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103-823: In the mid-5th century, Uyghurs constituted a tribe of the Tiele , which was also under the Turkic Khaganate. In 657, the Western Turkic Khaganate was defeated by the Tang dynasty , after which the Uyghurs defected to the Tang. Prior to this the Uyghurs had already shown an inclination towards alliances with the Tang when they fought with them against the Tibetan Empire and Turks in 627. In 742,

206-636: A 2024 study was found to have carried primarily ancestry derived from Ancient Northeast Asians (c. 83% ±2–3%) with the remainder ancestry being derived from Western Steppe Herders ( Sarmatians ; c. 17% ±2–3%). The authors note that this is "providing a new piece of information on this understudied period". Below is a set of images of Buddhist and Manichean Uyghurs, found from the Bezeklik caves and Mogao grottoes. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Tiele people ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) The Tiele , also named Gaoche or Gaoju , were

309-530: A Uyghur-Manichean text of that period demonstrates the unbridled enthusiasm of the khaghan for Manichaeism: "At that time when the divine Bogu Khan had thus spoken, we the Elects of all the people living within the land rejoiced. It is impossible to describe this ourjoy. The people told the story to one another and rejoiced. At that time, groups of thousands and tens of thousands assembled and with pastimes of all sorts they entertained themselves even unto dawn. And at

412-499: A conflict at Dunhuang . In 611, Shekui, a qaghan from Tashkent and grandson of Tardu, attacked Chuluo and forced him to escape to China. The return of Shekui marked the end of the rebellion, although exactly when the rebels were put down is uncertain. One Chinese account indicated that the Gaochang kingdom still remained under their vassal until the year 612. They were most likely subdued after this year as Shekui restored order in

515-544: A generic name for Inner Asians (whether Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking). Only in modern era do modern historians use term Turks to describe an ethno-cultural collection of various Turkic groups. In 546 the remainder of the Fufuluo, now called Tiele, rebelled and were defeated by Bumin Khan at Dzungaria . Around 250,000 of them were then incorporated into his army. In 552, Bumin Khan sent his army and defeated Anagui just north of

618-458: A long time. The younger daughter said: "Our father put us here, wanting to give us to Heaven. Now this wolf came here, it is probably a heavenly being, sent by Heaven." She was about to descend and approach the wolf but her elder sister said in horror: "This is a beast! Do not bring disgrace to our parents." The younger sister did not listen to her, she descended and became the wolf's wife and gave birth to children. Later on, they multiplied and formed

721-513: A new dynasty, the Ädiz ( Chinese : 阿跌氏 ). In 803, the Uyghurs captured Qocho . In 808, Qutluq II died and his son, Baoyi , succeeded him. In the same year, the Uyghurs seized Liang Province from the Tibetans. In 816, a Tibetan raid reached within two days' journey of the Uyghur capital, Ordu-Baliq . In 821, Baoyi Qaghan died, and his son, Chongde , succeeded him. Chongde was considered

824-578: A number of trading outposts with the Tang, Bayanchur Khan used the profits to construct the capital, Ordu-Baliq, and another city further up the Selenga River , Bai Baliq . The new khagan then embarked on a series of campaigns to bring all the steppe peoples under his banner. During this time the Empire expanded rapidly and brought the Sekiz Oghuz, Kyrgyz, Karluks, Turgesh, Toquz Tatars, Chiks and

927-770: A protected storage space for trade goods from China. They could hold a stable, fixed court, receive traders, and effectively cement their central role in Silk Road exchange. However, the vulnerability that came with having a fixed city was to be the downfall of the Uyghurs. The following list is based on Yihong Pan's "Sui-Tang Foreign Policy: Four case studies". Changshou Tianqin Qaghan (長壽天親可汗) Yaoluoge Guduolu Yaoluoge Hesa Menglig Qaghan (r. 848–?), (personal name, Mang/Pang Te-qin 厖特勤), sovereign title: Ay Tengride Qut Bolmiş Alp Kutlugh Bilge Qaghan 溫祿登里邏汩沒密施合俱錄毗伽, Chinese title: Huaijian Qaghan 懷建可汗. He moved his political centre to

1030-481: A result, Wang Junchuo did not dare to counterattack, and subsequently blamed the defeat on a number of tribal chiefs in the area and had them exiled. In response, Bayanchur's grandfather Yaoluoge Hushu (藥羅葛護輸) - the nephew of Yaoluoge Chengzong, ambushed Wang Junchuo and killed him, and while Yaoluoge Hushu was forced to flee thereafter, for several years the Tang Dynasty did not engage in any offensive campaigns in

1133-664: A state. This is why their people like to sing long-songs with a drawn-out voice, similar to the howling of wolves. In 391 the Rouran chief, Heduohan (曷多汗) was killed by the Tuoba Northern Wei . Heduohan's brother Shelun raided several tribal dependencies of the Tuoba in retaliation, but reportedly suffered a serious defeat in 399, and was forced to flee westward. Here Shelun defeated the Hulu (斛律) tribe and subjugated them. With

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1236-578: A tribal confederation of Turkic ethnic origins living to the north of China proper and in Central Asia , emerging after the disintegration of the confederacy of the Xiongnu . Chinese sources associate them with the earlier Dingling . The names "Chile" (敕勒) and "Gaoche" ( 高车 ) first appear in Chinese records during the campaigns of Former Yan and Dai in 357 and 363 respectively. However,

1339-677: A vassal of Yelü Dashi 's nascent Qara Khitai empire. In 1209, the Qocho ruler Idiqut (" Lord of happiness") Barchuk Art Tegin declared his allegiance to Genghis Khan , and the Uyghurs became important civil servants in the later Mongol Empire , which adapted the Old Uyghur alphabet as its official script. According to the New Book of Tang , a third group went to seek refuge among the Karluks. The Karluks, together with other tribes such as

