Inuvialuktun (part of Western Canadian Inuit / Inuktitut / Inuktut / Inuktun ) comprises several Inuit language varieties spoken in the northern Northwest Territories by Canadian Inuit who call themselves Inuvialuit . Some dialects and sub-dialects are also spoken in Nunavut.
91-694: Tuktoyaktuk ( / ˌ t ʌ k t ə ˈ j æ k t ʌ k / TUK -tə- YAK -tuk ; Inuvialuktun : Tuktuyaaqtuuq [təktujaːqtuːq] , lit. ' it looks like a caribou ' ) is an Inuvialuit hamlet located near the Mackenzie River delta in the Inuvik Region of the Northwest Territories , Canada, at the northern terminus of the Inuvik–Tuktoyaktuk Highway . One of six Inuvialuit communities in
182-521: A tundra climate (ET), as the July mean temperature is barely above 10 °C (50 °F). Since the Arctic Ocean freezes over for much of the year, the maritime influence is minimized, resulting in cold winters and a strong seasonal lag in spring. This results in colder Aprils than Octobers and much colder Mays than Septembers. March is also colder than December, and is the only month yet to record
273-641: A base for the oil and natural gas exploration of the Beaufort Sea . Large industrial buildings remain from the busy period following the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries 1973 oil embargo and 1979 summertime fuel shortage . This brought many more outsiders into the region. In late 2010, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency announced that an environmental study would be undertaken on
364-555: A proposed all-weather road between Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk. Work on the Inuvik–Tuktoyaktuk Highway officially started on 8 January 2014, and the highway was officially opened on 15 November 2017. Tuktoyaktuk is set on Kugmallit Bay , near the Mackenzie River Delta, and is located on the Arctic tree line . Tuktoyaktuk is the gateway for exploring Pingo National Landmark , an area protecting eight nearby pingos in
455-625: A region which contains approximately 1,350 of these Arctic ice-dome hills. The landmark comprises an area roughly 16 km (6.2 sq mi), just a few kilometres west of the community, and includes Canada's highest, the world's second-highest, pingo, at 49 m (161 ft). Many locals still hunt, fish, and trap. Locals rely on caribou in the autumn, ducks and geese in both spring and autumn, and fishing year-round. Other activities include collecting driftwood , berrypicking, and reindeer herding . Most productivity today comes from tourism and transportation. Marine Transportation Services (MTS)
546-520: A result, temperatures well above average can occur in summer in spite of the cold surrounding waters. During a bout of exceptionally hot Arctic weather, Tuktoyaktuk was among the numerous northern communities that witnessed new highest temperatures for the day, reaching a high of 29.9 °C (85.8 °F) on 4 July 2022. Its overall highest temperature of 30.4 °C (86.7 °F) was recorded on 2 July 1998. Tuktoyaktuk's climate stands in stark contrast to those of Northern Norway at similar latitudes, but
637-528: A steady decline since the 1960s. Water mammals such as beavers and muskrats are extremely common in the Mackenzie Delta and surrounding areas of muskeg. The Mackenzie estuary is also a calving area for beluga whales . The Mackenzie valley is believed to have been the path taken by prehistoric peoples during the initial human migration from Asia to North America more than 10,000 years ago. However, archaeological evidence of human habitation along
728-524: A temperature above freezing at any point. Due to the dominance of cold air, Tuktoyaktuk has a lower precipitation rate than many desert climates. In spite of this, the cold temperatures mean it receives more than a metre of snow a year on average. Owing to the thousands of kilometers of land to the south of Tuktoyaktuk, southerly winds can sometimes push warmer air into the region. Rex blocks can cause an exceptionally strong ridge of high pressure to form at higher latitudes, allowing heat to build consistently. As
819-430: Is 1,738 kilometres (1,080 mi) long, flowing north-northwest from Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean , where it forms a large delta at its mouth. Its extensive watershed drains about 20 percent of Canada. It is the largest river flowing into the Arctic from North America , and including its tributaries has a total length of 4,241 kilometres (2,635 mi), making it the thirteenth longest river system in
910-428: Is a major employer in this region. In addition, the oil and gas industry continues to employ explorers and other workers. In 1962, the government sponsored Tuktoyaktuk Fur Garment Project was started; it provided vocational training in industrial sewing and commercial production of items for sale, including parkas, mitts, slippers, mukluks, hats, wall hangings, placemats and dolls produced by local women that were sold in
1001-766: Is a river in the Canadian boreal forest . It forms, along with the Slave, Peace, and Finlay, the longest river system in Canada , and includes the second largest drainage basin of any North American river after the Mississippi . The Mackenzie River flows through a vast, thinly populated region of forest and tundra entirely within the Northwest Territories in Canada, although its many tributaries reach into five other Canadian provinces and territories . The river's main stem
