131-565: Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture The Urnfield culture ( c. 1300–750 BC )
262-530: A base for the stratigraphic structure of the whole culture. No final conclusions about the linguistic character of Vučedol can be made, such as the inference that its people were linguistically Indo-European, or to what extent they mixed with native European populations, in regions of the eastern Adriatic coast, Dalmatia and Herzegovina with some parts of Bosnia as well. A February 2018 study published in Nature included an analysis of three individuals ascribed to
393-704: A bridge over the river. By 600 BC the Loire had already become a very important trading route between the Celts and the Greeks . A key transportation route, it served as one of the great "highways" of France for over 2000 years. The Phoenicians and Greeks had used pack horses to transport goods from Lyon to the Loire to get from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic coast. The Romans successfully subdued
524-752: A bronze shield comes from Plzeň in Bohemia and has a riveted handhold. Comparable pieces have been found in Germany, Western Poland, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland. They are supposed to have been made in upper Italy or the Eastern Alps and imitate wooden shields. Irish bogs have yielded examples of leather shields (Clonbrinn, Co. Wexford). Bronze cuirasses are known since Bronze D ( Čaka , grave II, Slovakia). Complete bronze cuirasses have been found in Saint Germain du Plain, nine examples, one inside
655-456: A budget of US$ 18 million, mainly funded by government and public bodies, such as the Établissement Publique Loire (EPL), a public institution which had formerly advocated large-scale dam projects on the river. Studies of the palaeo-geography of the region suggest that the palaeo-Loire flowed northward and joined the Seine , while the lower Loire found its source upstream of Orléans in
786-863: A cauldron-wagon and other rich grave goods accompanied an inhumation under a barrow ( Montelius III/IV). Another example comes from Ystad in Sweden. South-eastern European examples include Kanya in Hungary and Orăştie in Romania. Clay miniature wagons, sometimes with waterfowl, were known there since the middle Bronze Age ( Dupljaja , Vojvodina, Serbia). Vu%C4%8Dedol culture The Vučedol culture (Croatian: Vučedolska kultura ) flourished between 3000 and 2200 BC (the Eneolithic period of earliest copper-smithing), centered in Syrmia and eastern Slavonia on
917-515: A decline in trade on the river. Proposals to develop a fully navigable river up to Briare came to nothing. The opening of the Canal latéral à la Loire in 1838 enabled navigation between Digoin and Briare to continue, but the river level crossing at Briare remained a problem until the construction of the Briare aqueduct in 1896. At 662.69 metres (2,174.2 ft), this was the longest such structure in
1048-664: A diameter of c. 2 km. Magnetic mapping and excavations have indicated the existence of a well-organised settlement of proto-urban character during the Urnfield period. An estimated 824,00 tonnes of earth had to be moved for the construction of the fortification walls alone. Magnetometric surveys at Sântana have revealed the existence of buildings with lengths exceeding 40 m, including a building approximately 60 m long and 40 m wide. "Mega forts" such as Corneşti-Iarcuri, Sântana and Gradište Idoš were surrounded by numerous smaller settlements, including fortified sites. They formed part of
1179-633: A discharge rate of 863 m /s (30,500 cu ft/s), which is an average over the period 1967–2008. The discharge rate varies strongly along the river, with roughly 350 m /s (12,000 cu ft/s) at Orléans and 900 m /s (32,000 cu ft/s) at the mouth. It also depends strongly on the season, and the flow of only 10 m /s (350 cu ft/s) is not uncommon in August–September near Orléans. During floods, which usually occur in February and March but also in other periods,
1310-450: A dominant hunter-warrior class is a preview of the changes that will be characteristic for the east and middle European early Bronze Age. Compared to earlier and contemporary cultures the Vučedol culture exploited a diversity in food sources: the Vučedol people were hunters, fishermen and agrarians, with some strong indications that they cultivated certain domesticated animals. Thus the culture
1441-586: A drop of molten copper . Some researchers of the Vučedol culture have claimed that there was regular trade between the territory of the Vučedol culture and the Helladic culture to the south. Cultural elements found of the B2 phase of the Vučedol culture appear to have originated in the first phase of the middle Bronze Age of the Helladic culture of mainland Greece. The excavated settlement of Vučedol provides
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#17327721746961572-543: A four-wheeled miniature bronze wagon bearing a large cauldron (diameter 30 cm) contained a cremation. This exceptionally rich burial was covered by a barrow . The bronze wagon model from Acholshausen in (Bavaria) comes from a male burial. Such wagons are also known from the Nordic Bronze Age . The Skallerup wagon , Denmark, contained a cremation as well. At Peckatel (Kr. Schwerin) in Mecklenburg
1703-476: A general movement towards large fortified sites across Europe in the Late Bronze Age, possibly in response to new styles of warfare. The general uniformity in design, material culture, and the density of settlements in Romania and Serbia at this time is indicative of societies that were organized under a common political framework. Kristiansen and Suchowska-Ducke (2015) describe these mega-sites as "part of
1834-627: A global nature, such as the expansion of the Mediterranean gull in Europe. The Loire has been described as "constantly under threat of losing its status as the last wild river in France". The reason for this is its sheer length and possibility of extensive navigation, which severely limits the scope of river conservation. The Federation, a member of the IUCN since 1970, has been very important in
1965-415: A navigable channel on the river, as it was critical to transportation. River traffic increased gradually, with a toll system being used in medieval times. Today some of these toll bridges still remain, dated to over 800 years. During the 17th century, Jean-Baptiste Colbert instituted the use of stone retaining walls and quays from Roanne to Nantes , which helped make the river more reliable, but navigation
2096-566: A political centralisation process, a complex chiefdom, or archaic state". In 2018 the remains of a Late Bronze Age 'feasting hall' were excavated at the site of Lăpuş in Romania. Urnfield period houses were one or two-aisled. Some were quite small, 4.5 m × 5 m at the Runder Berg ( Urach , Germany), 5-8m long in Künzig (Bavaria, Germany), others up to 20 m long. They were built with wooden posts and walls of wattle and daub. At
2227-519: A process known as Romanization . Urnfields are found in the French Languedoc and Catalonia from the 9th to 8th centuries. The change in burial custom was most probably influenced by developments further east. Evidence for an association between the Urnfield culture and a hypothetical Italo-Celtic language group has been discussed by scholars such as Peter Schrijver . Placename evidence has also been used to point to an association of
