164-715: Oppiliappan Temple , is a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu , located near Thirunageswaram and also known by its old toponym Thiruvinnagar, a village in the outskirts of the Kumbakonam in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture , the temple is glorified in the Naalayira Divya Prabandham , the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from
328-444: A Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Shiva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, etc. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for darsana (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision ). Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India, and Vimana in south India, that stretches towards
492-422: A Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by
656-619: A Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised the Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, murtis and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like
820-500: A UNESCO World Heritage site. The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while The Elephanta Caves are representative of the latter style. The Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of caves—the first
984-613: A baby under the tulasi plant. Markandeya recognized the baby as Lakshmi and raised her. When the young girl reached adolescence, on the panguni month of Shravana , Vishnu appeared as an old man and proposed marriage to her. Markandeya replied, "You are very ripe and old, my daughter is too young and she does not even know how to cook with proper salt contents", to which the old man replied, "If your daughter must cook without salt, then I will still take it as my best food, but I will not leave from here without marrying her". Markandeya sought Vishnu's help and then realised using his penance that
1148-511: A bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers. Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in Udupi (Karnataka), Puri (Odisha) and Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple
1312-488: A brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types. Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building
1476-449: A daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure; peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai , service tenure, and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai were the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to periodic revision. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes; one directly paid
1640-696: A descendant of the Early Cholas , reestablished resp. founded the Chola empire in 848 CE. Vijayalaya took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya and Pallava empires in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar , and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola empire. Under Aditya I , the Cholas along with
1804-581: A garden around the third precinct of the temple and a much bigger garden about 0.5 km (0.31 mi) to the south of the temple, where Tulasi and flowers are grown. A hall in the garden is used for resting deities during the Vasantotsavam festival celebrated for six days in May–June every year. The temple follows Vaigasana Agama and follows Vadagalai practices. During the Viswaroopa Seva,
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#17327934743821968-502: A house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned by Pāṇini . In the Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja , which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with
2132-446: A main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells". The ancient texts on Hindu temple design,
2296-653: A major role in inter-regional and overseas trade. The best-known guilds were the Manigramam and Ayyavole , who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement of the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations and guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya Empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were
2460-573: A major role in the army; the empire had numerous war elephants that carried houses or huge howdahs on their backs. These howdahs were full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and fought with spears at close quarters. The Chola army was mostly composed of Kaikolars —men with strong arms who were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury. Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made of bricks but other materials like stone, wood, and mud were also used. According to
2624-601: A natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at
2788-455: A number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion: Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image: A Hindu temple may or may not include a murti or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To
2952-536: A plant in the place where the temple is located. This is mentioned in the 53rd verse of Nammazhwaar in Thiruviruththam . The sage Markandeya worshipped Vishnu and desired to have Lakshmi as his daughter and Vishnu as his son-in-law. Once Markandeya was on a holy trip and after reaching Thiruvinnagaram, he felt it was the right place to get his desire fulfilled. Markandeya started a severe penance for thousand years, seeking Lakshmi's blessings. Lakshmi appeared as
3116-452: A sacred space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi- vidya ) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos ( brahmaṇḍa ) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence. In ancient Indian texts, a temple
3280-437: A social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived. Almost all Hindu temples take two forms:
3444-400: A symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of
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#17327934743823608-500: A temple). Manasara , a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing
3772-555: A variable annual revenue to the state and the other paid fixed-rate dues to public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, Chola rulers built large, stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake that
3936-541: Is Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , which the Rajaraja commissioned in 1010. They were also well known for their patronage of art. The development of the sculpting technique used in Chola bronzes of Hindu deities that were built using a lost wax process, was pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread, and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. Vijayalaya ,