1442-773: Is certain that a large number of them were captured. After the event, a message was sent to the north to appease the restless Tiele. In 669 similar unsuccessful revolts had been made by the Xueyantuo, but the details of these are vague. The last revolt was mentioned in 686, led by the Pugu and Tongluo to join with the Ashina clan, who had formed the Second Turkic Khaganate under Ilterish Qaghan in 682. They were immediately suppressed by an army dispatched from Juyan . A number of them were moved to that region along with

1545-627: Is mostly famous for ordering the erection of the Tariat Inscriptions . He was born in 713 in the Hanhai Protectorate (瀚海) near Ganzhou and Lanzhou to Kutluk Boyla . At time of his birth, clan chief Yaoluoge Dujiezhi (藥羅葛獨解支) had recently moved near the Tang border, avoiding expansion of the Second Turkic Qaghanate . Yaoluoge Dujiezhi died in 715 and was succeeded by his son Yaoluoge Fudifu, who

1648-525: Is no indication whatsoever of any conflict with the Kyrgyz. The only information we have from Khitan (Liao) sources regarding the Kyrgyz indicates that the two powers maintained diplomatic relations. Scholars who write of a Kyrgyz "empire" from about 840 to about 924 are describing a fantasy. All available evidence suggests that despite some brief extensions of their power onto the Mongolian Plateau,

1751-418: Is unclear, perhaps due to the Chinese repression of the surrounding tribes during the campaigns. Two years later the revolts were suppressed by the Chinese at the upper Selenge River around Khangai . The battle was short, and a massacre was said to be committed by the two leading commanders. According to one exaggerated account from Tang Huiyao around 900,000 surrendered tribesmen were slaughtered, though it

1854-643: The Alans were probably erroneously added. By the end of the 6th century nothing more was known about them. Those tribes in the eastern areas (north of China and near Lake Baikal), such as the Guligan (骨利干), Duolange (多览葛) Xijie (奚结) and Baixi (白霫) were being rewarded afterward, though a few like the Fuluo (覆罗), Mengchen (蒙陈) and Turuhe (吐如纥) disappeared. Fuluo (覆羅) were possibly linked to the 伏利(具) Fuli(-ju) in Book of Sui ,

1957-708: The Chigils and Yagmas , later founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate (940–1212). Some historians associate the Karakhanids with the Uyghurs as the Yaghmas were linked to the Toquz Oghuz . Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan , believed to be a Yagma from Artux , converted to Islam in 932 and seized control of Kashgar in 940, giving rise to the new dynasty, known as Karakhanids . In order to control trade along

2060-852: The Gaochang kingdom (likely by the Tuin River of the Govi-Altai range . Early on a Fufuluo clan known as the Yizhan (which had lived there since the mid 2nd century) allied with the Touba. In 481, the Fufuluo began to interfere with the Gaochang and deposed one of their kings. The Fufuluo were then subjugated by the Rouran Khaganate . After the death of the Rouran ruler Yucheng in 485 CE, his belligerent son Dulun fought more wars against

2163-587: The Hephthalites , kindred steppe nomads, for the first time extended their domain as far as Karashahr , where Qiongqi was killed and his son Mietu (弥俄突) was taken hostage . After 507, the Hephthalites uninterruptedly sent eighteen embassies with gifts (朝献/朝贡) to the Chinese courts (twelve to Northern Wei , three to the Liang dynasty , two to Western Wei and one to Northern Zhou ), as opposed to only one in 456. Like Peroz I and his son Kavadh I earlier in

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2266-641: The Silk Road , the Uyghurs established a trading relationship with the Sogdian merchants who controlled some oases of Central Asia . As described above, the Uyghur adoption of Manichaeism was one aspect of this relationship—choosing Manichaeism over Buddhism may have been motivated by a desire to show independence from Tang influence. Not all Uyghurs supported conversion - an inscription at Ordu-Baliq states that Manichaens tried to divert people from their ancient shamanistic beliefs. A rather partisan account from

2369-685: The Slab Grave culture . The admixture between West and East Eurasian sources was estimated to have occurred around the year 500 CE . Of the 5 Uyghur males analyzed, 4 (or 80%) carried the West Eurasian paternal haplogroup Haplogroup R1b , while 1 (or 20%) carried the East Eurasian haplogroup Q1a . Of the 12 maternal haplogroups detected, 58% were of East Eurasian origin ( A , B , D , G ) while 41% were of West Eurasian origin ( J T , H ). An Uyghur remain (GD1-3) analysed in

2472-657: The Tuyuhun . Earlier, when Apa was captured, Nili took over from him, but he died after the defeat of Tardu in the east. His son Heshana Khan succeeded him in the Western Qaghanate, levying heavy taxes on the Tiele. To prevent a revolt he gathered several hundreds of chiefs and murdered them. In 605 an alliance among the Tiele under the Qibi (契苾) and Xueyantuo (薛延陀) tribes was formed to overthrow him. They captured most of

2575-732: The Yenisei Kirghiz in the Sayan Mountains in May of 759 during a feast. Bayanchur was married to a Uyghur who was created El Bilge Khatun (Old Turkic: 𐰠𐰋𐰠𐰏𐰀𐰴𐱃𐰆𐰣 ) in 747 and Princess Xiaoguo (蕭公主) on 25 August 758, daughter of Suzong . Marriage to a true daughter of a Chinese emperor was unprecedented. She left for China after Bayanchur's death. Bayanchur had at least two sons: He also adopted his sister-in-law and married her to Prince Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin in 758. She

2678-554: The Barbarians" Mountain (Shahu). Öge was wounded. After the defeat of Öge, Wuzong ordered Ormïzt's troops to be broken up and dispersed among different units. Ormïzt refused to obey. His troops were massacred by general Liu Mian. With the defeat of the two major Uyghur groups, Wuzong saw his chance to get rid of the Manichaeans. He ordered Manichaean temples in several cities to be destroyed, the confiscation of their estates, and