2358-470: A wide range of variations, from the early medieval to the late Renaissance periods. They were originally created as feudal strongholds, over centuries past, in the strategic divide between southern and northern France; now many are privately owned. The name "Loire" comes from Latin Liger , which is itself a transcription of the native Gaulish ( Celtic ) name of the river. The Gaulish name comes from
2489-530: A ‘Natura 2000’ site under European Union environmental legislation. The WWF were particularly important in changing the perception of the French authorities in support for dam building to environmental protection and sustainable management of its river basin. In 1992, they aided the ‘Loire Nature’ project, which received funds of some $ US 9 million under the EU's ‘LIFE’ programme until 1999, embarking upon restoration to
2620-418: Is 164 species, of which 54 are water birds, 44 species are common for managed forests, 41 to natural forests, 13 to open and 12 to rocky areas. This avifauna has been rather stable, at least between the 1980s and 2000s, with significant abundance variations observed only for 17 species. Of those, five species were growing in population, four declining, and other eight were fluctuating. Some of these variations had
2751-549: Is a 300 km (190 mi) stretch in the western reach of the river starting with Orléans and terminating at Nantes , 56 km (35 mi) short of the Loire estuary and the Atlantic Ocean. The tidal stretch of the river extends to a length of 60 km (37 mi) and a width of 3 km (1.9 mi), which has oil refineries, the port of Saint-Nazaire and 40,000 hectares (99,000 acres) of wetland whose formation
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#17327721746962882-536: Is common in the upper streams, whereas the flounder ( Platichtys flesus ) and flathead mullet ( Mugil spp.) tend to stay near the river mouth. The tributaries host brown trout ( Salmo trutta ), European bullhead ( Cottus gobio ), European brook lamprey ( Lampetra planeri ), zander ( Sander lucioperca ), nase ( Chondrostoma nasus and C. toxostoma ) and wels catfish ( Siluris glanis ). The endangered species include grayling ( Thymallus thymallus ), burbot ( Lota lota ) and bitterling ( Rhodeus sericeus ) and
3013-458: Is commonly of a much more widespread distribution than pottery and does not conform to these borders. It may have been produced at specialised workshops catering for the elite of a large area. Important French cemeteries include Châtenay and Lingolsheim (Alsace). An unusual earthwork was constructed at Goloring near Koblenz in Germany . The central European Lusatian culture forms part of
3144-624: Is dated to 7500 BC (caused by inundation by sea waters on the northern bank of the estuary), and the beaches of Le Croisic and La Baule along the coastline. Its main tributaries include the rivers Maine , Nièvre and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier , Cher , Indre , Vienne , and the Sèvre Nantaise on the left bank. The largest tributary of the river is the Allier , 410 km (250 mi) in length, which joins
3275-419: Is identified as temperate maritime climate, and is characterised by the lack of dry seasons and by heavy rains and snowfall in winter, especially in the upper streams. The number of sunny hours per year varies between 1400 and 2200 and increases from northwest to southeast. The Loire Valley, in particular, enjoys a pleasant temperate climate. The region experiences a rainfall of 690 mm (27.2 in) along
3406-475: Is linked to the Yamnaya migration from the steppes. 45°21′N 19°00′E / 45.350°N 19.000°E / 45.350; 19.000 Loire (river) The Loire ( / l w ɑːr / LWAR , US also / l u ˈ ɑːr / loo- AR , French: [lwaʁ] ; Occitan : Léger [ˈledʒe] ; Arpitan : Lêre ; Breton : Liger ; Latin : Liger )
3537-701: Is some incised decoration, but a large part of the surface was normally left plain. Fluted decoration is common. In the Swiss pile dwellings, the incised decoration was sometimes inlaid with tin foil . Pottery kilns were already known (Elchinger Kreuz, Bavaria), as is indicated by the homogeneous surface of the vessels as well. Other vessels include cups of beaten sheet- bronze with riveted handles (type Jenišovice) and large cauldrons with cross attachments. Wooden vessels have only been preserved in waterlogged contexts, for example from Auvernier (Neuchâtel), but may have been quite widespread. The early Urnfield period (1300 BC)
3668-740: Is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of 1,006 kilometres (625 mi), it drains 117,054 km (45,195 sq mi), more than a fifth of France's land, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône . It rises in the southeastern quarter of the French Massif Central in the Cévennes range (in the department of Ardèche ) at 1,350 m (4,430 ft) near Mont Gerbier de Jonc ; it flows north through Nevers to Orléans , then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches
3799-493: The Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) at Saint-Nazaire . Its main tributaries include the rivers Nièvre , Maine and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier , Cher , Indre , Vienne , and the Sèvre Nantaise on the left bank. The Loire gives its name to six departments: Loire , Haute-Loire , Loire-Atlantique , Indre-et-Loire , Maine-et-Loire , and Saône-et-Loire . The lower-central swathe of its valley straddling
3930-502: The Canal du Nivernais to the Canal latéral à la Loire . As of 2017 , the following sections are navigable: The French language adjective ligérien is derived from the name of the Loire, as in le climat ligérien ("the climate of the Loire Valley"). The climate is considered the most pleasant of northern France, with warmer winters and, more generally, fewer extremes in temperatures, rarely exceeding 38 °C (100 °F). It
4061-523: The Ehrenbürg , also covering about 30 ha and surrounded by a timber and stone wall , was another regional centre and the residence of a regional elite. At the hill fort of Hořovice near Beroun (Czech Republic), 50 ha were surrounded by a stone wall. Most settlements were much smaller however. Corneşti-Iarcuri in Romania was the largest prehistoric settlement in Europe, at almost 6 km across, with four fortification lines and an inner settlement with
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4192-688: The Neolithic period (6,000 to 4,500 BC), all of the recent Stone Age in Europe . Then came the Gauls , the local tribes during the Iron Age period of 1500 to 500 BC. They used the Loire as a key trading route by 600 BC, using pack horses to link its trade, such as the metals of the Armorican Massif , with Phoenicia and Ancient Greece via Lyon on the Rhône. Gallic rule ended in
4323-723: The Orion's Belt disappeared from view at the end of winter, which meant the beginning of a new year. The pictographs in the boxes represent: Orion , the Sun, Cassiopeia , Cygnus , Gemini , Pegasus , and the Pleiades . If the box is empty, it means there was nothing visible at the reference point during the corresponding time. People of the Vučedol culture lived in thatched wattle-and-daub houses. Vučedol people lived on hilltop sites surrounded with palisades. Houses were half buried, mostly square or circular in plan with floors of burned clay;