4100-416: Is a yantra , a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as
4264-560: Is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva. A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts—from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality. Ancient Sanskrit texts classify murtis and images in
4428-457: Is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a Tirtha . It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life. In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal. Susan Lewandowski states that
4592-791: Is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished. Hindu temple architecture are presented in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods, are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, and share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly India and Nepal , Bangladesh , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , in Southeast Asian countries such as Cambodia , Vietnam , Malaysia , and Indonesia , and countries such as Canada , Fiji , France , Guyana , Kenya , Mauritius ,
4756-405: Is called "Ahoraathra Pushkarani". The place is called by various names, including "Agasa Nagaram", "Vaikunda Nagaram", "Thiruvinnagar", "Oppiliappan Sannithi" and "Uppiliappan Sannithi". The presiding deity is also called by various names, including Venkatachalapathy, Thiruvinnagarappan, Oppilaappan, Thanoppillaappan, Uppiliappan and Srinivasan. It is not clear from the inscriptions and records when
4920-474: Is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated. Hindu temple architecture, which makes extensive use of squares and circles, has its roots in Vedic traditions, which also influence the temples' construction and symbolism. Through astronomical numbers and particular alignments connected to the temple's location and the relationship between the deity and the worshipper, the temple's design also illustrates
5084-503: Is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad (4.3.21) recites: In
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5248-556: Is evident in their expeditions to the Ganges , naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya Empire on the island of Sumatra , and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity . Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at
5412-432: Is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred. The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space
5576-547: Is he who has no comparison, meaning there is neither an equivalent nor superior to Vishnu. He mentions "the Lord who by his powers affords solace for pining hearts and renders them fit for service". The temple is one of the most visited in the district. Hindu temple Traditional A Hindu temple , also known as Mandir , Devasthanam , Pura , or Kovil , is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It
5740-405: Is laid out in a series of courts ( mandapas ). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, asuras and rakshashas ; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner Devika padas space and symbolic arts incorporating
5904-476: Is located next to it. A Yaga sala for performing religious rituals is present in the temple. The temple has a hall for housing festival vehicles, a library, and a hall with edight carved pillars on the banks of the temple tank, where the annual float-festival is celebrated. The Kodimandapa, located to the south of the Garuda shrine, is used for several day-to-day religious practices. The annual Kalyana Utsavam festival
6068-608: Is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the Government of Tamil Nadu . The temple has a five-tiered rajagopuram (the gateway tower) and enshrined within a granite wall. The complex contains all the shrines and water bodies associated with it. The Sahasradhari plate and pot ( kudam ) are made of gold for performing Thirumanjanam (ablution) to the presiding deity. The temple also maintains golden sword, diamond crown and gold arm guard for
6232-714: Is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu . Rajendra also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V a prisoner; he also conquered Rattapadi —territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad , and Kolar , where Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue—in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories included
6396-458: Is performed in the hall amidst music and dance programmes. The temple is considered the southern counterpart of Thirupathi temple and hence devotees perform their marriages and vows as they do in Thirupathi. Outside the main complex, the temple maintains two marriage halls, a rest house containing five rooms, two other halls, a housing each for the small chariot and the big chariot. There is
6560-863: Is revered in Naalayira Divya Prabandham , the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by Periyalvar , Thirumangai Alvar and Nammalvar . The temple is classified as a Divya Desam , the 108 Vishnu temples that are revered in the Vaishnava canon. The temple is counted as the 14th in the list of divyadesams in Chola Nadu and 83rd in the overall list. The Alvars address the presiding deity by various names like Oppiliappan, Vinnagarappan and Venkatachalapathy and his consort Bhudevi as Bhoomidevi Nachiar and Dharanadevi. Thirumangai Alvar refers to Oppiliappan as Thiruvinnagar Mevvane in his verses in Peria Tirumoli while Nammalvar called him "Thannoppaarillappan", that
6724-558: Is said to have dispatched Nagama's son Viswanatha, who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara rule. The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas, is not known. It is speculated he either fell in battle or was executed along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara. The Government of the Chola empire was monarchical , similar to the Sangam age . The empire consisted of various kingdoms, vassals, chiefdoms and areas of influence owning alliance to
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6888-493: Is the most prominent festival of the temple, celebrated for nine days during the Tamil month of Panguni (March–April) and devotees from various places pull the chariot round the streets of temple. Verses from the 'Naalayira Divya Prabandham' are recited by a group of temple priests amidst music with Nagaswaram (pipe instrument) and Tavil (percussion instrument). The processional idols of Oppiliappan and Bhudevi are brought to