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#17327725479241092-649: Is considered to be some of the best northern farmland in Canada, due to the high concentration of minerals found in the soil. These conditions are expected to be improved even more by trends in climate change, such as warmer temperatures and a longer growing season. According to the British Columbia Environmental Network, "there is enough agricultural capability in the Peace River Valley to provide vegetables to all of northern Canada". The only functioning oil pipeline in
1183-526: Is forested (mostly boreal forest ). Wetlands comprise about 18%, or about 324,900 km (125,400 sq mi), of the basin. More than 93% of forested areas are virgin old-growth forest . However, human activities such as oil extraction have threatened water quality in the headwaters of the Mackenzie River. In addition, a warming climate in northern parts of the watershed is melting permafrost and destabilizing soil through erosion. Most of
1274-426: Is formed by the confluence of the two rivers and flows 415 kilometres (258 mi) due north into Great Slave Lake, at Fort Resolution , Northwest Territories. The Slave is by far the largest river flowing into the lake, with an annual flow of 108 km (87 million acre-feet). It contributes about 77% of the overall inflow, and forms a large delta where it enters the lake. Other rivers entering Great Slave Lake are
1365-697: Is in many ways less extreme in comparison with Eastern Canada at lower latitudes, where summers are cooler, moderated by the cool waters of the Hudson Bay. Tuktoyaktuk/James Gruben Airport links Tuktoyaktuk to Inuvik. This 30-minute flight costs a few hundred dollars per passenger. Formerly in winter time, the Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road provided road access to Inuvik. The $ 300-million Inuvik–Tuktoyaktuk Highway opened in November 2017, which provides all-season access to Inuvik, which connects to
1456-539: Is known as Mills Lake. After heading west for about 100 km (62 mi) the Mackenzie narrows and turns northwest through a long stretch of fast water and rapids, past the village of Jean Marie River . At Fort Simpson it is joined by the Liard River , its biggest direct tributary, from the west. The Liard drains a large area in the southern Yukon and northern BC and carries a large amount of sediment during
1547-562: Is nearly 210 km (130 mi) from north to south, and ranges in width from 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 mi). It is the second biggest Arctic delta in the world, after the Lena River delta in Russia. Most land in the Mackenzie delta consists of permafrost , with great depths to bedrock. A characteristic feature of the delta is its numerous pingos , or hills of earth-covered-ice – some 1,400 of them. The Peel River , carrying much of
1638-678: Is significantly deeper than Great Bear. The third major lake, Athabasca, is less than a third that size with an area of 7,800 km (3,000 sq mi). Six other lakes in the watershed cover more than 1,000 km (390 sq mi), including the Williston Lake reservoir , the second-largest artificial lake in North America, on the Peace River. The river discharges more than 325 cubic kilometres (78 cu mi) of water each year, accounting for roughly 11% of
1729-404: Is the anglicized form of the native Inuvialuit place-name, meaning "resembling a caribou ". According to legend, a woman looked on as some caribou, common at the site, waded into the water and turned into stone, or became petrified . Today, reefs resembling these petrified caribou are said to be visible at low tide along the shore of the town. No formal archaeological sites exist today, but
1820-592: Is very young in geologic terms – its channel formed over a period of no more than several thousand years as the ice sheet retreated. Prior to the ice ages, only the Peel River tributary flowed through what is now the Mackenzie Delta into the Arctic Ocean. The other tributaries of the Mackenzie combined into the "Bell River" which flowed east into Hudson Bay. During glaciation the weight of the ice sheet depressed northern Canada's terrain to such an extent that when
1911-807: The Kangiryuarmiutun dialect of Inuinnaqtun on Victoria Island in the East and the Uummarmiutun dialect of Iñupiaq around Inuvik and Aklavik in the West. Inuvialuktun, Inuinnaqtun and Inuktitut constitute three of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories. Inuinnaqtun is also official alongside Inuktitut in Nunavut. The Inuvialuktun dialects are seriously endangered , as English has in recent years become
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#17327725479242002-618: The 1825–1827 Mackenzie River expedition . The following year he traced the coast west until blocked by ice while John Richardson followed the coast east to the Coppermine River . In 1849 William Pullen reached the Mackenzie from the Bering Strait. In the following decades the North West Company established forts on the river, the precursors of present-day settlements such as Fort Simpson (formerly Fort of