4454-651: The Orléans . Reine claude ( Prunus domestica italica ) tree species was planted in the gardens of the Château. Asparagus was also brought from northwestern France. The river flows through the continental ecoregions of Massif central and Paris Basin south and in its Lower course partly through South Atlantic and Brittany . With more than 100 alga species, the Loire has the highest phytoplankton diversity among French rivers. The most abundant are diatoms and green algae (about 15% by mass) which mostly occur in
4585-655: The Pays de la Loire and Centre-Val de Loire regions was added to the World Heritage Sites list of UNESCO on December 2, 2000. Vineyards and châteaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this section and are a major tourist attraction. The human history of the Loire river valley is thought by some to begin with the Middle Palaeolithic period of 90–40 kya (thousand years ago), followed by modern humans (about 30 kya), succeeded by
4716-741: The Tumulus culture and was succeeded by the Hallstatt culture . Some linguists and archaeologists have associated this culture with a pre-Celtic language or Proto-Celtic language family. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Urnfield Tradition had spread through Italy, northwestern Europe, and as far west as the Pyrenees. It is at this time that fortified hilltop settlements and sheet‐bronze metalworking also spread widely across Europe, leading some authorities to equate these changes with
4847-637: The War in the Vendée since they thought it was a more effective way of killing. Soon after the beginning of the 19th century, steam-driven passenger boats began to ply the river between Nantes and Orléans, making the upriver journey faster; by 1843, 70,000 passengers were being carried annually in the Lower Loire and 37,000 in the Upper Loire. But competition from the railway, beginning in the 1840s, caused
4978-565: The Wasserburg Buchau , Germany (diameter 80 cm). Bronze spoked wheels from Hassloch and Stade (in Germany) have been described as "the most ambitious craft endeavour of all Bronze Age bronze objects", representing "the highest achievement of prehistoric bronze casters in non-Greek Europe ... In terms of casting technique, they are on a par with the casting of a Greek bronze statue." In Milavče near Domažlice , Bohemia ,
5109-428: The pike ( Esox lucius ), which is the major predator of the Loire, as well as eel, carp, rudd and salmon. The great Loire salmon, a subspecies of Atlantic salmon , is regarded as the symbolic fish of the river. Its population has decreased from about 100,000 in the 19th century to below 100 in the 1990s that resulted in the adoption of a total ban of salmon fishing in the Loire basin in 1984. A salmon restoration program
5240-569: The 10th century onwards with the defensive fortress like structures called the " keeps " or " donjons " built between 987 and 1040 by Anjou Count Foulques Nerra of Anjou (the Falcon). However, one of the oldest such structures in France is the Donjon de Foulques Nerra built in 944. This style was replaced by the religious architectural style in the 12th to 14th centuries when the impregnable château fortresses were built on top of rocky hills; one of
5371-423: The 367.5 km (228.4 mi) Cher , which joins the Loire near Cinq-Mars-la-Pile at 47°20′33″N 0°28′49″E / 47.34250°N 0.48028°E / 47.34250; 0.48028 and the 287 km (178 mi) Indre , which joins the Loire near Néman at 47°14′2″N 0°11′0″E / 47.23389°N 0.18333°E / 47.23389; 0.18333 . The geological formations in
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5502-767: The 3rd century, Christianity spread through the river basin, and many religious figures began cultivating vineyards along the river banks. In the 5th century, the Roman Empire declined and the Franks and the Alemanni came to the area from the east. Following this there was ongoing conflict between the Franks and the Visigoths . In 408, the Iranian tribe of Alans crossed the Loire and large hordes of them settled along
5633-406: The Atlantic Ocean at 47°16′44″N 2°10′19″W / 47.27889°N 2.17194°W / 47.27889; -2.17194 between Saint-Nazaire and Saint-Brevin-les-Pins , connected by a bridge over the river near its mouth. Several départements of France were named after the Loire. The Loire flows through the following départements and towns: The Loire Valley in the Loire river basin,
5764-699: The Bald died, marking an end to the Carolingian dynasty . After considerable conflict in the region, in 898 Foulques le Roux of Anjou gained power. During the Hundred Years' War from 1337 to 1453, the Loire marked the border between the French and the English, who occupied territory to the north. One-third of the inhabitants died in the epidemic of the Black Death of 1348–9. The English defeated
5895-808: The Czech Republic, Biskupin in Poland, Ormož in Slovenia, Corneşti-Iarcuri , Sântana and Teleac in Romania, Gradište Idoš in Serbia, and Velem and Csanádpalota–Földvár in Hungary. The 30.5 ha plateau of the Bullenheimer Berg in Germany was the site of a "large, walled, city-like fortification" in the later Urnfield period. Excavations have revealed a dense settlement across the whole plateau, including courtyard-type buildings located on artificially raised terraces. The fortified settlement on
6026-627: The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, Italy, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Albania and one settlement has even been registered in Eastern Greece. The Vučedol culture developed from two older eneolithic cultures: the Baden culture , mainly in the Pannonian plain , and the Kostolac culture in northern Serbia and western Romania , so
6157-520: The Deer, womb-shaped solar motives, figures of women in clothes without sexual or fertility decoration, symbols of double axe. In pottery, new forms and a new rich decoration, are characterized by the spectacular find, the Vučedol dove. The Vučedol culture exploited native copper ores on a massive scale. The settlement sites destroyed earlier eneolithic settlements, and new Vučedol settlements also developed in regions where none previously existed. The rise of
6288-600: The Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia and the Levant around the time of the Urnfield origins: Some scholars, among them Wolfgang Kimmig and P. Bosch-Gimpera have postulated a Europe-wide wave of migrations. The so-called Dorian invasion of Greece was placed in this context as well (although more recent evidence suggests that the Dorians moved in 1100 BC into a post Mycenaean vacuum, rather than precipitating
6419-430: The French in 1356 and Aquitaine came under English control in 1360. In 1429, Joan of Arc persuaded Charles VII to drive out the English from the country. Her successful relief of the siege of Orléans , on the Loire, was the turning point of the war. In 1477, the first printing press in France was established in Angers, and around this time the Chateau de Langeais and Chateau de Montsoreau were built. During
6550-439: The Gaulish word liga , which means "silt, sediment, deposit, alluvium", a word that gave French lie , as in sur lie , which in turn gave English lees . Liga comes from the Proto-Indo-European root * legʰ- , meaning "to lie, lay" as in the Welsh word Lleyg , and also which gave many words in English, such as to lie, to lay, ledge, law, etc. The source of the river lies in the eastern Massif Central , in springs to