7052-417: Is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth. These are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta —which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life. From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism
7216-415: Is typically called prasada . Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles: In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into
7380-609: The Netherlands , South Africa , Suriname , Tanzania , Trinidad and Tobago , Uganda , the United Kingdom , the United States , Australia , New Zealand , and other countries with a significant Hindu population. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since
7544-602: The Tamil month of "Panguni" (March–April), is the most prominent. The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu . The legend of the temple is mentioned in the Hindu scripture Brahmanda Purana . Tulasi , once did penance to attain closeness to the god Vishnu . Vishnu responded that his consort Lakshmi would appear under Tulasi's lap in Tiruvinnagaram. Tulasi appeared as
7708-564: The Telika Mandir in Gwalior , built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at
7872-523: The Vāstu-puruṣa-mandala and Vastu Śāstras , do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example,
8036-481: The caste system played a role in Chola governance. According to Kathleen Gough , the Vellalars , the dominant aristocratic caste, provided taxes and tribute to the monarchy and military Temples in the Chola era acted as both places of worship and centres of economic activity, benefiting the community. Some of the output of villages was given to temples, which reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to
8200-419: The garbha-griya (literally, "womb house")—a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a cult image—which, though many Indians may refer to casually as an idol, is more formally known as a murti, or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this murti gives the temple a local name, such as
8364-514: The 10th to 11th centuries because Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major Chola export. Farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community, who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and were an economically powerful group. Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people besides landowners. The Vellalar community
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#17327934743828528-514: The 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two matha to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to
8692-674: The 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country but they also faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying the Chalukya capital. The Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with
8856-585: The 12th century. The Swaminarayanan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey , between the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples. A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma , beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Puruṣa in
9020-515: The 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called Ghatikas or Mathas , where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calai or Salai , and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. The temples linked to Bhakti movement in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins. These assumed many educational functions, including
9184-638: The 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to Brahman (not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called Brahma padas . The 49-grid design is called Sthandila and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in Prakaras . The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples face sunrise, and
9348-408: The 6th century CE. Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice,
9512-536: The 6th–9th centuries CE. It is counted as the 60th of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu. Vishnu is worshiped as Oppiliappan and his consort Lakshmi as Bhudevi . The temple is one of the Pancha Kshethram , where Lakshmi was born as Bhargavi - the daughter of the sage Bhrigu . The temple is believed to be of significant antiquity and to have been initiated by the Medieval Cholas of
9676-565: The Chalukyas. Virarajendra then marched against Vengi and probably killed Saktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya VII. In the midst of this, in 1063, Rajendra II died; because his son Rajamahendra had predeceased him, Virarajendra returned to Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was crowned the Chola king (1063–1070). Virarajendra split the Western Chalukya kingdom by persuading Chalukya prince Vikramaditya IV to become his son-in-law and to seize
9840-667: The Chola Empire's main trading partners. The Chola dynasty played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The empire's market structure and economic policies were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song dynasty . A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in
10004-411: The Chola Empire. Kulottunga Chola I administered the province through his sons, whom he sent there as viceroys. There was a prolonged fight between Kulottunga Chola I and Vikramaditya VI. Kulothunga's long reign was characterized by unparalleled success and prosperity; he avoided unnecessary wars and earned the admiration of his subjects. Kulottunga's successes resulted in the well-being of the empire for
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#173279347438210168-402: The Chola empire, Justice was mostly a local matter; minor disputes were settled at village level. Minor crimes were punished with fines or a direction for the offender to donate to a charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. The king heard and decided crimes of the state, such as treason; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or
10332-480: The Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of Tamil country during this period. They exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other, thereby preventing the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During
10496-708: The Chola period several guilds, communities, and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. Members of the Vellalar caste were sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The Ulavar caste were agricultural workers and peasants were known as Kalamar. The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants who also maintained armies. During