2093-538: The Arctic Red River from the southwest at Tsiigehtchic , where traffic on the Dempster Highway crosses via ferry/ice bridge. About 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwest of Tsiigehtchic is Point Separation, the head of the vast Mackenzie River Delta, whose branching channels, ponds and wetlands spread across more than 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) of the coastal plain. The delta
2184-888: The Athabasca River all the way to the delta, though with several areas such as the huge rapids on the Slave River requiring portages . The route taken by gold seekers started in Edmonton and followed the Athabasca, Slave and Mackenzie Rivers as far as the Peel River , then up the Peel and its tributary the Rat River to the headwaters of the Porcupine River , which flows to the Yukon River . Many who attempted
2275-762: The Bering Strait ; and the Fraser River and Columbia River systems, both of which empty into the Pacific Ocean . Lowland divides in the north separate the Mackenzie basin from the Arctic Ocean watersheds of the Anderson , Horton , Coppermine and Back Rivers. In the east, the Mackenzie borders on the Hudson Bay watersheds of the Thelon and Churchill Rivers, and to the south it is bordered by
2366-613: The Dene people, as well as residents of Herschel Island , settled here. By 1937, the Hudson's Bay Company had established a trading post . On 9 September 1944, a serious fall windstorm blew through the community and severely damaged several buildings and schooners docked at the harbour, also killing 11 people en route back from a reindeer station on the Anderson River on the schooner Cally . Radar domes were installed beginning in
2457-588: The Gwichya Gwich'in . In 2008, Canadian and Japanese researchers extracted a constant stream of natural gas from a test project at the Mallik methane hydrate field in the Mackenzie Delta. This was the second such drilling at Mallik: the first took place in 2002 and used heat to release methane. In the 2008 experiment, researchers were able to extract gas by lowering the pressure, without heating, requiring significantly less energy. The Mallik gas hydrate field
2548-803: The Hudson's Bay Company . These Inuit are called Uummarmiut – which means people of the green trees – in reference to their settlements near the tree line . Originally, there was an intense dislike between the Siglit and the Uummarmiut, but these differences have faded over the years, and the two communities are thoroughly intermixed these days. The phonology of Inuvialuktun and other Inuit languages can be found at Inuit phonology . Most Inuit languages have fifteen consonants and three vowel qualities (with phonemic length distinctions for each). Although Inupiatun and Qawiaraq have retroflex consonants , retroflexes have otherwise disappeared in all
2639-574: The Inuvialuit Settlement Region , it is commonly referred to by its first syllable, Tuk ( / t ʌ k / ). It lies north of the Arctic Circle on the shores of the Arctic Ocean , and is the only place on the Arctic Ocean connected to the rest of Canada by road. Known as Port Brabant after British colonization, in 1950 it became the first Indigenous settlement in Canada to reclaim its traditional name. Tuktoyaktuk
2730-649: The Northern Interior of BC, is the ultimate source of the Mackenzie River via the Finlay – Peace River system, which stretches 1,923 kilometres (1,195 mi) through BC and Alberta. The 1,231-kilometre (765 mi) Athabasca River originates further south, in Jasper National Park in southwest Alberta. Together, the Peace and Athabasca rivers drain a significant portion of the eastern slope of
2821-568: The Rocky Mountains and the central Alberta prairie. The Peace contributes the majority of the water, about 66 km (54 million acre-feet ) per year, and the Athabasca contributes 25 km (20 million acre-feet). The Peace and Athabasca meet at the Peace-Athabasca Delta , a vast inland delta at the western end of Lake Athabasca , which also takes runoff from the northern third of Saskatchewan. The Slave River
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2912-699: The Saskatchewan – Nelson River system, which also empties into Hudson Bay. The Mackenzie system is hydrologically connected to the Hudson Bay watershed via Wollaston Lake , which is not only the source of the Fond du Lac tributary of Lake Athabasca, but also of the Cochrane River , which flows east into the Churchill River. The eastern portion of the Mackenzie basin is dominated by vast reaches of lake-studded boreal forest and includes many of
3003-455: The Taltson , Lockhart and Hay Rivers , the latter of which also extends into Alberta and BC. The Mackenzie River issues from the western end of Great Slave Lake about 150 km (93 mi) south-west of Yellowknife . The channel is initially several kilometres wide but narrows to about 800 m (2,600 ft) at Fort Providence , which was historically an important ferry crossing in