2781-697: The Black-robed Dashi [Abbasid Caliphate], Nao-wen and others, totaling eight people, come at the same time to pay a visit [to the Tang court]; when they walk to the side entrance of the palace, [both delegations] argue who should be the first [to see the Emperor]. The interpreters and palace secretaries arrange them as left team and right team, and enter through the Eastern Gate and the Western Gate all at once. [After this,] Wen-she-shi and

2884-486: The Black-robed Dashi envoy pay their visit [to the Chinese Emperor]. In 759 the Uyghurs attempted to assist the Tang in stamping out the rebels but failed. Bayanchur Khan died and his son Tengri Bögü succeeded him as Khagan Qutlugh Tarkhan sengün . In 762 Tengri Bögü planned to invade the Tang with 4,000 soldiers but after negotiations switched sides and assisted them in defeating the rebels at Luoyang. After

2987-577: The Chinese border. Two years before his death, he eliminated the remnants of the Rouran to the north and subjugated the Tiele. According to Suishu , the Tiele consisted of over 40 tribes divided into seven locations: The ancestors of the Tiele were the descend[a]nts of the Xiongnu. There were many clans among the Tiele, who were compactly distributed along the valley from the east of the Western Sea. Although there were so many different names of

3090-551: The Chinese capital. The remaining rebellious Göktürks formed the Second Turkic Eastern Qaghanate under Ilteris Sad and his 5,000 supporters. They were mostly active in the southern region bordering China at mount Čoγay (总材山). Over the decade they held countless raids across the Chinese border. Bayanchur Khan Mo-yun Chur (磨延啜) (b. 713 - d.759) or Eletmish Bilge Qaghan was second qaghan of Uyghur Khaganate . His Tang dynasty invested title

3193-575: The Chinese. In 679 a major rebellion was led by three Göktürk nobles . Among them, Ashina Nishufu (阿史那泥熟匐), a direct descendant of Illig, was chosen as their qaghan. They were quickly subdued by the Chinese and their leader was betrayed and killed by his own troops. The rest of the Göktürks managed to escape and allied themselves with Ashina Funian (阿史那伏念) for a new rebellion. Funian declared himself qaghan in 681, but his revolt did not succeed and more than fifty participants were executed on November 16 at

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3296-532: The Dzungaria and defeated his occupying army, taking several important cities, including Kumul , Karashahr and Gaochang , pushing Heshana Khan further west to the lower Ili River by 607. After victory, the Qibi chief Geleng (哥楞) was proclaimed as the qaghan by the tribes and the Xueyantuo chief Yiedie Khan as subordinate qaghan. At the same year Geleng allied with the Chinese to defeat the Tuyuhun to resolve

3399-659: The Kaghanate to a status even more powerful than the times of Datan. During these wars, a southwestern Gaoche tribal group known as the Fufuluo united twelve clans and rebelled, but were defeated by the Rouran. They escaped and established a state northwest of Gaochang in 487. From then on, little is known about the rest of the Gaoche until the Göktürks . The Fufuluo (副伏罗) were a Gaoche tribe of twelve clans, dwelling close to

3502-468: The Karluks to migrate west into Zhetysu and conflict with the Türgesh , whom they defeated and conquered in 766. The Uyghur khagan's personal name was Qullığ Boyla ( Chinese : 骨力裴羅 ). He took the title Kutlug Bilge Kol Khagan ( Glorious, wise, mighty khagan ), claiming to be the supreme ruler of all the tribes. He built his capital at Ordu-Baliq . According to Chinese sources, the territory of

3605-595: The Kyrgyz did not maintain a significant political or military presence there after their victories in the 840s. After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Uyghurs migrated south and established the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in modern Gansu and the Kingdom of Qocho near modern Turpan . The Uyghurs in Qocho converted to Buddhism, and, according to Mahmud al-Kashgari , were "the strongest of

3708-793: The Northern Wei before they were defeated on June 16, 429. Afterwards, as many as 1.5 million Gaoche were said to have been captured and settled to areas adjacent to the capital Pingcheng in the south. After this settlement they were called the Western Chile (西部敕勒), including a section of the Ordos Desert south of the Yellow River known as the Hexi Chile (河西敕勒), the Eastern Chile (东部敕勒), between Wuzhou (武周) and

3811-583: The Prince of Dunhuang and Pugu Huai'en as emissaries. Uyghur troops were instrumental in dealing with rebellion. Uyghur forces led by Uyghur Prince Ulu Bilge Yabgu and general Dide arrived at Emperor Suzong's then-headquarters at Fengxiang (鳳翔, in modern Baoji ) to join the elite Tang forces recalled from the Anxi Circuit and the Western Regions ( Xiyu ). Emperor Suzong did so by promising that

3914-539: The Qarluq. This alerted the Chinese, and Wuhe was assassinated by a ruse upon receiving his uncle's position from the Chinese deputy in the north. Later Juluobo was detained by the Chinese. On November 17, Porun (婆闰) was granted his fathers title. Since their submission, the Tiele (mainly the Uyghur) had participated in several campaigns under Chinese leadership. Under the command of Ashina Sheer (阿史那社尔), Yuan Lichen (元礼臣), Gao Kan (高侃), Liang Jianfang (梁建方), Cheng Zhijie (程知节), Su Ding Fang and Xiao Siya (萧嗣业) this resulted in

4017-435: The Rouran went into a temporary decline. However, in 460 they launched new campaigns in the west, destroying the remnant of Northern Liang . During a campaign against Khotan in 470, the king wrote in his supplicatory letter to the Toba Emperor that all of the statelets in the west had submitted to the Rouran. In 472, Yucheng attacked Northern Wei across the western border. By the time of his death in 485, Yucheng had restored