10660-425: The Chola period, they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th centuries), there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non- Brahmin peoples in temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in financial power. Skilled classes like weavers and merchants had become prosperous. Land ownership
10824-439: The Cholas recovered the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III; the Cholas also recovered Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja II (1146–1175) a fact attested to by the construction of the third grand, chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam . Up to 1215, during
10988-540: The Cholas was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas steadily gained control of Tamil country and territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan , before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha. Fromn 1215,
11152-618: The Eastern Chalukyan princes had married into the imperial Chola family and felt they belonged to it as much as to the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi had "spent his childhood days in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was a familiar favourite to the princes and the people of the Chola country" according to Kalingathuparani , an epic written in praise of him. Following
11316-632: The Emperor. Several of these vassalages had some degree of autonomy. Several historians have described the governmental system of the Cholas as a form of Feudalism . However, others including Burton Stein reject this due to differences between the governance of the Cholas and that of traditional feudalism in contemporary Europe . The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called mandalams which were further divided into valanadus , which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams . At local government level, every village
11480-605: The Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Rajarata of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. From the period of Rajaraja, the Cholas engaged in a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas . The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties,
11644-516: The Hoysalas and the Cholas, and dispossessed the Hoysalas, defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of its prosperity and had replaced the Chola empire in the view of foreign observers. The last-recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279; there is no evidence he was immediately followed by another Chola prince. In around 1279, Kulasekhara Pandiyan routed
11808-484: The Hoysalas from Kannanur Kuppam and in the same war, the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century until period of the Vijayanagara Empire . In the early 16th century, Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore , rose out of obscurity and plundered
11972-670: The Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea Medieval Cholas The Chola Empire , which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas , was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty , and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia . The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak
12136-528: The Later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja III to the last emperor Rajendra III , was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, the Cholas lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore ) districts to the Hoysala Empire . Immediately after the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I,
12300-623: The Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur , Rajasthan. Michael Meister suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence. A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on
12464-728: The Pallavas defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty . Later, Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and occupied the Tondaimandalam . In 925, Aditya's son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka, which was then-known as Ilangai. Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the Battle of Vallala. Later, Parantaka I
12628-775: The Pandyans gradually became a major force in Tamil country and consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and the Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul, Tiruchy, Karur, and Satyamangalam and in the Kaveri Delta , Thanjavur, Mayuram, Chidambaram, Vriddhachalam, and Kanchi. The Pandyans marched to Arcot ; Tirumalai, Nellore, Visayawadai, Vengi, and Kalingam by 1250. The Pandyas steadily routed
12792-648: The Western Chalukyan dominions and set fire to the Kollipaka fort on the frontier between the Kalyani and Vengi territories. This brought relief for Rajaraja Narendra, who was now firmly in control at Vengi, with Rajadhiraja I proceeding to the Chalukyan capital, displacing the Chalukyan king Someshvara I, performing his coronation at Manyakheta, and collecting tribute from the defeated king, who had fled
12956-673: The Western and Eastern Chalukyas . Rajaraja's daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. The Western Chalukyas felt the Vengi kingdom was in their natural sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas. The frontier mostly remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja . Rajendra's reign
13120-595: The administration was improved and the Emperors were able to exercise closer control over the parts of the empire. The administrative structure expanded, particularly during and after the reign of Rajaraja. The government at this time had a multi-tiered, large, land-revenue department that was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. Corporate bodies such as the Ur, Nadu, Sabha, Nagaram, and sometimes local chieftains, undertook The assessment and collection of revenue, and passed
13284-479: The age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do. According to Silparatna,
13448-409: The ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the Vedas and Upanishads ), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture ( Bṛhat Saṃhitā , Vāstu Śāstras ). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple
13612-414: The ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram , Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains, and traps. Chola soldiers used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and steel shields. Several Chola weapons utilized Wootz steel . The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in