6681-401: The Gauls in 52 BC and began developing Cenabum, which they named Aurelianis . They also began building the city of Caesarodunum , now Tours , from AD 1. The Romans used the Loire as far as Roanne , around 150 km (93 mi) downriver from the source. After AD 16, the Loire river valley became part of the Roman province of Aquitania , with its capital at Avaricum . From
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#17327721746966812-420: The Ha B3-phase is contested, as the material consists of female burials only. As can be seen by the arbitrary 100-year ranges, the dating of the phases is highly schematic. The phases are based on typological changes, which means that they do not have to be strictly contemporaneous across the whole distribution. All in all, more radiocarbon and dendro-dates would be highly desirable. The Urnfield culture grew from
6943-457: The Loire and Naussac Dam on the Allier . The Villerest dam, built in 1985 a few kilometres (a few miles) south of Roanne , has played a key-role in preventing recent flooding. As a result, the Loire is a very popular river for boating excursions, flowing through a pastoral countryside, past limestone cliffs and historic castles . Four nuclear power plants are located on the river: Belleville , Chinon , Dampierre and Saint-Laurent . In 1700
7074-502: The Loire near the town of Nevers at 46°57′34″N 3°4′44″E / 46.95944°N 3.07889°E / 46.95944; 3.07889 . Downstream of Nevers lies the Loire Valley , a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its fine assortment of castles. The second-longest tributary, the 372 km (231 mi) Vienne , joins the Loire at Candes-Saint-Martin at 47°12′45″N 0°4′31″E / 47.21250°N 0.07528°E / 47.21250; 0.07528 , followed by
7205-433: The Loire river basin can be grouped into two sets of formations, namely, the basement domain and the domain of sedimentary formations. The basement domain primarily consists of metamorphic and siliceous fragmented rocks with groundwater occurring in fissures. The sedimentary domain consists of limestone and carbonaceous rocks, that, where saturated, form productive aquifers. Rock outcrops of granite or basalt also are exposed in
7336-442: The Loire river basin, that is, about 57 species from 20 families. Many of them are migratory, with 11 species ascending the river for spawning. The most common species are the Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ), sea trout ( Salmo trutta ), shads ( Alosa alosa and Alosa fallax ), sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) European river lamprey ( Lampetra fluviatilis ) and smelt ( Osmerus eperlanus ). The European eel ( Anguilla anguilla )
7467-452: The Loire unnavigable for fish and water vessels as they were partially or completely dried up. The monarchy of France ruled in the Loire Valley for several centuries, giving it the name of "The Valley of Kings". These rulers started with the Gauls, followed by the Romans, and the Frankish dynasty . They were succeeded by the kings of France, who ruled from the late 14th century till the French Revolution ; together these rulers contributed to
7598-511: The Parsley frog ( Pelodites punctatus ), European tree frog ( Hyla arborea ), Common Frog ( Rana temporaria ), Agile Frog ( R. dalmatina ), Edible Frog ( R. esculenta ), Perez's Frog ( R. perezi ), marsh frog ( R. ridubunda ) and Pool Frog ( R. lessonae ). Newts of the Loire include the Marbled Newt ( Triturus marmoratus ), Smooth Newt ( T. vulgaris ), Alpine Newt ( T. alpestris ) and Palmate Newt ( T. helveticus ). The Loire hosts about 64% of nesting bird species of France, that
7729-585: The Runder Berg near Urach, Germany, 25 stone moulds have been found. Hillforts are interpreted as central places. Some scholars see the emergence of hill forts as a sign of increased warfare. Most hillforts were abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age. Examples of fortified settlements include Bullenheimer Berg , Ehrenbürg , Hünenburg bei Watenstedt , Heunischenburg , Hesselberg , Bürgstadter Berg , Farrenberg , Gelbe Burg and Ipf in Germany, Burgstallkogel , Thunau am Kamp and Oberleiserberg in Austria, Corent and Gannat in France, Hořovice and Plešivec in
7860-409: The Urnfield culture was only adopted in the HaA2 period. 16 pins deposited in a swamp in Ellmoosen (Kr. Bad Aibling, Germany) cover the whole chronological range from Bronze B to the early Urnfield period (Ha A). This demonstrates a considerable ritual continuity. In the Loire , Seine , and Rhône , certain fords contain deposits from the late Neolithic onward up to the Urnfield period. The origins of
7991-406: The Urnfield materials with the Proto-Celtic language group in central Europe, and it has been argued that it was the ancestral culture of the Celts . The Urnfield layers of the Hallstatt culture , "Ha A" and "Ha B", are succeeded by the Iron Age "Hallstatt period" proper: "Ha C" and "Ha D" (8th-6th centuries BC), associated with the early Celts; "Ha D" is in turn succeeded by the La Tène culture ,
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#17327721746968122-418: The Urnfield period. Often a steep spur was used, where only part of the circumference had to be fortified. Depending on the locally available materials, dry-stone walls, gridded timbers filled with stones or soil or plank and palisade type pfostenschlitzmauer fortifications were used. Other fortified settlements used river-bends and swampy areas. Metal working is concentrated in the fortified settlements. On
8253-418: The Urnfield tradition, but continues into the Iron Age without a notable break. The Piliny culture in northern Hungary and Slovakia grew from the Tumulus culture , but used urn burials as well. The pottery shows strong links to the Gáva culture , but in the later phases, a strong influence of the Lusatian culture is found. In Italy the late Bronze Age Canegrate and Proto-Villanovan cultures and
8384-531: The Velatice-settlement of Lovčičky ( Moravia , Czech Republic ) 44 houses have been excavated. Large bell shaped storage pits are known from the Knovíz culture . The settlement of Radonice (Louny) contained over 100 pits. They were most probably used to store grain and demonstrate a considerable surplus-production. On lakes of southern Germany and Switzerland, numerous pile dwellings were constructed. They consist either of simple houses made of wattle and daub, or log-built . The settlement at Zug , Switzerland,
8515-420: The Vučedol Calendar is that each of the four lateral bands on the vessel represent the four seasons, starting with spring on the top. Each band is divided into twelve boxes, making up 12 "weeks" for each season. Each of the little boxes contains an ideogram of celestial objects that lie at a certain point on the horizon right after twilight. The place of reference on the horizon is the point at which (in those days)
8646-434: The Vučedol culture. One male carried haplogroup R1b-z2103 and T2e , while the other carried G2a2a1a2a and T2c2 . The female carried U4a . In a three-way admixture model, first male approximately had 58% Early European Farmers , 42% Western Steppe Herders and 0% Western Hunter-Gatherer -related ancestry, second male 93% EEF, 4% WSH and 3% WHG while female 37% EEF, 54% WSH and 10% WHG. According to Lazaridis, R1b-Z2103