3094-685: The 1950s as part of the Distant Early Warning Line , to monitor air traffic and detect possible Soviet intrusions during the Cold War . The settlement's location (and harbour) made Tuk important in resupplying the civilian contractors and Air Force personnel along the DEW Line. In 1947, Tuktoyaktuk became the site of one of the first government day schools , designed to forcibly assimilate Inuit youth into mainstream Canadian culture. The community of Tuktoyaktuk eventually became
3185-505: The 3,200-kilometre (2,000 mi) journey died along the way or turned back before reaching the Yukon. Oil was discovered at Norman Wells in the 1920s, beginning a period of industrialization in the Mackenzie valley. Oil was initially shipped out by steamboats, supplying mines and towns across the NWT. This demand grew when gold was discovered on the northern shore of Great Slave Lake, leading to
3276-518: The Canadian and Greenlandic dialects. Inuvialuktun and Inuinnaqtun are written in a Latin alphabet and have no tradition of Inuktitut syllabics . However, the dialects spoken in Nunavut, east of the Inuinnaqtun region use syllabics . The Inuvialuktun dialects are seriously endangered, as English has in recent years become the common language of the community. Surveys of Inuktitut usage in
3367-451: The Forks). A lucrative fur trade was carried out, as the Mackenzie basin teemed with beaver and muskrat. However, the short summer and harsh winter conditions limited trappers' activities. During the late 19th century Fort Simpson was regional headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company . The first fur trappers were native, but starting in the 1920s increasing numbers of European trappers entered
3458-579: The Great Slave Lake region. By acting as a massive stabilizer on the water flow of the Peace River, Williston Lake reduces flood crests on the Peace, Slave and Mackenzie rivers as far downstream as Fort Good Hope . This has made the Peace Valley more suitable for farming, but has had significant impacts on downstream wildlife and riparian communities. The more stable annual flow slows down the spread of essential nutrients which builds up in
3549-526: The Liard River, it is 6,769 m /s (239,000 cu ft/s). At Norman Wells it is 8,446 m /s (298,300 cu ft/s), and at the Arctic Red confluence it is 8,926 m /s (315,200 cu ft/s). Mackenzie monthly mean discharge at Arctic Red River (m /s) As recently as the last glacial maximum about 30,000 years ago, the majority of northern Canada was buried under
3640-445: The Mackenzie River drainage basin encompasses nearly 20 percent of Canada. About 980,000 km (380,000 sq mi), or 54 percent of the basin, lies above Great Slave Lake. Permafrost underlies about three-quarters of the watershed, reaching up to 100 m (330 ft) deep in the Mackenzie Delta. As a whole, the Mackenzie basin receives only meager to moderate rainfall, averaging 410 millimetres (16 in) over
3731-581: The Mackenzie River. Fort Providence lost 20 percent of its population, and some smaller villages and camps were completely wiped out. Steamboat service on the Mackenzie River began in the 1880s, and the number of vessels surged in the early 1900s as the Klondike Gold Rush brought a wave of prospectors to the Yukon. The Mackenzie River was one of the main routes into the northern interior, with sternwheelers transporting passengers, domestic supplies and industrial goods from as far upstream as
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3822-498: The Mackenzie basin connects Norman Wells with Zama City , Alberta. Norman Wells was the main oil-producing area on the Mackenzie River until the 1970s, when new oil fields were discovered further north in the Mackenzie delta and the surrounding coastline. As of 2016, there were an estimated 166 billion barrels of oil reserves in this region. There is a proposal for a Mackenzie Valley Pipeline , which has not been built due to environmental concerns and falling oil and gas prices. During
3913-492: The Mackenzie is scant, despite the efforts of many researchers. Many archaeological sites have probably been destroyed by flooding, freeze-thaw and erosion. The Inuvialuit , Gwich'in and other Indigenous peoples have lived along the river for thousands of years; however, the oldest known evidence of continuous occupation stretches back only about 1300–1400 years, at the Gwich'in community of Tsiigehtchic . The Mackenzie provided
4004-483: The Mackenzie watershed is unbroken wilderness and human activities have little influence on the overall water quality, although there are some localized impacts. Some parts of the Mackenzie basin are rich in natural resources – oil and gas in the Northwest Territories and in central Alberta , lumber in the Peace River headwaters, uranium in Saskatchewan, gold and zinc in the Great Slave Lake area and tungsten in
4095-558: The Mountain River the Mackenzie flows due north until reaching The Ramparts , a limestone gorge barely 500 metres (1,600 ft) wide and up to 45 metres (148 ft) deep. Below The Ramparts is the village of Fort Good Hope , where the Mackenzie turns northwest again, soon crossing the Arctic Circle . The Mackenzie here flows slightly lower in elevation than the surrounding tundra , as a braided river between low bluffs about 3 to 5 km (1.9 to 3.1 mi) apart. It receives