4120-427: The Rouran, but the wheel of their carts are high and have very many spokes. The predecessors of Huihe were Xiongnu . Because, customarily, they ride high-wheeled carts. They were also called Gaoche during the Yuan Wei times, or also called Chile, mistakenly rendered as Tiele. One group known as the Eastern Gaoche (东部高车) probably dwelled from the Onon River to Lake Baikal (巳尼陂). However, their relationship with

4223-431: The Silk Road, with concentric walls and lookout towers, stables, military and commercial stores, and administrative buildings. Certain areas of the town were allotted for trade and handcrafts, while in the center of the town were palaces and temples, including a monastery. The palace had fortified walls and two main gates, as well as moats filled with water and watchtowers. The khaghan maintained his court there and decided

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4326-433: The Silk Roads. The Uyghurs created an empire with clear Persian influences, particularly in areas of government. Soon after the empire was founded, they emulated sedentary states by establishing a permanent, settled capital, Karabalghasun ( Ordu-Baliq ), built on the site of the former Göktürk imperial capital, northwest of the later Mongol capital, Karakorum . The city was a fully fortified commercial center, typical along

4429-425: The Tang and Kyrgyz, but the nature of their relationship remains unclear. Tang policy makers argued that there was no point in building any relations with the Kyrgyz since the Uyghurs no longer threatened them. The Khitans seized the Orkhon Valley from the Kyrgyz in 890 and no further opposition from the Kyrgyz is recorded. The Khitan ruler Abaoji did extend his influence onto the Mongolian Plateau in 924, but there

4532-530: The Tang dynasty Chinese princess Ningguo 寧國公主, daughter of Emperor Suzong , married Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur. In 758, the Uyghurs turned their attention to the northern Yenisei Kyrgyz . Bayanchur Khan destroyed several of their trading outposts before slaughtering a Kyrgyz army and executing their Khan. On the ren-shen day of the fifth month of the first year of the Qianyuan reign [on March 29, 758 CE], The envoys from Hui-he [Uyghur Khaganate], Duo-yi-hai-a-bo and others, totaling eighty people, and an emir from

4635-403: The Tang dynasty based on the advice of his Sogdian courtiers. However, Tengri Bögü's uncle, Tun Baga Tarkhan , opposed this plan and killed him and "nearly two thousand people from among the kaghan's family, his clique and the Sogdians." Tun Bagha Tarkhan ascended the throne, with the title Alp Qutlugh Bilge "Victorious, glorious, wise", and enforced a new set of laws, which he designed to secure

4738-416: The Tiele tribes next to the Xueyantuo. Their name first appeared in 390 as Yuanhe (袁纥). Under the leadership of Pusa (菩萨), son of chief Tejian (特健), the Uyghur co-operated with the Xueyantuo to make a stand against the Eastern Qaghanate. Soon after his death, his successor Tumidu (吐迷度) formed a new alliance with the Chinese and turned against his former ally. Thereafter, Tumidu was granted a Chinese title like

4841-468: The Touba Northern Wei . After a disagreement, A-Fuzhiluo betrayed him, and in 487, together with his younger cousin Qiongqi (穷奇), they managed their clans of over 100,000 yurts to escape from the pursuing armies, led by Dulun and his uncle Nagai by defeating them. After they settled, he founded a statelet (also known as the A-Fuzhiluo kingdom) under the title of Ulu Beglik (候娄匐勒, based on an interpretation of Shiratori Kurakichi and Pulleyblank ). Like

4944-463: The Uyghur Empire then reached "on its eastern extremity, the territory of Shiwei , on the west the Altai Mountains , on the south it controlled the Gobi Desert , so it covered the entire territory of the ancient Xiongnu ". In 745, the Uyghurs killed the last khagan of the Göktürks, Kulun Beg ( 白眉可汗 鶻隴匐 ), and sent his head to the Tang. Tang Huiyao , vol. 98, listed nine Toquz Oghuz surname tribes (姓部 xìngbù ); another list of tribes (部落 bùluò )

5047-442: The Uyghur Khaganate agreed and ordered his eldest son to provide military service to the Tang emperor. Approximately 4,000 Uyghur horsemen assisted Tang armies in retaking Chang'an and Luoyang in 757. After the battle at Luoyang the Uyghurs looted the city for three days and only stopped after large quantities of silk were extracted. For their aid, the Tang sent 20,000 rolls of silk and bestowed them with honorary titles. In addition

5150-469: The Uyghur forces would be permitted to pillage the Chang'an region once it was recaptured. Chinese chancellor Li Mi suggested that these forces be used to attack An Lushan's power base at Fanyang first, to root out the possibility of a recovery. Emperor Suzong chose not to do so and decided to attack Chang'an first, with Li Chu in command of the joint forces. The forces recaptured Chang'an in fall 757, allowing Emperor Suzong to rebuild his administration in

5253-444: The Uyghurs and Tang forces were defeated by Tibetan Empire at Tingzhou ( Beshbalik ). Külüg Qaghan died, and his son, A-ch'o, succeeded him as Qutluq Bilge Qaghan . In 791, the Tibetans attacked Lingzhou but were driven off by the Uyghurs, who presented captured prisoners and cattle to Emperor Dezong of Tang . The Tibetans and Karluks suffered another defeat against the Uyghurs at Beiting . The captured Tibetan general Zan Rgyal sum

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5356-423: The Uyghurs benefited enormously from this alliance. The Sogdians enabled the Uyghurs to trade in the Western Regions and exchange silk from China for other goods. For the Sogdians it provided their Chinese trading communities with Uyghur protection. The 5th and 6th centuries saw a large emigration of Sogdians to China. The Sogdians were main traders along the Silk Roads, and China was always their biggest market. Among