8777-467: The archaeological culture associated with the Continental Celts of antiquity. The Golasecca culture in northern Italy developed with continuity from the Canegrate culture. Canegrate represented a completely new cultural dynamic to the area expressed in pottery and bronzework, making it a typical western example of the Urnfield culture, in particular the Rhine-Switzerland-Eastern France (RSFO) Urnfield culture. The Lepontic Celtic language inscriptions of
8908-556: The area show the language of the Golasecca culture was clearly Celtic making it probable that the 13th-century BC language of at least the RSEF area of the western urnfields was also Celtic or a precursor to it. The influence of the Urnfield culture spread widely and found its way to the northeastern Iberian coast, where the nearby Celtiberians of the interior adapted it for use in their cemeteries. Evidence for east-to-west early Urnfield (Bronze D-Hallstatt A) elite contacts such as rilled-ware, swords and crested helmets has been found in
9039-416: The back of the head. If the shape of the crest and carefully delineated wings and chest, prove the figure to be the domesticated dove , then it was being raised in Europe 4,500 years ago, much earlier than we commonly think. The "Vučedol Dove" is the oldest dove figure found in Europe so far. The ritual vessel was depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 20 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2001. Among
9170-505: The banks of the river – and also as the "cradle of the French language". It is also noteworthy for its architectural heritage: in part for its historic towns such as Amboise , Angers , Blois , Chinon , Nantes , Orléans , Saumur , and Tours , but in particular for its castles, such as the Château d'Amboise , Château d'Angers , Château de Chambord , Château de Montsoreau , Château d'Ussé , Château de Villandry and Chenonceau , and also for its many cultural monuments, which illustrate
9301-413: The campaign to save the Loire river system from development. In 1986, the French government , the Loire-Brittany Water Agency and the EPALA settled an agreement on flood prevention and water storage programme in the basin, involving construction of four large dams, one on the Loire itself and three on the Allier and Cher. The French government proposed a construction of a dam at Serre de la Fare on
9432-448: The chariot had been placed on the pyre, and pieces of bone are attached to the partially melted metal of the axles. Bronze (one-part) bits appear at the same time. Two-part horse bits are only known from late Urnfield contexts and may be due to eastern influence. Wood- and bronze spoked wheels are known from Stade (Germany), a wooden spoked wheel from Mercurago, Italy. Wooden dish-wheels have been excavated at Courcelettes, Switzerland and
9563-445: The coast and 648 mm (25.5 in) inland. The Centre region of the Loire river valley accounts for the largest forest in France, the forest of Orléans (French: Forêt d'Orléans), covering an area of 38,234 hectares (94,480 acres), and the 5,440-hectare (13,400-acre) forested park known as the "Foret de Chambord". Other vegetation in the valley, mostly under private control, consists of tree species of oak , beech and pine . In
9694-517: The collapse). The variety of regional groups belonging to this culture makes it possible to exclude the presence of ethnic uniformity. Marija Gimbutas connected the various Central European regional groups to as many proto-populations: proto-Celts , proto-Italics , proto-Veneti , proto-Illyrians and proto-Phrygians (as well as proto-Thracians and proto-Dorians ), who would establish themselves later, through migrations, in their historic locations. This migration (disputed by some) occurred during
9825-468: The committee said that the Loire Valley is: "an exceptional cultural landscape, of great beauty, comprised of historic cities and villages, great architectural monuments – the Châteaux – and lands that have been cultivated and shaped by centuries of interaction between local populations and their physical environment, in particular the Loire itself." Architectural edifices were created in Loire valley from
9956-722: The confluence with the Allier. In the middle section of the river in the Loire Valley, numerous dikes built between the 12th and 19th century exist, providing mitigation against flooding. In this section the river is relatively straight, except for the area near Orléans , and numerous sand banks and islands exist. The lower course of the river is characterized by wetlands and fens, which are of major importance to conservation, given that they form unique habitats for migratory birds. The Loire flows roughly northward through Roanne and Nevers to Orléans and thereafter westward through Tours to Nantes , where it forms an estuary . It flows into
10087-518: The conservation of the Loire estuary and its surroundings, given that they are unique habitats for migrating birds. The estuary and its shoreline are also important for fishing, shellfish farming and tourism. The major commercial port at Nantes has caused severe damage to the ecosystem of the Loire estuary. In 2002, the WWF aided a second Loire Nature project and expanded its scope to the entire basin, addressing some 4,500 hectares (11,000 acres) of land under
10218-530: The cremation rite are commonly believed to be in Hungary , where it was widespread since the first half of the second millennium BC. The neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture of modern-day northeastern Romania and Ukraine were also practicing cremation rituals as early as approximately 5500 BC. Some cremations begin to be found in the Proto-Lusatian and Trzciniec culture . The Urnfield culture
10349-511: The development of the valley. The chronology of the rulers is presented; in the table below. The Loire Valley ( French : Vallée de la Loire ) lies in the middle stretch of the river, extends for about 280 km (170 mi) and comprises an area of roughly 800 km (310 sq mi). It is also known as the Garden of France – due to the abundance of vineyards , fruit orchards, artichoke , asparagus and cherry fields which line
10480-482: The early Iron Age Villanovan culture show similarities with the urnfields of central Europe. The Italic peoples are descended from the Urnfield and Tumulus culture , who inhabited Italy from at least the second millennium BC onwards. Latins achieved a dominant position among these tribes, establishing the ancient Roman civilization . During this development, other Italic tribes adopted the Latin language and culture in
10611-556: The expansion of the Celts. These links are no longer accepted. It is believed that in some areas, such as in southwestern Germany, the Urnfield culture was in existence around 1200 BC (beginning of Hallstatt A or Ha A), but the Bronze D Riegsee -phase already contains cremations. As the transition from the middle Bronze Age to the Urnfield culture was gradual, there are questions regarding how to define it. The Urnfield culture covers
10742-521: The expansion of the Vucedol Culture from its homeland of Slavonia into the broader region of central and southeastern Europe. Following the Baden culture , another wave of possible Indo-European speakers came to the banks of the Danube . One of the major places they occupied is present-day Vučedol , located six kilometers downstream from the town of Vukovar , Croatia . It is estimated that