4186-602: The NWT vary, but all agree that usage is not vigorous. According to the Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre , only 10% of the roughly 4,000 Inuvialuit speak any form of Inuktitut, and only 4% use it at home. Statistics Canada 's 2001 Census report is only slightly better, reporting 765 self-identified Inuktitut speakers out of a self-reported Inuvialuit population of 3,905. Considering the large number of non-Inuit living in Inuvialuit areas and
4277-533: The Tuktoyaktuk Fur Garment Shop. The shop closed in the 1980s. In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada , Tuktoyaktuk had a population of 937 living in 285 of its 334 total private dwellings, a change of 4.3% from its 2016 population of 898 . With a land area of 12.66 km (4.89 sq mi), it had a population density of 74.0/km (191.7/sq mi) in 2021. The average annual personal income in 2015
4368-459: The Yukon. As of 2003 there were two operational gold mines in Yellowknife, and many more abandoned mines dot the region. Communities along the Mackenzie River depend on subsistence fishing, although there is also some commercial fishing on the river. Agriculture in the Mackenzie River basin is mainly concentrated in the Peace and Athabasca valleys to the south. The valley of the former river
4459-526: The basin, none of them endemic . The Mackenzie River has a similar range of fish fauna to the Mississippi River system. It is believed that the two river systems were connected during the Ice Ages by meltwater lakes and channels, allowing fish in the two rivers to interbreed. Fish in the Mackenzie River proper include the northern pike , several minnow species, and lake whitefish . Fish in
4550-419: The common language of the community. Surveys of Inuktitut usage in the NWT vary, but all agree that usage is not vigorous. According to Statistics Canada 's 2016 Census 680 (22%) of the 3,110 Inuvialuit speak any form of Inuktitut, and 550 (18%) use it at home. Considering the large number of non-Inuit living in Inuvialuit areas and the lack of a single common dialect among the already reduced number of speakers,
4641-943: The dialect of the Uummarmiut which is essentially identical to the Inupiatun dialect spoken in Alaska and so considered an Inupiat language, has conventionally been grouped with Inuvialuktun because it's spoken in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region of the NWT. Uummarmiutun is found in the communities of Inuvik and Aklavik . Mackenzie River (Period of data: 1984-2018)310 km /a (9,800 m /s) (Period of data: 1973-2011)10,300 m /s (360,000 cu ft/s) The Mackenzie River (French: Fleuve (de) Mackenzie ; Slavey : Deh-Cho [tèh tʃʰò], literally big river ; Inuvialuktun : Kuukpak [kuːkpɑk], literally great river )
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#17327725479244732-549: The eastern and southern edges of the basin; these include uranium , gold , lead , and zinc . Agriculture remains prevalent along the south, particularly in the Peace River area. Various tributaries and headwaters of the river have been developed for hydroelectricity production, flood control and irrigation. Through its many tributaries, the Mackenzie River basin covers portions of five Canadian provinces and territories – British Columbia (BC), Alberta , Saskatchewan , Yukon , and Northwest Territories. Thutade Lake , in
4823-498: The enormous continental Laurentide Ice Sheet . The tremendous erosive powers of the Laurentide and its predecessors, at maximum extent, completely buried what is now the Mackenzie watershed under thousands of metres of ice and flattened the eastern portions of the watershed. When the ice sheet receded for the last time, it left a 1,100 km (680 mi) long proglacial lake , Lake McConnell , of which Great Bear, Great Slave and Athabasca Lakes are remnants. Today's Mackenzie River
4914-423: The entire basin, though mountain areas experience much higher precipitation, and areas near and north of the Arctic Circle receive much lower precipitation. The Mackenzie drainage basin is bordered by multiple major North American watersheds. Much of the western edge of the Mackenzie basin runs along the Continental Divide . The divide separates the Mackenzie watershed from that of the Yukon River , which flows to
5005-432: The future of the Inuit language in the NWT appears bleak. Before the 20th century, the Inuvialuit Settlement Region was primarily inhabited by Siglit Inuit, who spoke Siglitun, but in the second half of the 19th century, their numbers were dramatically reduced by the introduction of new diseases. Inuit from Alaska moved into traditionally Siglit areas in the 1910s and 1920s, enticed in part by renewed demand for furs from
5096-527: The government-owned Marine Transportation Services . In 2016, Northern Transportation Company went bankrupt, and its assets were bought by the government of Northwest Territories. Barge traffic travels the entire length of the Mackenzie in long "trains" of up to fifteen shallow-draft vessels pulled by tugboats . Goods are shipped as far as the port of Tuktoyaktuk on the eastern end of the Mackenzie Delta, where they are transferred to oceangoing vessels and delivered to communities along Canada's Arctic coast and