5459-399: The Uyghurs, Karluks , and Basmyls rebelled against the Second Turkic Khaganate . In 744, the Basmyls captured the Turk capital of Ötüken and killed the reigning Özmiş Khagan . Later that year, a Uyghur-Karluk alliance formed against the Basmyls and defeated them. Their khagan was killed, and the Basmyls ceased to exist as a people. Hostilities between the Uyghurs and Karluks then forced

5562-447: The Uyghurs. In 839, Hu was forced to commit suicide and a minister named Kürebir seized the throne with the help of 20,000 Shatuo horsemen from Ordos . In the same year, there was a famine and an epidemic, with a particularly severe winter that killed much of the livestock the Uyghur economy was based on. In 840, one of nine Uyghur ministers, Kulug Bagha, rival of Kurebir, fled to the Yenisei Kyrgyz and invited them to invade from

5665-458: The Western Qaghanate. Failure to put down these uprisings led to a fatal division within the Gökturks ruling Ashina clan. Under the leadership of Zhenzhu Khan in 628, grandson of Yishibo, the Xueyantuo made their crossing over the Altai, and quickly founded a confederation with the rest of the Tiele at the east. The Xueyantuo founded a short-lived Qaghanate over the steppe under Zhenzhu Khan , his son Duomi Khan and nephew Yitewushi Khan ,

5768-408: The aid of a Hulu named Chiluohou (叱洛侯), Shelun conquered most of the Gaoche tribes and proclaimed himself Kaghan of the Rouran on March 11, 402. Many Gaoche, such as Chiluohou, were promoted to establish better control. During the reign of Shelun and his successor Datan , the Rouran pushed as far as the Issyk Kul , where they defeated the Wusun and drove them to the south. In the east they raided

5871-458: The ancient Red Di . Initially they had been called Dili. Northerners take them as Chile. Chinese take them as Gaoche Dingling. Their language, in brief, and Xiongnu [language] are the same yet occasionally there are small differences. Or one may say that they [Gaoche] are the junior relatives of the Xiongnu in former times. The Gaoche migrate in search of grass and water. They dress in skins and eat meat. Their cattle and sheep are just like those of

5974-450: The battle the Uyghurs looted the city. When the people fled to Buddhist temples for protection, the Uyghurs burnt them down, killing over 10,000. For their aid, the Tang was forced to pay 100,000 pieces of silk to get them to leave. During the campaign the khagan encountered Manichaean priests who converted him to Manichaeism . From then on the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate became Manichaeism. In 779, Tengri Bögü planned to invade

6077-425: The borders to be closed. The other group, 100,000 strong, led by Öge , son of Baoyi and the new khagan of the defeated Uyghur Khaganate, also fled to Tang territory. However Öge demanded a Tang city for residence as well as the protection of Manichaeans and food. Wuzong found the demands unacceptable and refused. He granted Ormïzt asylum in return for the use of his troops against Öge. Two years later, Wuzong extended

6180-419: The break of the day they made a short fast. The divine ruler Bogu Khan and all the elects of his retinue mounted on horses, and all the princes and the princesses led by those of high repute, the big and the small, the whole people, amidst great rejoicing proceeded to the gate of the city. And when the divine ruler had entered the city, he put the crown on his head... and sat upon the golden throne." As conversion

6283-442: The capital suburbs, and the Northern Chile (北部敕勒), to the north and around the borders. The greater part of the latter two possibly fled back to the steppe and were not heard of after 524 and 445 respectively. The Western Chile (mainly the Hulu and Tiele related to Fufuluo's Qifuli (泣伏利) clan) being caused by a horse race, by which south and north were eventually assimilated. With the loss of numerous subjects and vital resources,

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6386-446: The capital. The Uyghurs were set on pillaging Chang'an, but Li Chu begged the Uyghur prince Ulu Bilge Yabgu commanding Uyghur forces to plead to delay the pillage—pointing out that if pillaging were carried out, the people of the eastern capital Luoyang , then serving as Yan's capital, would resist heavily, and asking that the Uyghurs pillage Luoyang instead. Bayanchur Khan died soon after completion of his successful expedition against

6489-427: The capture of Chebi Khan in 650 and the end of the Western Qaghanate in 657, except for a last campaign at Goguryeo which probably killed Porun. During those campaigns, visits would be paid to restrain the tribes. In 658 such a visit was repelled, a revolt broke out in 660 starting with the Sijie (思结), Bayegu (拔野古), Pugu (仆骨) and Tongluo (同罗), and it was joined by the other 5 tribes later. The reason for this revolt

6592-447: The clans, they were all called Tiele as a whole. There was no ruler among them, and they belonged to the Eastern and Western Türks separately. They lived in unsettled places, and moved along with the water and grass. They were good at shooting on horseback, and were fierce and cruel, especially greedy. They live on plundering. The clans close to the west do several kinds of cultivating, and breed more cattle and sheep than horses. Since

6695-413: The country, he erected a high platform and placed his two daughters on the top, saying: "Oh Heaven, please come and receive them yourself!" After three years, their mother wanted to bring them back but the Chanyu said: "You may not, their time is not up yet." After another year, there was an old wolf who guarded the platform day and night, howling. It dug a hole underneath the platform and would not leave for

6798-415: The court, and never stopped contact from that year. The original manuscript contains no punctuation, so different scholars read and reconstruct the ethonyms differently. The Tiele were a large tribal group, however it is unlikely they would have been under a unified leadership. References of the tribes in the remote areas west of the Pamir Mountains were sparse and mentioned only in passing, some tribes like

6901-435: The establishing of the Türk state, the Tiele help the Türks by participating in battles everywhere, and subdue all the groups in the North. [...] Their customs were mostly like those of the Türks . The differences were that the husband should stay in his wife’s family, and could not go home until the birth of his children. Also the dead were to be buried. In the third year of Daye (607), Tiele sent an envoy and tribute to

