began the creation of the Web on the Internet. As new web browsers were released, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. As a result, all previous hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the Web, even though it lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as integrated browsers/editors (a feature of

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2112-776: The Prime Minister. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2001 . He was also elected as a member into the American Philosophical Society in 2004 and the National Academy of Engineering in 2007. He has been conferred honorary degrees from a number of universities around the world, including Manchester (his parents worked on the Manchester Mark 1 in the 1940s), Harvard and Yale . In 2012, Berners-Lee

2178-434: The Web to empower humanity by launching transformative programs that build local capacity to leverage the Web as a medium for positive change". Berners-Lee is one of the pioneer voices in favour of net neutrality , and has expressed the view that ISPs should supply "connectivity with no strings attached", and should neither control nor monitor the browsing activities of customers without their expressed consent. He advocates

2244-502: The Web to scale". He was named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and has received a number of other accolades for his invention. Berners-Lee was born in London on 8 June 1955, the son of mathematicians and computer scientists Mary Lee Woods (1924–2017) and Conway Berners-Lee (1921–2019). His parents were both from Birmingham and worked on

2310-415: The World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free." —Tim Berners-Lee's entry in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century , March 1999. Berners-Lee has received many awards and honours. He

2376-614: The World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2 , also include many papers of interest. There is a list on the Web with links to all conferences in the series. Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Hypertext fiction is one of earliest genres of electronic literature , or literary works that are designed to be read in digital media. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia , became available in

2442-463: The World Wide Web was, and how people could use a browser and set up a web server, as well as how to get started with your own website. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee first posted, on Usenet , a public invitation for collaboration with the WorldWideWeb project. In a list of 80 cultural moments that shaped the world, chosen by a panel of 25 eminent scientists, academics, writers and world leaders,

2508-549: The academic study of computer science . Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation. Although computer scientists can also focus their work and research on specific areas (such as algorithm and data structure development and design, software engineering , information theory , database theory , theoretical computer science , numerical analysis , programming language theory , compiler , computer graphics , computer vision , robotics , computer architecture , operating system ), their foundation

2574-567: The audience. Berners-Lee joined the board of advisors of start-up State.com , based in London. As of May 2012, he is president of the Open Data Institute , which he co-founded with Nigel Shadbolt in 2012. The Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) was launched in October 2013, and Berners-Lee is leading the coalition of public and private organisations that includes Google , Facebook , Intel and Microsoft . The A4AI seeks to make Internet access more affordable so that access

2640-405: The branched literature writing software Storyspace , were also demonstrated. Meanwhile, Nelson (who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades) convinced Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN , proposed and later prototyped

2706-727: The corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound – as well as text – is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia": this is four syllables longer, and does not express the idea of extending hypertext. Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input, such as dynamic web pages ). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications , or books on CDs . A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Links used in

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2772-463: The field of information technology consulting , and may be seen as a type of mathematician, given how much of the field depends on mathematics. Computer scientists employed in industry may eventually advance into managerial or project leadership positions. Employment prospects for computer scientists are said to be excellent. Such prospects seem to be attributed, in part, to very rapid growth in computer systems design and related services industry, and

2838-528: The first web browser . His software also functioned as an editor (called WorldWideWeb , running on the NeXTSTEP operating system), and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd (short for Hypertext Transfer Protocol daemon ). Berners-Lee published the first web site, which described the project itself, on 20 December 1990; it was available to the Internet from the CERN network. The site provided an explanation of what

2904-872: The first commercial electronic book Hypertext Hands-On! . In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention . Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia , led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext, hypermedia, databases, and new media in general. The first ACM Hypertext (hyperediting and databases) academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC, where many other applications, including

2970-503: The first successful communication between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) client and server via the Internet in mid-November. He devised and implemented the first Web browser and Web server and helped foster the Web's subsequent explosive development. He is the founder and director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which oversees the continued development of the Web. He co-founded (with Rosemary Leith )

3036-569: The idea that net neutrality is a kind of human network right: "Threats to the Internet, such as companies or governments that interfere with or snoop on Internet traffic, compromise basic human network rights." Berners-Lee participated in an open letter to the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC). He and 20 other Internet pioneers urged the FCC to cancel a vote on 14 December 2017 to uphold net neutrality. The letter

3102-516: The implementation of a simple scheme to incorporate several different servers of machine-stored information already available at CERN, including an analysis of the requirements for information access needs by experiments... A program which provides access to the hypertext world we call a browser. ― T. Berners-Lee, R. Cailliau, 12 November 1990, CERN In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on

3168-496: The invention of the World Wide Web was ranked number one, with the entry stating, "The fastest growing communications medium of all time, the Internet has changed the shape of modern life forever. We can connect with each other instantly, all over the world." In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve

3234-424: The mid-2010s, Berners-Lee initially remained neutral on the emerging Encrypted Media Extensions (EME) proposal with its controversial digital rights management (DRM) implications. In March 2017 he felt he had to take a position which was to support the EME proposal. He reasoned EME's virtues whilst noting DRM was inevitable. As W3C director, he went on to approve the finalised specification in July 2017. His stance