5187-420: The ice retreated, the Mackenzie system was captured to lower elevations in the northwest, establishing the present flow direction to the Arctic. Fluvial deposits and other erosional evidence indicate that around the end of the Pleistocene , about 13,000 years ago, the Mackenzie channel was scoured by one or more massive glacial lake outburst floods unleashed from Lake Agassiz , formed by melting ice west of
5278-449: The ice-free season, the Mackenzie is a major transportation link through the vast wilderness of northern Canada, linking the many isolated communities along its course. Wide, calm sections of the river are frequently used to land seaplanes in the ice-free season. Canada's northernmost major railhead is located at the town of Hay River , on the south shore of Great Slave Lake. Goods shipped there by train and truck are loaded onto barges of
5369-446: The lack of a single common dialect among the already reduced number of speakers, the future of the Inuit language in the NWT appears bleak. From east to west, the dialects are: The Inuvialuk dialects spoken in Nunavut (that is, Iglulingmiut, Aivilingmiutut, Kivallirmiutut, and eastern Natsilingmiutut) are often counted as Inuktitut, and the government of the NWT only recognizes Inuinnaqtun and Inuvialuktun. In addition, Uummarmiutun ,
5460-419: The lake to rise, and the excess water can only flow out after the rivers have receded. The same phenomenon occurs at Great Slave Lake, which naturally regulates the flow from the Slave River into the Mackenzie. There are river gauges at several upstream points along the Mackenzie River. The average flow rate at the outlet of Great Slave Lake is 4,269 m /s (150,800 cu ft/s). At Fort Simpson, below
5551-442: The largest lakes in North America. By both volume and surface area, Great Bear Lake is the biggest in the watershed and third largest on the continent, with a surface area of 31,153 km (12,028 sq mi) and a volume of 2,236 km (536 cu mi). Great Slave Lake is slightly smaller, with an area of 28,568 km (11,030 sq mi) and containing 2,088 km (501 cu mi) of water, although it
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#17327725479245642-487: The major route into Canada's northern interior for European explorers as early as the late 18th century. Scottish explorer Alexander Mackenzie travelled the river in the hope it would lead to the Pacific Ocean , but instead reached its mouth on the Arctic Ocean on 14 July 1789. There is a story, likely apocryphal, that he named it "Disappointment River", but eventually it was named after him. No European reached its mouth again until Sir John Franklin on 16 August 1825 during
5733-404: The major route into Canada's northern interior for early European explorers. Economic development remains limited along the river. During the 19th century, fur trading became a lucrative business, but this was affected by harsh weather conditions. The discovery of oil at Norman Wells in the 1920s began a period of industrialization in the Mackenzie valley. Metallic minerals have been found along
5824-432: The massive cost and environmental impact. The Royal Canadian Mint honoured the 200th anniversary of the naming of the Mackenzie River with the issue of a silver commemorative dollar in 1989. In 1997, a cultural landscape along the section of the Mackenzie River at Tsiigehtchic was designated the Nagwichoonjik (Mackenzie River) National Historic Site of Canada due to its cultural, social and spiritual significance to
5915-455: The mid-twentieth century, more than 400,000 birds passed through during the spring and up to a million in autumn. Some 215 bird species in total have been catalogued in the delta, including species such as the whooping crane , peregrine falcon and bald eagle . The construction of the W.A.C. Bennett Dam on the Peace River has reduced the seasonal variations of water levels in the delta, causing damage to its ecosystem. Bird populations have seen
6006-411: The mine shut down in 1988, the railroad remains an important transportation link between the Mackenzie River waterway and the rest of Canada. In the 1950s the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers proposed the North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA), a vast series of dams, tunnels and reservoirs designed to move 150 km (120,000,000 acre⋅ft) of water from northern Canada to southern Canada,
6097-400: The north. Year round, the Mackenzie's outflow has a major stabilizing effect in the local climate above the Arctic Ocean with large amounts of warmer fresh water mixing with the cold seawater. The average flow rate at the mouth is 9,910 m /s (350,000 cu ft/s), the second largest in Canada after the St Lawrence , and the fourteenth largest in the world. About 60 percent of
6188-457: The numerous islands to the north. In winter, the frozen channel of the Mackenzie River, especially in the delta region, is used as an ice road , firm enough to support large trucks, although travel between northern communities is mostly by dog sleds and snowmobiles. Although the Mackenzie River is wide and deep, navigation is "notoriously difficult" due to the locations of sandbars and shallows changing from year to year. In some narrower parts of