10873-424: The flow sometimes exceeds 2,000 m /s (71,000 cu ft/s) for the Upper Loire and 8,000 m /s (280,000 cu ft/s) in the Lower Loire. The most serious floods occurred in 1856, 1866 and 1911. Unlike most other rivers in western Europe, there are very few dams or locks creating obstacles to its natural flow. The flow is no longer partly regulated by three dams: Grangent Dam and Villerest Dam on
11004-508: The foot of Mount have been highlighted as river sources. The three streams converge to form the Loire, which descends the valley south of Mount through the village of Sainte-Eulalie itself. The Loire changed its course, due to tectonic deformations, from the original outfall into the English Channel to its new outfall into the Atlantic Ocean thereby forming today's narrow terrain of gorges, the Loire Valley with alluvium formations and
11135-526: The ground linked it to the limping shaman-smith, according to the recent interpretation by Aleksandar Durman of Zagreb . The figure is a remarkable example of artistic creation and religious symbolism associated with a cult of the Great Mother . The "Vučedol Dove" is a 19,5 cm high ritual vessel made from baked clay. Three symbols of double axes and a necklace were incised on its neck with lines covering its wings and chest, and an unusual crest on
11266-693: The ideals of the Renaissance and the Age of the Enlightenment on western European thought and design. On December 2, 2000, UNESCO added the central part of the Loire valley, between Bouchemaine in Anjou and Sully-sur-Loire in Loiret , to its list of World Heritage Sites . In choosing this area that includes the French départements of Loiret, Loir-et-Cher , Indre-et-Loire , and Maine-et-Loire ,
11397-478: The impressive fortresses of this type is the Château d'Angers , which has 17 gruesome towers. This was followed by aesthetically built châteaux (to also function as residential units), which substituted the quadrangular layout of the keep. However, the exterior defensive structures, in the form of portcullis and moats surrounding the thick walls of the châteaux' forts were retained. There was further refinement in
11528-444: The long stretch of beaches along the Atlantic Ocean. The river can be divided into three main zones: In the upper basin the river flows through a narrow, incised valley, marked by gorges and forests on the edges and a distinct low population. In the intermediate section, the alluvial plain broadens and the river meanders and forks into multiple channels. River flow is particularly high in the river area near Roanne and Vichy up to
11659-615: The lower reaches. Their total mass is low when the river flow exceeds 800 m /s (28,000 cu ft/s) and become significant at flows of 300 m /s (11,000 cu ft/s) or lower which occur in summer. With decreasing flow, first species which appear are single-celled diatoms such as Cyclostephanos invisitatus , C. meneghiniana , S. Hantzschii and Thalassiosira pseudonana . They are then joined by multicellular forms including Fragilaria crotonensis , Nitzschia fruticosa and Skeletonema potamos , as well as green algae which form star-shaped or prostrate colonies. Whereas
11790-537: The marshy lands, ash , alder and willows are grown with duckweed providing the needed natural fertilizing effect. The Atlantic coast is home to several aquatic herbs, the important species is Salicornia , which is used as a culinary ingredient on account of its diuretic value. Greeks introduced vines . Romans introduced melons , apples , cherries , quinces and pears during the Middle Ages, apart from extracting saffron from purple crocus species in
11921-579: The middle course of the Loire in Gaul under King Sangiban . Many inhabitants around the present city of Orléans have names bearing witness to the Alan presence – Allaines. In the 9th century, the Vikings began invading the west coast of France, using longships to navigate the Loire. In 853 they attacked and destroyed Tours and its famous abbey, later destroying Angers in raids of 854 and 872. In 877 Charles
12052-465: The most famous pieces is a piece of ceramics dated to 2600 BC with an astral calendar, the first one found in Europe that shows the year starting at the dusk of the first day of spring. It is based on an Orion cycle, shown by precise sequence of constellations on a vessel found in an Eneolithic mound in the very center of the modern town of Vinkovci . The climatic conditions in that latitude bring about four yearly seasons. The simple explanation of
12183-406: The most famous pieces of Vučedol is the ritual vessel made between 2800 and 2500 BCE, called by the speculative attribution of M. Seper, who found it in 1938, the "Vučedol Dove" ( vučedolska golubica ). The latest interpretation, however, is that the vessel is in the shape of the male partridge , a symbol of fertility, whose limping defensive behavior against attack by predators on a partridge nest on
12314-531: The non-native species are represented by the rock bass ( Ambloplites rupestris ). Although only one native fish species has become extinct in the Loire, namely the European sea sturgeon ( Acipenser sturio ) in the 1940s, the fish population is declining, mostly due to the decrease in the spawning areas. The latter are mostly affected by the industrial pollution, construction of dams and drainage of oxbows and swamps . The loss of spawning grounds mostly affects
12445-763: The other, in Marmesse, Haute Marne (France), fragments in Albstadt-Pfeffingen (Germany). Bronze dishes (phalerae) may have been sewn on a leather armour. Greaves of richly decorated sheet-bronze are known from Kloštar Ivanić (Croatia) and the Paulus cave near Beuron (Germany). About a dozen wagon -burials of four wheeled wagons with bronze fittings are known from the early Urnfield period. They include Hart an der Altz (Kr. Altötting), Mengen (Kr. Sigmaringen), Poing (Kr. Ebersberg), Königsbronn (Kr. Heidenheim) from Germany and St. Sulpice ( Vaud ), Switzerland. In Alz,
12576-420: The period called late Bronze Age collapse and was perhaps caused by climate changes. Communities of peasants and herders, led by a warrior aristocracy, introduced the new rite of cremation, new ceramic styles and the mass production of metal objects as well as a new religion and Indo-European languages in various regions of Western and Southern Europe. The number of settlements increased sharply in comparison with
12707-651: The phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B) in Paul Reinecke 's chronological system, not to be confused with the Hallstatt culture (Ha C and D) of the following Iron Age . This corresponds to the Phases Montelius III-IV of the Northern Bronze Age. Whether Reinecke's Bronze D is included varies according to author and region. The Urnfield culture is divided into the following sub-phases (based on Müller-Karpe sen.): The existence of
12838-491: The port of Nantes numbered more inland waterway craft than any other port in France, testifying to the historic importance of navigation on France's longest river. Shallow-draught gabares and other river craft continued to transport goods into the industrial era, including coal from Saint-Étienne loaded on to barges in Orléans. However, the hazardous free-flow navigation and limited tonnages meant that railways rapidly killed off