3300-541: The newspaper that he easily could have designed web addresses without the slashes. "There you go, it seemed like a good idea at the time," he said in his lighthearted apology. By 2010, he created data.gov.uk alongside Nigel Shadbolt . Commenting on the Ordnance Survey data in April 2010, Berners-Lee said: "The changes signal a wider cultural change in government based on an assumption that information should be in

3366-636: The original WorldWideWeb browser, which was not carried over into most of the other early Web browsers). Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu , Hypertext Editing System , NLS , HyperCard , and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media . The Electronic Literature Organization hosts annual conferences discussing hypertext fiction , poetry and other forms of electronic literature . Although not exclusively about hypertext,

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3432-587: The pioneers in the usage of computers for linguistic and literary analysis, published the Index Thomisticus , as a tool for performing text searches within the massive corpus of Aquinas 's works. Sponsored by the founder of IBM, Thomas J. Watson , the project lasted about 30 years (1949–1980), and eventually produced the 56 printed volumes of the Index Thomisticus the first important hypertext work about Saint Thomas Aquinas books and of

3498-466: The public domain unless there is a good reason not to—not the other way around." He went on to say: "Greater openness, accountability and transparency in Government will give people greater choice and make it easier for individuals to get more directly involved in issues that matter to them." In November 2009, Berners-Lee launched the World Wide Web Foundation (WWWF) in order to campaign to "advance

3564-508: The quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made his idea available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The World Wide Web Consortium decided that its standards should be based on royalty-free technology, so that they easily could be adopted by anyone. Berners-Lee participated in Curl Corp's attempt to develop and promote the Curl programming language . In 2001, Berners-Lee became a patron of

3630-459: The same subject in a simple way. This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world, and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies

3696-514: The self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. One of the most successful computer games, Myst , was first written in HyperCard. The game was constructed as a series of Ages, each Age consisting of a separate HyperCard stack. The full stack of the game consists of over 2500 cards. In some ways, Myst redefined interactive fiction, using puzzles and exploration as

3762-400: The sense of most people, I'm atheist and Unitarian Universalist." The web 's source code was auctioned by Sotheby's in London during 23–30 June 2021, as a non-fungible token (NFT) by TimBL. Selling for US$ 5,434,500, it was reported the proceeds would be used to fund initiatives by TimBL and Leith. Computer scientist A computer scientist is a scientist who specializes in

3828-519: The software publishing industry, which are projected to be among the fastest growing industries in the U.S. economy. Hypertext "(...)'Hypertext' is a recent coinage. 'Hyper-' is used in the mathematical sense of extension and generality (as in 'hyperspace,' 'hypercube') rather than the medical sense of 'excessive' ('hyperactivity'). There is no implication about size — a hypertext could contain only 500 words or so. 'Hyper-' refers to structure and not size." The English prefix "hyper-" comes from

3894-466: The web, like the hypertext, like the Internet, multifont text objects, had all been designed already. I just had to put them together. It was a step of generalising, going to a higher level of abstraction, thinking about all the documentation systems out there as being possibly part of a larger imaginary documentation system. Berners-Lee wrote his proposal in March 1989 and, in 1990, redistributed it. It then

3960-608: Was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in the 2004 New Year Honours "for services to the global development of the Internet", and was invested formally on 16 July 2004. On 13 June 2007, he was appointed to the Order of Merit (OM), an order restricted to 24 living members, plus any honorary members. Bestowing membership of the Order of Merit is within the personal purview of the Sovereign and does not require recommendation by ministers or

4026-458: Was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall, who called his proposals "vague, but exciting". Robert Cailliau had independently proposed a project to develop a hypertext system at CERN, and joined Berners-Lee as a partner in his efforts to get the web off the ground. They used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web , for which Berners-Lee designed and built

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4092-453: Was addressed to Senator Roger Wicker , Senator Brian Schatz , Representative Marsha Blackburn and Representative Michael F. Doyle. Berners-Lee was honoured as the "Inventor of the World Wide Web" during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony , in which he appeared working with a vintage NeXT Computer . He tweeted "This is for everyone" which appeared in LED lights attached to the chairs of

4158-576: Was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires to mark his 80th birthday. In 2013, he was awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering . On 4 April 2017, he received

4224-618: Was developed at Carnegie Mellon University during the 1970s, used for documents on Nimitz class aircraft carriers, and later evolving as KMS (Knowledge Management System). The first hypermedia application is generally considered to be the Aspen Movie Map , implemented in 1978. The Movie Map allowed users to arbitrarily choose which way they wished to drive in a virtual cityscape, in two seasons (from actual photographs) as well as 3-D polygons . In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE , an early hypertext database system somewhat like

4290-480: Was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation . He is a founder and president of the Open Data Institute and is currently an advisor at social network MeWe . In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work. He received the 2016 Turing Award "for inventing the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and the fundamental protocols and algorithms allowing

4356-494: Was opposed by some including Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), the anti-DRM campaign Defective by Design and the Free Software Foundation . Varied concerns raised included being not supportive of the Internet's open philosophy against commercial interests and risks of users being forced to use a particular web browser to view specific DRM content. The EFF raised a formal appeal which did not succeed and

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