6279-401: The oil due to poor construction. It only operated for thirteen months, shutting down in 1945. Much abandoned equipment remains along the corridor today; part of the pipeline route has been designated the Canol Heritage Trail . In 1964 the Mackenzie Northern Railway (now a subsidiary of CN ) reached the shore of Great Slave Lake, to serve the new Pine Point zinc mine near Hay River. Although
6370-443: The present-day Great Lakes . At its peak, Agassiz had a greater volume than all present-day freshwater lakes combined. This is believed to have disrupted currents in the Arctic Ocean and led to an abrupt 1,300-year-long cold temperature shift called the Younger Dryas . The Mackenzie carries a very large sediment load, transporting about 128 million tonnes each year to its delta. The Liard River alone accounts for 32 percent of
6461-539: The region. Beaver and muskrat populations were heavily depleted, especially in areas around and south of Great Slave Lake. Catholic missionary Henri Grollier founded missions at Fort Simpson, Fort Norman and Fort Good Hope between 1858 and 1859. During the late 19th century and early 20th century epidemics of introduced European diseases swept through Indigenous communities along the river, and thousands of native people lost their lives. One particularly severe influenza in 1928 killed as many as one in ten native people along
6552-606: The rest of the highway networks in Canada. Inuvialuktun Inuvialuktun is spoken by the Inuit of the Mackenzie River delta, Banks Island , part of Victoria Island and the Arctic Ocean coast of the Northwest Territories – the lands of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region . It was traditionally subsumed under a broader Inuktitut . Rather than a coherent language, Inuvialuktun is a politically motivated grouping of three quite distinct and separate varieties. It consists of Sallirmiutun (formerly Siglitun; Inuvialuktun proper),
6643-404: The river, barges must be uncoupled and towed one by one through hazardous stretches, despite attempts to widen and deepening the channel by blasting. Although there are no dams along the main stem of the Mackenzie, many of its tributaries and headwaters have been developed for hydroelectricity production, flood control and irrigation. The W.A.C. Bennett and Peace Canyon hydroelectric dams on
6734-541: The runoff from the northern Yukon, joins in the delta at a point northeast of Fort McPherson . Below there, the Mackenzie diverges into several large channels with the largest heading north-northeast, emptying into the Beaufort Sea west of Tuktoyaktuk . The Mackenzie Delta contains a logjam with 400,000 caches of wood, which stores 3.4 million tons of carbon , equivalent to a year's emissions from 2.5 million cars. At 1,805,000 km (697,000 sq mi),
6825-412: The settlement has been used by the native Inuvialuit for centuries as a place to harvest caribou and beluga whales . In addition, Tuktoyaktuk's natural harbour was historically used as a means to transport supplies to other Inuvialuit settlements. Between 1890 and 1910, a sizeable number of Tuktoyaktuk's native families were wiped out in flu epidemics brought in by American whalers . In subsequent years,
6916-514: The settlement of Yellowknife and the opening of several mines in the area. By the 1940s steamboats had been replaced by modern gas and diesel-powered craft, which continue to serve the river today. During World War II oil pumped in Norman Wells was shipped to Fairbanks , Alaska via the 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Canol pipeline . The pipeline was considered a "fiasco", going five times over budget and losing as much as 20 percent of
7007-464: The southern half of the watershed are genetically isolated from those of the northern half due to large rapids on the Slave River preventing fish from swimming upstream. Migratory birds use the three major deltas in the Mackenzie River basin – the Mackenzie Delta and the inland Slave and Peace-Athabasca Deltas – as resting and breeding areas. The latter is located at the convergence of four major North American migratory routes, or flyways. As recently as
7098-478: The spring, the difference in discharge between the two halves of the watershed becomes even more marked. While large amounts of snow and glacial melt dramatically drive up water levels in the Mackenzie's western tributaries, large lakes to the east retard springtime discharges. Spring floods from the Peace-Athabasca system are significantly slowed by the delta area at the western end of Lake Athabasca causing
7189-494: The summer melt – which does not fully mix with the clear water in the Mackenzie for almost 500 km (310 mi) downstream, with the resulting phenomenon of a clear current on the east bank and muddy water on the west bank. The river continues west-northwest until its confluence with the North Nahanni River , where it turns north towards the Arctic. It flows through open taiga with its wide valley bounded, on