13776-617: The artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types. The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till
13940-507: The battlefield. While the Chalukyans kept creating trouble through Vijayaditya VII, Vengi remained firmly under the control of the Cholas. Someshvara I again launched an attack on Vengi and then the Cholas in 1054. After Rajadhiraja died, Rajendra II crowned himself on the battlefield. He galvanized the Chola army, defeating the Chalukyas under Someshvara I. The Chalukya king again fled the battlefield, leaving behind his queen and riches in
14104-585: The beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty , which ultimately caused the Chola's downfall. The Cholas established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders, and regarded temples in their kingdoms as both places of worship and of economic activity. A prime example of Chola architecture
14268-606: The central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be murtis of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of
14432-468: The centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity , is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa , the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger
14596-444: The confiscation of property. The Chola military had four elements; the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry, and a navy. The Emperor was the supreme commander. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen, the latter of which were the most-permanent and most-dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams . Elephants played
14760-488: The consent of the Kalyani court, established himself permanently in the kingdom. Meanwhile, prince Rajendra Chalukya, son of Rajaraja Narendra through the Chola princess Ammangai, was brought up in the Chola harem. Rajendra Chalukya married Madhurantakidevi, the daughter of RajendraII. To restore him on the Vengi throne, RajendraII sent his son Rajamahendra and brother ViraRajendra against the Western Chalukyas and Vijayaditya VII. Chola forces marched against Gangavadi and repelled
14924-574: The cosmos and on truth. Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic , pantheistic , monistic , or atheistic . Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as kṣaitrajña ( Sanskrit : क्षैत्रज्ञ ) ). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards moksha , awareness of self,
15088-430: The course of trade. These corporations had mercenary armies for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called " nagaram " in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram. Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows a hospital was named after Virarajendra . Many diseases were cured by
15252-467: The death of the death of Adhirajendra, Rajendra Chalukya established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga I (1070–1122), beginning the Later Chola or Chalukya-Chola period. Kulothunga I reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi for the rest of his life. The Eastern Chalukya line came to an end with Vijayaditya's death in 1075 and Vengi became a province of
15416-521: The deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform japa , or meditation, or yoga , or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture. The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with
15580-404: The design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples. A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala . The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. The Vastu-purusha-mandala
15744-432: The discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family—a small, private space to allow visitors to experience darsana . Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, darsana
15908-405: The doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician, who was paid annually eighty kalams of paddy, eight kasus , and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, a barber who performed minor operations, and a waterman. The Chola queen Kundavai established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for its perpetual maintenance. During
16072-592: The dominions of the Pandya prince in the south. The Pandya, who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara , appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent ( Karyakartta ) Nagama Nayaka, who was stationed in the south, to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but the once-loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya
16236-936: The donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks. Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding
16400-714: The earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex. These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous murtis and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, Mata Bhavani's Stepwell , Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, Rani ki vav , with hundreds of art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars , has been declared
16564-565: The eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa . Silpa Prakasa provides
16728-410: The embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without; in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without. The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards
16892-674: The entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. Rajaraja Chola I was an energetic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000, Rajaraja conducted a land survey to effectively marshall his empire's resources. He built Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010. Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north and defeated
17056-400: The entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya , the sun-god. The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and Indra , the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to
17220-470: The expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige, and naval commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy grew from a small entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in Asia, but
17384-406: The explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples. The gods always play where lakes are, where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters, and where clear waterpaths are made by swans whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither, where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard, and animals rest nearby in