12969-458: The preceding Tumulus culture . The transition is gradual, in the pottery as well as the burial rites. In some parts of Germany, cremation and inhumation existed simultaneously (facies Wölfersheim). Some graves contain a combination of Tumulus-culture pottery and Urnfield swords (Kressbronn, Bodenseekreis) or Tumulus culture incised pottery together with early Urnfield types (Mengen). In the North,
13100-508: The preceding Tumulus culture. Few of them have been comprehensively excavated. Fortified settlements, often on hilltops or in river-bends, are typical for the Urnfield culture. They are heavily fortified with dry-stone or wooden ramparts. Excavations of open settlements are rare, but they show that large 3-4 aisled houses built with wooden posts and wall of wattle and daub were common. Pit dwellings are known as well; they might have served as cellars. Fortified hilltop settlements become common in
13231-564: The primary region of Vučedol development is eastern Croatia and the Syrmia region. The archaeological stratigraphy of the Vučedol culture can be divided into four phases: The Vučedol culture is the final eneolithic culture of the region, displaying characteristically common use of the war axe in its "Banniabik" form. Cult objects suggest the practice of new cults very different from the Neolithic Magna Mater conception: cult of
13362-578: The projects the green light. This sparked public demonstrations by the WWF and conservation groups. In 1990, Loire Vivante met with the French Prime Minister and the government, successfully, as the government demanded that the EPALA embark upon major reforms in its approach to managing the river. Due to extensive lobbying, the proposal and the other dam proposals were eventually rejected in the 1990s. The gorges zone has since been protected as
13493-699: The region of Gien , flowing westward along the present course. At a certain point during the long history of uplift in the Paris Basin , the lower, Atlantic Loire captured the "palaeo-Loire" or Loire séquanaise (" Seine Loire"), producing the present river. The former bed of the Loire séquanaise is occupied by the Loing . The Loire Valley has been inhabited since the Middle Palaeolithic period from 40 to 90 ka . Neanderthal man used stone tools to fashion boats out of tree trunks and navigated
13624-575: The reign of François I from 1515 to 1547, the Italian Renaissance had a profound influence upon the region, as people adopted its elements in the architecture and culture, particularly among the elite who expressed its principles in their chateaus . In the 1530s, the Reformation ideas reached the Loire valley, with some people becoming Protestant. Religious wars followed and in 1560 Catholics drowned several hundred Protestants in
13755-666: The right bank of the Danube river, but possibly spreading throughout the Pannonian plain and western Balkans and southward. It was thus contemporary with the Sumer period in Mesopotamia , the Early Dynastic period in Egypt and the earliest settlements of Troy (Troy I and II). Archaeogenetics link the culture from Yamnaya migrations directly from the steppes that mixed with Neolithic people. The need for copper resulted in
13886-458: The river Cher at Noyers and back into the Loire near Tours, was closed in 1955. The river is officially navigable as far as Bouchemaine , where the Maine joins it near Angers . Another short stretch much further upstream at Decize is also navigable, where a river level crossing from the Canal latéral à la Loire connects to the Canal du Nivernais . In 2022, a drought rendered parts of
14017-445: The river and spawn in the upper reaches of the Allier. The French government undertook this major plan, chiefly because pollution and overfishing had reduced approximately 100,000 salmon migrating annually to their spawning grounds in the headwaters of the Loire and its tributaries to just 67 salmon in 1996 on the upper Allier. The WWF, BirdLife International , and local conservation bodies have also made considerable efforts to improve
14148-425: The river bed in several stretches. The middle stretches of the river have many limestone caves which were inhabited by humans in the prehistoric era; the caves are several types of limestone formations, namely tuffeau (a porous type of chalk , not to be confused with tufa ) and Falun (formed 12 million years ago). The coastal zone shows hard dark stones, granite, schist and thick soil mantle. The river has
14279-629: The river's ecosystems and wildlife. That year, the Upper Loire Valley Farmers Association was also established through a partnership between SOS Loire Vivante and a farmers’ union to promote sustainable rural tourism. The French government adopted the Natural Loire River Plan (Plan Loire Grandeur Nature) in January 1994, initiating the decommissioning of three dams on the river. The final dam
14410-620: The river. During the Wars of Religion from 1562 to 1598, Orléans served as a prominent stronghold for the Huguenots but in 1568, Protestants blew up Orléans Cathedral . In 1572 some 3000 Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre . Hundreds more were drowned in the Loire by Catholics. For centuries local people used wooden embankments and dredging to try to maintain
14541-530: The river. Modern man inhabited the Loire valley around 30 ka. By around 5000 to 4000 BC, they began clearing forests along the river edges and cultivating the lands and rearing livestock. They built megaliths to worship the dead, especially from around 3500 BC. The Gauls arrived in the valley between 1500 and 500 BC, and the Carnutes settled in Cenabum in what is now Orléans and built
14672-414: The same time, stronger sexual potency. "That is why", according to Aleksandar Durman, "all eneolithic, or later gods of metallurgy are identified with fertility, and also why all gods in almost all early cultures – limp". It was a society of deep social changes and stratification that led to the birth of tribal and military aristocracy. Also, Vučedol people had enough time to express their spiritual view of
14803-468: The shapes were also combined in mushroom shapes; there were circular fireplaces. The houses at the Vučedol site were also places of birth and burial. A number of human skeletons were found in the pits that once served as food storage pits . Their bodies were placed in a ritual way, with some possible indications of human sacrifice . Also, marks on the foreheads of skulls were found that could be attributed to some kind of initiation in early childhood by
14934-569: The site had once been home to about 3,000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest and most important European centers of its time. According to Bogdan Brukner, proto- Illyrians descended from this wave of Indo-European settlers. The early stages of the culture occupied locations not far from mountain ranges, where copper deposits were located, because of their main invention: making tools from arsenical copper in series reusing double, two-part moulds. The Vučedol culture at its peak completely or partially covered 14 of today’s European countries –
15065-567: The south side of Mont Gerbier de Jonc at 44°50′38″N 4°13′12″E / 44.84389°N 4.22000°E / 44.84389; 4.22000 . This lies in the north-eastern part of the southern Cévennes highlands, in the Ardèche commune of Sainte-Eulalie of southeastern France. It is originally a mere trickle of water located at 1,408 m (4,619 ft) above sea-level . The presence of an aquifer under Mont Gerbier de Jonc gives rise to multiple sources, three of them located at