7004-471: The execution of the clergy. In the fourth moon of 843 an Imperial edict was issued [ordering] the Manichaean priests of the empire to be killed. [...] The Manichaean priests are highly respected by the Uighurs. In 846, the penultimate Uyghur khagan, Öge, was killed after having spent his 6-year reign fighting the Kyrgyz, the supporters of his rival Ormïzt , a brother of Kürebir, and Tang dynasty troops in Ordos and today Shaanxi . His brother, Enian Qaghan ,

7107-500: The final decade, they helped the Eastern Wei to fight the Western Wei in a civil war. After defeat, the nobility surrendered to them. The term Tiele appeared in Chinese literature from the 6th century to 8th century, and most scholars agree that Tiele is simply different Chinese characters used to describe the same Turkic word as Chile, although some scholars disagree on what the specific original Turkic word may be: Tölöš ~ Töliš , Türk , or Tegreg ~ Tägräg . The name "Tiele"

7210-610: The horse trade was fixed at 40 rolls of silk for every horse and Uyghurs were given "guest" status while staying in Tang China. The Tang and Uyghurs conducted an exchange marriage. Bayanchur Khan married Princess Ninguo while a Uyghur princess was married to a Tang prince. The Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage with Tang dynasty China in 756 to seal the alliance against An Lushan. The Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur Khan had his daughter Uyghur Princess Pijia (毗伽公主) married to Tang dynasty Chinese Prince Li Chengcai ( 李承采 ), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin . while

7313-491: The infidels", while the Ganzhou Uyghurs were conquered by the Tangut people in the 1030s. Even so, Kashgari praised contemporary Uyghurs as bilingual Turkophones whose Turkic dialect remained "pure" and "most correct" (just like dialects spoken by monolingual Yagmas , and Tuhsis ); meanwhile, Kashgari derided other bilingual Turkophones ( Qay , Tatars , Basmyls , Chömüls , Yabakus , etc.), for incorporating foreign loanwords and "slurring" in their speech. In 1134, Qocho became

7416-541: The last great khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate and bore the title Kün tengride ülüg bulmïsh alp küchlüg bilge "Greatly born in sun heaven, victorious, strong and wise". His achievements included improved trade up with the region of Sogdia , and on the battlefield he repulsed a force of invading Tibetans in 821. After defeating the Tibetan and Karluk force, the Uyghurs entered the Principality of Ushrusana and plundered

7519-487: The last of which eventually surrendered to the Chinese. Shortly after 646, the Uyghur and the rest of the twelve Tiele chiefs (and subsequently the far-away Guligan and Dubo) arrived at the Chinese court. They were bestowed either with the title of commander-in-chief (都督 dudu ) or prefect (刺史 cishi ) under the loose control (羁縻 jimi ) of the northern protectorate or "pacificed north" (安北府), whose seat and name changed at certain times. The Uyghur were prominent among

7622-427: The later Qibi and Xueyantuo in 605, the Fufuluo divided their rule between north and south at Dzungaria . The Fufuluo allied with the Northern Wei in 490 and fought against the Rouran until 541 when they were dispersed by them. Shortly after the death of Dulun in 492, several important cities on the eastern route were taken by Fufuluo, separating the Rouran from the west. With the elimination of Rouran influence,

7725-420: The masses gradually dwindled and weakened. Until the beginning of Wude [era], there have been Xueyantuo, Qibi, Huihe, Dubo, Guligan, Duolange , Pugu, Bayegu, Tongluo, Hun, Sijie, Huxue, Xijie, Adie , Baixi, etc. scattered north of the [Gobi] desert . Tiele allied themselves in a rebellion against the Göktürks during the turmoil between 599 and 603. This might have already started as early as in 582, when rumor

7828-525: The north. With a force of around 80,000 horsemen, they sacked the Uyghur capital at Ordu-Baliq , razing it to the ground. The Kyrgyz captured the Uyghur Khagan, Kürebir ( Hesa/Qasar ), and promptly beheaded him. They went on to destroy other cities throughout the Uyghur empire, burning them to the ground. The Uyghurs fled in two groups. A 30,000-strong group led by the aristocrat Ormïzt sought refuge in Tang territory but Emperor Wuzong of Tang ordered

7931-460: The order to ban Christianity , Zoroastrianism , and especially Buddhism . The Yenisei Kyrgyz and Tang dynasty launched a successful war between 840 and 848 against the Uyghur Khaganate using their claimed familial ties as justification for an alliance. In 841, Öge led the Uyghurs in an invasion of today's Shaanxi . In 843, a Tang army led by Shi Xiong attacked the Uyghurs led by Öge and slaughtered 10,000 Uyghurs on February 13, 843, at "Kill

8034-536: The paper clothing found in the Astana cemetery near Turfan is a list of taxes paid on caravan trade in the Gaochang kingdom in the 620s. The text is incomplete, but out of the 35 commercial operations it lists, 29 involve a Sogdian trader. Ultimately both rulers of nomadic origin and sedentary states recognized the importance of merchants like the Sogdians and made alliances to further their own agendas in controlling

8137-416: The policies of the empire. With no fixed settlement, the Xiongnu had been limited in their acquisition of Chinese goods to what they could carry. As stated by Thomas Barfield, "the more goods a nomadic society acquired the less mobility it had, hence, at some point, one was more vulnerable trying to protect a rich treasure house by moving it than by fortifying it." By building a fixed city, the Uyghurs created

8240-494: The protagonists were also addressed as " Dingling " in the records of the Southern Dynasties . The name Gaoche ("high cart") was a nickname given by the Chinese. The Book of Jin , compiled by Fang Xuanling et al., listed Chile as the fifth of 19 Southern Xiongnu tribes (種). By the time of the Rouran domination, the Gaoche comprised six tribes and twelve clans (姓). The Gaoche are probably remnants of