17548-558: The exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts. Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called Anyonyam . According to Kenneth G. Zysk—a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu mathas and temples had by
17712-489: The festival associated with Rama , an avatar of Vishnu. The event is celebrated for ten days with music and dance performance and on the concluding day, kanakabhishekam (ablution with gold for the festival image) and Rama Pattabhishekam. Sravan Deepam is a festival celebrated every month in the temple on the day of Tamil star of Thiruvonam and devotees observe fast called Sravana Vratham that day by consuming only unsalted food. Tonsure ceremony for getting children shaved for
17876-512: The first time to promote proper growth and ear piercing is a very common practise followed in the temple. It is believed that the place is as sacred as Vaikunta and as in Vaikunta, the river Vraja there flows as river Nattaru and hence considered sacred. The temple is counted as one of the temples built on the banks of River Kaveri . Oppiliappan is considered the elder brother of the presiding deity of Tirupathi Venkateshwara Temple . The temple
18040-472: The first worship, Suprapada Prabarthi Mangalam, a verse exclusively dedicated to Oppiliappan is relayed. Thiruppavai is relayed after it, followed by naivethana in all shrines. Uchikalam is the last worship during the day time and happens at noon. During the evening, mutharkalam is the first worship sequence, recitals in Veda and Nithsuasandamam. Arthajamam is the last puja of the day. The chariot festival
18204-646: The forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal , and reached the Ganges river in northern India. Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of the empire there. This expedition left such an impression on the Malay people of the medieval period his name
18368-424: The four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina . Large temples also have pillared halls, called mandapa —one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have
18532-661: The head of a town street. Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called Vastu-Sastra (literally "science" of dwelling; vas-tu is a composite Sanskrit word; vas means "reside", tu means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling) and Sastra meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru , describing where and how temples should be built. Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since
18696-426: The idea of recursion and the equivalency of the macrocosm and the microcosm . A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting dharma , artha , kama , moksha , and karma . The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are detailed in
18860-412: The image of Hanuman . The shrine over the sanctum is plated with gold. The main shrine of the temple houses the image of Oppiliappan in standing posture and it also houses the images of Bhoomidevi and sage Markendeya. The vimana is called Suddhananda, meaning "pure happiness". The Desika shrine is located near the sancturn sanctorum. On the sides of the first precinct, the shrine of Anjaneya is located on
19024-412: The inscribers had a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic education system for
19188-450: The king royal justice would ensure a happy future for him, and that injustice would lead to divine punishment. The Cholas, who were in possession of parts of the west and east coasts of peninsular India, engaged in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. South Indian guilds played
19352-572: The late 8th century CE, with later contributions at different times from Thanjavur Nayaks . The temple has two inscriptions dating from the Chola period, a five-tiered rajagopuram (gateway tower), and a granite wall. The complex contains all the shrines and water bodies associated with it. Oppiliappan is believed to have appeared for sage Markandeya and the Hindu deities Bhudevi, Brahma , and Shiva . The temple observes six daily rituals and three yearly festivals. The chariot festival, celebrated during
19516-414: The local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade. At the top of this economy were elite merchant groups ( samayam ) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade. The Chola Empire's main export was cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a centre for cotton textiles Tamil poets praised. Chola rulers encouraged
19680-532: The manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in
19844-453: The masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training, in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; monasteries ( matha or gatika ) were centres of learning and received government support. Under Chola kings, there was generally an emphasis on a fair justice system, and the kings were often described as sengol-valavan , the king who established just rule; and priests warned
20008-514: The next 100 years but Kulothunga lost the territories in the island of Lanka and began to lose control of the Pandya territories. Under Rajaraja Chola III and his successor Rajendra Chola III, the Later Cholas were quite weak and experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I held Rajaraja Chola III as a hostage for some time. At the close of
20172-408: The old man was Vishnu himself. When he opened his eyes, Vishnu appeared in his true celestial form. Markandeya married his daughter to Vishnu. Per the legend, the temple's Neyvethiyam (food offering) is always prepared without salt. The name Oppiliappan is a result of this legend. There is also a story behind the tank in this temple. Once a King had consummated with a daughter of a saint and hence
20336-452: The patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut
20500-554: The positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main murti , as well as the space for the Purusa, and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of
20664-454: The possession of the victorious Chola army. The Cholas consolidated their hold on Vengi and Kalinga. Although there were occasional skirmishes with the Chalukyas, they were repeatedly defeated by both the Cholas and the Vengi princes, who openly professed loyalty to the Chola empire. Following the death of Rajaraja Narendra in 1061, another opportunity for the Kalyani court to strengthen its hold on Vengi arose. Vijayaditya VII seized Vengi and with