15196-525: The southwest of the Iberian peninsula. The appearance of such elite status markers provides the simplest explanation for the spread of Celtic languages in this area from prestigious, proto-Celtic, early-Urnfield metalworkers. The numerous hoards of the Urnfield culture and the existence of fortified settlements ( hill forts ) were taken as evidence for widespread warfare and upheaval by some scholars. Written sources describe several collapses and upheavals in
15327-471: The surviving traffic from the 1850s. In 1894 a company was set up to promote improvements to the navigation from Nantes to Briare. The works were authorised in 1904 and carried out in two phases from Angers to the limit of tides at Oudon. These works, with groynes and submersible embankments, survive and contribute to the limited navigability under present-day conditions. A dam across the Loire at Saint-Léger-des-Vignes provides navigable conditions to cross from
15458-467: The total biomass is low in the upper reaches, the biodiversity is high, with more than 250 taxa at Orléans. At high flows and in the upper reaches the fraction of the green algae decrease and the phytoplankton is dominated by diatoms. Heterotrophic bacteria are represented by cocci (49%), rods (35%), colonies (12%) and filaments (4%) with a total density of up to 1.4 × 10 cells per litre. Nearly every freshwater fish species of France can be found in
15589-659: The upper Loire which would have been an environmental catastrophe, as it would have inundated some 20 km (12 mi) of pristine gorges . As a result, the WWF and other NGOs established the Loire Vivante (Living Loire) network in 1988 to oppose this and arranged an initial meeting with the French Minister of the Environment. The French government initially rejected the conservation concerns and in 1989 gave
15720-475: The valley in 56 BC when Julius Caesar conquered the adjacent provinces for Rome . Christianity was introduced into this valley from the 3rd century AD, as missionaries (many later recognized as saints ), converted the pagans . In this period, settlers established vineyards and began producing wines. The Loire Valley has been called the "Garden of France" and is studded with over a thousand châteaux , each with distinct architectural embellishments covering
15851-488: The world for quite some time. The Canal de Roanne à Digoin was also opened in 1838. It was nearly closed in 1971 but, in the early 21st century, it still provides navigation further up the Loire valley to Digoin . The 261 km (162 mi) Canal de Berry , a narrow canal with locks only 2.7 m (8.9 ft) wide, which was opened in the 1820s and connected the Canal latéral à la Loire at Marseilles-lès-Aubigny to
15982-424: The world. In modern times, Vučedol ceramics have become famous worldwide. A very characteristic bi-conical shape and typical ornaments evolved, in many cases with typical "handles" which were almost non-functional, but were key to understanding ornaments that had symbolic meanings, representing ideas such as "horizon", "mountains", "sky", "underworld", "sun", "constellation of Orion ", " Venus ", et cetera. One of
16113-424: Was a late Bronze Age culture of Central Europe , often divided into several local cultures within a broader Urnfield tradition . The name comes from the custom of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns , which were then buried in fields. The first usage of the name occurred in publications over grave sites in southern Germany in the late 19th century. Over much of Europe, the Urnfield culture followed
16244-404: Was a time when the warriors of central Europe could be heavily armored with body armor, helmets and shields all made of bronze, most likely borrowing the idea from Mycenaean Greece . The leaf-shaped Urnfield sword could be used for slashing, in contrast to the stabbing-swords of the preceding Tumulus culture. It commonly possessed a ricasso . The hilt was normally made from bronze as well. It
16375-513: Was cast separately and consisted of a different alloy. These solid hilted swords were known since Bronze D (Rixheim swords). Other swords have tanged blades and probably had a wood, bone, or antler hilt. Flange-hilted swords had organic inlays in the hilt. Swords include Auvernier, Kressborn-Hemigkofen, Erbenheim, Möhringen, Weltenburg, Hemigkofen and Tachlovice-types. Protective gear like shields , cuirasses , greaves and helmets are rare and almost never found in burials. The best-known example of
16506-421: Was decommissioned by Électricité de France at a cost of 7 million francs in 1998. The basis of the decision was that the economic benefits of the dams did not outweigh their significant ecological impacts, so the intention was to restore the riverine ecosystems and replenish great Loire salmon stocks. The Loire is unique in this respect as the Atlantic salmon can swim as far as 900 km (560 mi) up
16637-403: Was destroyed by fire and gives important insights into the material culture and the settlement organisation of this period. It has yielded a number of dendro-dates as well. The pottery is normally well made, with a smooth surface and a normally sharply carinated profile. Some forms are thought to imitate metal prototypes. Biconical pots with cylindrical necks are especially characteristic. There
16768-603: Was initiated in the 1980s and included such as measures as removal of two obsolete hydroelectric dams and introduction of juvenile stock. As a result, the salmon population increased to about 500 in 2005. Most amphibians of the Loire are found in the slow flow areas near the delta, especially in the floodplain, marshes and oxbows. They are dominated by the fire salamander ( Salamandra salamandra ), frogs and toads. The toads include Bufo bufo , Alytes obstetricans , Bombina variegata , Bufo calamita , Pelobates fuscus and Pelobates cultripes . The frogs are represented by
16899-553: Was located in an area stretching from western Hungary to eastern France, from the Alps to near the North Sea. Local groups, mainly differentiated by pottery, include: South-German Urnfield culture Lower-Rhine Urnfield culture Middle-Danube Urnfield culture Sometimes the distribution of artifacts belonging to these groups shows sharp and consistent borders, which might indicate some political structures, like tribes. Metalwork
17030-406: Was more resilient to times of want. The community chief was the shaman -smith, possessing the arcane knowledge of avoiding poisonous arsenic gas which is connected to the technology of coppersmithing as well as understanding the year cycle. Still, the whole life of shaman-smith could not pass without biological consequences of chronic arsenic exposure: slow loss of body movement coordination, and at
17161-421: Was still frequently stopped by excessive conditions during flood and drought. In 1707, floods were said to have drowned 50,000 people in the river valley, with the water rising more than 3 m (9.8 ft) in two hours in Orléans . Typically passenger travel downriver from Orléans to Nantes took eight days, with the upstream journey against the flow taking fourteen. It was also a dumping ground for prisoners in
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