8343-526: The refuge of the Hephthalites. In 520, Chounu was repulsed by his younger brother Yifu (伊匐) who restored the realm. After his defeat, Chounu returned to the east, where he was killed in a coup in which the ruling clan of Yujiulu (郁久闾) was split into two factions. In 521, the Fufuluo penetrated into the Rouran territory, but were finally repulsed by 524. Thereafter, the Fufuluo suffered a series of defeats from Anagui before being annihilated in 541. During

8446-474: The region. 14 year old Bayanchur and his brothers had to follow his grandfather into exile. He was created as the eastern shad in 744 by his father Kutlug Bilge Khagan , who created his elder brother Tay Bilge Tutuq as yabgu of west and heir. He spent the next 6 years ousting him in order to become heir. He spent 3 years in order to fully consolidate his rule after he succeeded in his father in 747. He captured and executed his brother Tay Bilge Tutuq who

8549-473: The region. In 822, the Uyghurs sent troops to help the Tang in quelling rebels. The Tang refused the offer but had to pay them 70,000 pieces of silk to go home. In 823, the Tibetan Empire waged war on the Uyghurs. In 824, Chongde died and was succeeded by a brother, Qasar . In 832, Qasar was murdered. He was succeeded by the son of Chongde, Hu . In the same year, the Tibetan Empire failed to make war on

8652-636: The remnants of the Basmyls under Uyghur rule. In 751, the Tang Empire suffered a strategic defeat against the Arabs at the Battle of Talas . After that, the Tang retreated from Central Asia , allowing the Uyghur to emerge as the new dominant power. In 755 An Lushan instigated a rebellion against the Tang dynasty and Emperor Suzong of Tang turned to Bayanchur Khan for assistance in 756. The khagan of

8755-531: The rest of the Gaoche and its tribal components is unclear. The Book of Wei preserved the Gaoche's origin myth . According to legends, the Xiongnu Chanyu had two daughters, both extremely beautiful. The people of the country all thought them to be spirits. The Chanyu said: "How could I find husbands for my daughters! I am going to give them to Heaven." Thereupon, at a desolate place in the north part of

8858-551: The rest of the Tiele chiefs, and carried the title of qaghan among the other tribes, who now annually donated furs to the Chinese to fulfill their tax obligations. In 648, Tumidu was murdered by his nephew Wuhe (乌纥) and another tribesman named Juluobo (俱罗勃). Both were sons-in-law of the Chebi Khan , the ruler of the Eastern Qaghanate at the northern Altai, who now held hegemony over the surrounding tribes, including

8961-432: The seat of the protectorate under the jurisdiction of Ganzhou . Earlier during the rebellion contacts between the northern protectorate and the Chinese capital were cut off, and the only way to pass was through the area of Suzhou . After the disintegration of the Eastern Qaghanate in 630, many Göktürk nobles were resettled either at the Chinese border or in the capital. Some went on to participate in frontier campaigns for

9064-695: The steppe. However, Lee & Kuang (2017) state that Chinese histories did not describe the Ashina-led Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or belonging to the Tiele confederation. The Tiele were ruled by the Göktürks during the mid 6th century and early 7th century. Many of their tribal chiefs were expelled and some were killed during this period. When Göktürks ' power peaked, at least 15 Tiele tribes were named: Tiele are originally Xiongnu's splinter stocks. As Tujue are strong and prosperous, all Tiele districts (郡) are divided and scattered,

9167-509: The unity of the khaganate. During his reign, Manichaeism was suppressed, but his successors restored it as the official religion. In 780, a group of Uyghurs and Sogdians was killed while leaving Chang'an with tribute. Tun demanded 1,800,000 strings of cash in compensation and the Tang agreed to pay this amount in gold and silk. In 789, Tun Bagha Tarkhan died and his son succeeded him as Külüg Qaghan . The Karluks took this opportunity to encroach on Uyghur territory and annexed Futu Valley. In 790,

9270-452: The west, the Hephthalites helped Mietu. He returned to his realm and Biliyan (跋利延), the successor of A-Fuzhiluo, was overthrown by his tribesmen, while shortly paying tribute to the Touba. In 508, Yujiulü Futu attacked the Fufuluo and gained a victory, but was killed by Mietu on his course back. Later in 516, l , son of Futu, defeated Mietu, and in reprisal had him towed to death by a horse. The Fufuluo went for several years into exile under

9373-399: The west. A 2020 study analyzed the genetic ancestry of 12 Uyghur Khaganate individuals c. 9th Century C.E. from Mongolia . The sample exhibited high (~60%) but variable West Eurasian ancestry, modeled as a mixture of Indo-Iranian Alans and Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex ancestry. The sample also carried substantial (~40%) ancestry from an East Asian source, closely related to

9476-463: The west. Later on, Dulan took over his reign and in 599 he, together with Tardu, launched a civil war against his son Qimin , who sided with the Chinese. However, he was unsuccessful and was assassinated during his battles with the Chinese. His partner Tardu took over and launched a revolt against the Qaghanate. In 603 he was revolted against by the Tiele tribes, provoked by the Chinese, and fled to

9579-522: The 匐利(羽) Fuli(-yu) in Tanghuiyao and the Bökli-Çöligil (𐰋𐰇𐰚𐰲𐰃:𐰲𐰇𐰠𐰏𐰠) on Kul Tigin inscription. According to some researchers (Onogawa, 1940; Duan, 1988; Lung, 2011; Davis, 2008; Tang, 2009; etc.), the Göktürks ' leading Ashina clan were descended from the Tiele tribe by ancestral lineage. Like the Göktürks , the Tiele were probably one of many nomadic Turkic peoples on