20828-529: The priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur , still one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu . Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project
20992-503: The process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus
21156-517: The reign of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas, and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas, and established a presence in Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III, who succeeded Rajaraja III, was a more competent ruler who led successful expeditions to the north, as attested to by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. He also defeated two Pandya princes, one of whom
21320-590: The resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India. A lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war, in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war, and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa and Pallavarayanpettai inscriptions. For three generations,
21484-457: The revenue to the centre. Rajaraja's reign initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment, and the empire was reorganised into units known as valanadus . The executive officer first communicated the order of the King to the local authorities. Afterwards, the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by witnesses, who were either local magnates or government officers. In
21648-416: The rule of Kulothunga Chola III, Chola administration and territorial integrity was stable and very prosperous, but during his rule, Chola power started declining following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–1216. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Sri Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. The decline of the Cholas was also marked by
21812-452: The sacred, inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the Brahma pada, the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire ( shikhara, vimana ). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests Edmund Leach , a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door
21976-418: The saint cursed him to become a bird. The king lived as a bird and one night when there was a storm, the branch of the tree the bird was sleeping on broke and fell into the water of this tank. The bird regained its original form as the King and since then this is known as the only theerththam that one can do theerth thaadanam even in the night. Since this tank has such healing power in the day as well as night, it
22140-424: The settlements. Before the reign of Rajaraja I, huge parts of Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, when Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes almost vanished from Chola records, and were either replaced with or became dependent officials, through whom
22304-674: The shade of Nicula trees on the river banks. The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech, water as their garment, carps for their zone, the flowering trees on their banks as earrings, the confluence of rivers as their hips, raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle. The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens. While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where
22468-490: The shrine's southern wall indicates a gift of land to the temple in the 14th year of the Chola king Rajaraja Rajakkesarivarman I. The tradition in many ancient temples in Tamil Nadu including this one is that the original image of the presiding deity is made of wood and replaced later with stone. There were a lot of additions made to the temple by Govinda Dikshitar , the minister of successive Nayak rulers, Achuthappa Nayak (1560–1614) and Raghunatha Nayak (1600–34). The temple
22632-696: The sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities. According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick. The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at Hampi featured storage spaces (temple granary, kottara ), water tanks and kitchens. Many major pilgrimage sites have featured dharmashalas since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing
22796-459: The sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares. Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology. In larger temples,
22960-502: The southern side of the main entrance. A marble hall is located on the western side in the inner precinct acts as the resting hall for the festival deities during festivals. Dolotsavam festival is celebrated in Another marble hall in the northern side of the temple. Adjoining the hall, there is a shrine where the images of Rama, Lakshmana , Sita and Hanuman are housed. The sacred bed chamber called Tiruppalliarai, covered full of mirrors
23124-410: The southern, and Alvars' and Rama 's on the northern and Ramanuja's on the eastern sides. The shrine for Maniappan is located in the second precinct in the southern side, while the shrines of Ennappan and the holy birth spot of Bhoomidevi are located in the northern side. Garuda 's shrine is located right opposite the sanctum and right behind the temple mast. The shrine of dancing Krishna is located on
23288-400: The temple car early in the morning amidst Vedic chantings. Subsequently, the festive idols are taken to the ' ther thatti mandapam' (chariot launching hall). The 'ratharohanam', the rituals associated with taking the idols to the temple car is performed in an auspicious time before starting the procession. The temple celebrates six other festivals: Vasanta Utsavam (spring festival) for 6 days in
23452-453: The temple garden during Vaikasi (May–June), Pavitrotsavam (purifying festival) for 5 days during Avani (Aug – Sep), Brahmotsavam for nine days of Purattasi (Sept – Oct), Kalyana Utsavam (holy marriage of god and goddess) for 12 days commencing from Sravanam during Aippasi (Oct–Nov), Adhyayana Utsavam (ten-day-and-ten-night festival) during Margali (Dec–Jan) and float festival for 5 days during Thai(Jan – Feb). Ramanavami ,
23616-613: The temple was initiated, but there are inscriptions from the Medieval Cholas period indicating generous gifts to the temple. There are two inscriptions recorded from the Naganathar Temple in Tirunageswaram . The epigraph numbered 211 of 1911 on the northern wall of the central shrine indicates gift of gold jewel worked in gems and pearls to the temple from the Chola king Parakesarivarman, alias Rajendra Chola I (1012–44 CE). The second inscription numbered 218 of 1911 on