7280-562: The summer, and used as an ice bridge in the winter for traffic along the Yellowknife Highway . In 2012 the Deh Cho Bridge was completed at a point about 10 km (6.2 mi) upstream, providing a safer permanent crossing. It is the only bridge across the main stem of the Mackenzie. West of Fort Providence the Mackenzie widens considerably, resembling a shallow, swampy lake more than a river; one large widening here
7371-402: The taiga consists of black spruce , aspen and poplar forest. In the north, the river's shores are lined with sparse vegetation like dwarf birch and willows , as well as extensive areas of muskeg and peat bogs . South of Great Slave Lake, there are much larger reaches of temperate and alpine forest, prairie, and fertile floodplain and riparian habitat. There are 53 fish species in
7462-472: The total river flow into the Arctic Ocean. The river is frozen for most of the year, with the ice typically breaking up by early to mid-May in the south, and late May-early June in the north. Ice breaks up earlier on the tributaries, sometimes causing ice jams and flooding where they meet the Mackenzie. In the middle of the larger lakes, such as Great Slave, ice can persist as late as mid-June. The river typically freezes by late October or November, starting in
7553-487: The total, and the Peel River about 20 percent. Essentially all of the sediment is contributed by areas downstream of Fort Providence, since upstream sediment is trapped in Great Slave Lake. The Mackenzie River's watershed is considered one of the largest and most intact ecosystems in North America, especially the northern half. Approximately 63% of the drainage basin, or 1,137,000 km (439,000 sq mi),
7644-560: The upper Peace River were completed in 1968 and 1980 by BC Hydro . They have a combined capacity of more than 3,600 megawatts (MW). The reservoir of W.A.C. Bennett, Williston Lake , is the largest body of fresh water in BC and the ninth largest man-made lake in the world, with a volume of 70.3 km (57,000,000 acre⋅ft). Other smaller hydroelectric plants are located along the Snare and Taltson River tributaries, providing power to mines in
7735-491: The water comes from the western half of the basin, which includes the Rocky, Selwyn , and Mackenzie mountain ranges out of which spring major tributaries such as the Peace and Liard Rivers, which contribute 23 and 27 percent of the total flow, respectively. In contrast the eastern half, despite being dominated by marshland and large lakes, provides only about 25 percent of the Mackenzie's discharge. During peak flow in
7826-755: The west, by the Mackenzie Mountains and to the east by low hills of the Canadian Shield . This mostly uninhabited area is called the Mackenzie Lowlands; although partly forested, it is mostly covered by large areas of muskeg , swamps and many small lakes. A number of major tributaries join from the west, including the Root River, Redstone River and Keele River . Below the Keele River, the Mackenzie River flows north along
7917-590: The western United States and Mexico. The system would involve building massive dams on the Liard, Mackenzie, Peace, Columbia , and Fraser river systems and pumping water into a 650 km (400 mi) long reservoir in the Rocky Mountain Trench . The water would then flow by gravity to irrigate more than 220,000 km (85,000 sq mi) in the three countries and generate more than 50,000 MW of surplus energy. The projects were never built due to
8008-698: The western base of the Franklin Mountains before turning northwest, and receives the Great Bear River , the outflow of Great Bear Lake at Tulita . The Mackenzie widens considerably to about 6 to 7 km (3.7 to 4.3 mi) at Norman Wells , a major center of oil production. There is a narrows at the Mountain River confluence called the Sans Sault Rapids , where the Mackenzie falls about 6 metres (20 ft). Below
8099-446: The world . The ultimate source of the Mackenzie River is Thutade Lake , in the Northern Interior of British Columbia . The Mackenzie valley is believed to have been the path taken by prehistoric peoples during the initial human migration from Asia to North America over 10,000 years ago, despite sparse evidence. The Inuvialuit , Gwich'in and other Indigenous peoples lived along the river for thousands of years. The river provided
8190-442: Was $ 21,984 Canadian and the average family income was $ 55,424. Local languages are Inuinnaqtun ( Inuvialuktun ) and English with a few North Slavey and Tłı̨chǫ (Dogrib) speakers. Tuktoyaktuk is predominately Indigenous (90.8%) with Inuit ( Inuvialuit ) making up 88.0%, 9.2% non-Aboriginal, 1.7% First Nations and 1.1% giving multiple Indigenous backgrounds. Tuktoyaktuk displays a subarctic climate ( Dfc ), bordering on
8281-548: Was first discovered by Imperial Oil in 1971–1972. As of 2001, approximately 400,000 people lived in the Mackenzie River basin – representing only one percent of Canada's population. Ninety percent of the population lived in the Peace and Athabasca River basins, mostly in Alberta. The cold northern permafrost regions beyond the Arctic Circle are very sparsely populated, mainly by Indigenous peoples . Most of
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