9682-674: Was Yingwu Weiyuan Pijia Qaghan ( Chinese : 英武威遠毗伽闕可汗 ; lit. 'Brave and Martial qaghan', 'that awes the distant lands' ) or simply Yingwu Qaghan ( Chinese : 英武可汗 ; lit. 'Brave and Martial qaghan'). He was also known as Gelei Qaghan ( Chinese : 葛勒可汗 ; pinyin : Gélēi Kèhán ). His official regnal name in Turkic was Tengrida Bolmish Eletmish Bilge Qaghan ( Old Turkic : 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃𐰓𐰀⁚𐰉𐰆𐰞𐰢𐱁⁚𐰠𐱅𐰢𐰾𐰋𐰠𐰏𐰀⁚𐰴𐰍𐰣 , romanized:  Teŋride bolmuš El Etmiš Bilge qaγan , lit.   'Tengri-born State Founder Wise Qahgan'). He

9785-410: Was based on political and economic concerns regarding trade with the Sogdians, it was driven by the rulers and often encountered resistance in lower societal strata. Furthermore, as the khaghan's political power depended on his ability to provide economically for his subjects, "alliance with the Sogdians through adopting their religion was an important way of securing this objective." Both the Sogdians and

9888-595: Was decisively defeated by Tang forces in 847. The Yenisei Kyrgyz who replaced the Uyghur Khaganate were unsophisticated and had little interest in running the empire which they had destroyed. They held the territory from Lake Baikal in the east to the Irtysh River in the west and left Kulug Bagha, the Uyghur who defected to them, in charge of the Orkhon Valley . During the reign of Emperor Yizong of Tang (860–873), there were three recorded contacts between

9991-819: Was first interpreted as "Tölis" by Édouard Chavannes and Vilhelm Thomsen , but this was pointed out as inaccurate in 1937 by Cen Zhongmian, as Tölis applied to the Turkic title of official (突利失 Tulishi ) in the east that also came to be attached to the Xueyantuo qaghan. Some scholars (Haneda, Onogawa, Geng, etc.) proposed that Tiele , Dili , Dingling , Chile , Tele , & Tujue all transliterated underlying Türk ; however, Golden proposed that Dili , Dingling , Chile , Tele , & Tiele transliterated Tegrek while Tujue transliterated Türküt , plural of Türk . The appellation Türük ( Old Turkic : 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰) ~ Türk (OT: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚) (whence Middle Chinese 突厥 * dwət-kuɑt > * tɦut-kyat > standard Chinese : Tūjué )

10094-596: Was followed by his son Yaoluoge Chengzong (藥羅葛承宗) sometime later. In 727, at the suggestion of the general Wang Junchuo (王君㚟), Emperor Xuanzong commissioned Wang Junchuo to attack the Tibetan Empire , and after a Tibetan incursion in late 726, Wang counterattacked and inflicted losses on the Tibetan forces commanded by the general Xinuoluogonglu (悉諾邏恭祿). Later in the year though, Xinuoluogonglu and another general, Zhulongmangbuzhi (燭龍莽布支) attacked and captured Wang's home prefecture Gua Prefecture (瓜州, roughly modern Jiuquan , Gansu ), taking Wang's father Wang Shou (王壽) captive. As

10197-482: Was initially reserved exclusively for the Göktürks by Chinese, Tibetans, and even the Turkic-speaking Uyghurs . In contrast, medieval Muslim writers, including like Ottoman historians like Mustafa Âlî and explorer Evliya Çelebi as well as Timurid scientist Ulugh Beg , often viewed Inner Asian tribes, "as forming a single entity regardless of their linguistic affiliation" commonly used Turk as

10300-950: Was recorded in the Old Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang . According to Japanese scholars Hashimoto, Katayama, and Senga, each name in the lists in the Books of Tang recorded each subtribal surname of each chief, while the other list in Tang Huiyao recorded the names of the Toquz Oghuz tribes proper. Walter Bruno Henning (1938) linked nine names recorded in the Saka language " Staël-Holstein Scroll" with those recorded by Han Chinese authors. In 747, Qutlugh Bilge Köl Kaghan died, leaving his youngest son, Bayanchur Khan to reign as Khagan El etmish bilge "State settled, wise". After building

10403-602: Was sent to Dezong. In 792, the Uyghurs, led by Baoyi Qaghan , defeated the Tibetans and Karluks, taking Gaochang . Not long after the Tibetans attacked Yushu, a fortified town 560 li east of Kucha . They were besieged by Baoyi there and destroyed. In 795, Qutluq Bilge Qaghan died and the Yaghlakar dynasty came to an end. A general, Qutluq II , declared himself the new qaghan under the title Ay Tängridä ülüg bulmïsh alp qutlugh ulugh bilgä qaghan "Greatly born in moon heaven, victorious, glorious, great and wise qaghan", founding

10506-404: Was spread about a revolt in the north when a raiding campaign led Ishbara Qaghan away from the capital. Among the rivals of Ishbara in the west was Tardu, son of Istämi . He allied with Apa Khan, a qaghan at the northern Dzungaria and Khovd River, and declared himself independent. In 587 Baga Khan, heir of Ishbara, captured Apa with the help of the Chinese but died the next year on a campaign in

10609-675: Was supported by the Karluks , Basmyls , and Khitans in 750. He was enthroned in Ordu-Baliq , a new capital that was built by Chinese and Sogdian architects. His royal court consisted of 60 nobles, Court Secretary - Inancu Baga Tarkan and a Chief Minister - Bilge Tay Sanggun. He also appointed his sons as viceroys over Western (Tardush) and Eastern (Töles) tribes. Emperor Suzong of Tang appealed to Bayanchur in 756 for help against An Lushan , sending his second cousin Li Chengcai (李承寀)

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