23780-566: The temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a prasutishala (maternity house), vaidya (physician), an arogyashala (health house) and a viprasattra (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for. According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for
23944-770: The texts were copied when they wore out. In South India, temples and associated mathas served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on Hindu philosophy , poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called Sarasvati-bhandara , dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples. Palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei . Inscriptions from
24108-612: The throne of Kalyani for himself. When Virarajendra died in 1070, he was succeeded by his son Adhirajendra, who was assassinated a few months later, leaving the Chola dynasty was without a lineal successor in the Vijayalaya Chola line. Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi
24272-594: The tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as Odisha , Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials. Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India. Burton Stein states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by
24436-497: The underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), of kama (pleasure, sex), of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At
24600-401: The underworld. This vastu-purusha-mandala plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the highest reality , the purusha . This space is sometimes known as
24764-490: The weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During this period, weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. Weavers had their own residential sector in all towns; the most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar . During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree of skill and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk. Metalcrafts peaked during
24928-455: The word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as
25092-514: The world. Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" ( Sanskrit : शिल्पिन् ), derived from "Silpa". One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in Atharvaveda , from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art. Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does
25256-421: Was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and briefly made the Pandyas submit to Chola control. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and sided with the Pandyas, and repulsed the Cholas to counter the latter's revival. In South India, the Pandyas had become a great power that banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu and Kannada country; the Hoysalas were allies of the Cholas on Tamil country. The demise of
25420-535: Was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram , nadu or kottam , depending on the area. A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu . These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later one at Gangaikonda Cholapuram , Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals where occasional courts were held. Similar to other medieval Indian societies,
25584-571: Was assassinated in a political plot. After Parantaka II, Uttama Chola became the Chola emperor and was followed by Raja Raja Chola I , the greatest Chola monarch. Under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I , the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state. At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari – Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal,
25748-480: Was defeated by Rashtrakutas under Krishna III and the Cholas' heir apparent Rajaditya Chola was killed in the Battle of Takkolam , in which the Cholas lost Tondaimandalam region to Rashtrakutas. The Cholas recovered their power during the reign of Parantaka II . The Chola army under the command of crown prince Aditha Karikalan defeated the Pandyas and expanded the kingdom to Tondaimandalam . Aditha Karikalan
25912-587: Was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. An internal trade in several articles was carried out by organised mercantile corporations. The metal industries and the jewellers' art had reached a high degree of excellence. Sea salt was made under government supervision and control. Merchants organised into guilds that were described sometimes by the terms nanadesis ; these were powerful, autonomous corporations of merchants that visited other countries in
26076-409: Was followed by those of three of his sons in succession; Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , and Virarajendra . In his eagerness to restore Chola hegemony over Vengi to its former absolute state, Rajadhiraja I (1042–1052) led an expedition into Vengi country in 1044–1045. He fought a battle at Dhannada, and compelled the Western Chalukyan army and Vijayaditya VII to retreat in disorder. Rajendra then entered
26240-557: Was gradually reduced in significance when Cholas fought land battles to subjugate the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India. Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. Chola rulers issued coins in gold, silver, and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers; at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram , which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in
26404-555: Was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra . In 1070, Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra , ascended the Chola throne, beginning the Later Chola dynasty. The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga I, his son Vikrama Chola , and other successors Rajaraja II , Rajadhiraja II , and Kulothunga III , who conquered Kalinga, Ilam , and Kataha . The rule of
26568-474: Was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners. There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life but there are reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates
26732-456: Was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper ranks of the peasantry. In almost all villages, the distinction between persons paying the land tax ( iraikudigal ) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on estates of other people and received
26896-634: Was undertaken". Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger. Historically, the Scheduled Castes or Dalits were prohibited from the entry into temples. In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together. John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where
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