158-701: Traditional Veeraraghava Swamy Temple (or Veeraraghavaswamy Temple ) is a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu , located in Tiruvallur , Chennai Metropolitan City, an area and headquarters in Tiruvallur district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Constructed in Dravidian style of architecture , the temple is glorified in the Divya Prabandham , the early medieval Tamil canon of
316-518: A wax seal imprinted with the ring of the monarch. At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords ( Gowdas ) supervised accountants ( Karanikas or Karnam ) and guards ( Kavalu ). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments ( Niyogas ), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines. The empire
474-616: A 10-day festival is celebrated, the festival deity is taken in procession around the streets of the temple in different mounts each day and the float festival is celebrated on the last day. The other festivals associated with Vishnu temples like Krishna Jayanthi, Saturdays of Tamil month Puratassi, Navratri , Vaikunta Ekadasi and Vijayadasami are celebrated during the respective days. Vishnu Vishnu ( / ˈ v ɪ ʃ n uː / ; Sanskrit : विष्णु , lit. 'All Pervasive', IAST : Viṣṇu , pronounced [ʋɪʂɳʊ] ), also known as Narayana and Hari ,
632-649: A Telugu-narrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya , a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River and earned
790-519: A curse on those who do not honor the grant. Most Vijayanagara inscriptions recovered so far are in Kannada, Telugu and Tamil, and a few in Sanskrit. According to Suryanath U. Kamath about 7000 stone inscriptions, half of which are in Kannada, and about 300 copper plates which are mostly in Sanskrit, have been recovered. Bilingual inscriptions had lost favor by the 14th century. According to Mack,
948-557: A family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community. Caste affiliation was closely tied to craft production and members of a common craft formed collective memberships. Often members of related crafts formed inter-caste communities. This helped them consolidate strength and gain political representation and trade benefits. According to Talbot, terminology such as Setti
1106-526: A greater reach, and their archers used metal crossbows which enabled their arrows to reach longer distances. In comparison, the Vijayanagara army depended on slow-moving war elephants , a cavalry riding mostly locally bred weaker horses wielding shorter-reach javelins, and their archers used traditional bamboo bows with a shorter range. Richard Eaton argues that Vijayanagara's inferiority was due to Krishna Raya's failure to invest in military technology in
1264-429: A herculean task of establishing his reach and form, then with his first step covers the earth, with second the ether, and the third entire heaven. विष्णोर्नु कं वीर्याणि प्र वोचं यः पार्थिवानि विममे रजांसि । यो अस्कभायदुत्तरं सधस्थं विचक्रमाणस्त्रेधोरुगायः ॥१॥… viṣṇōrnu kaṃ vīryāṇi pra vōcaṃ yaḥ pārthivāni vimamē rajāṃsi | yō askabhāyaduttaraṃ sadhasthaṃ vicakramāṇastrēdhōrugāyaḥ ||1|| I will now proclaim
1422-409: A lady and Veeraraghava as his lover. The temple is classified as a Divyadesam , one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. Many Acharyas have also written songs on the various forms of Bhaktavatsala in this Temple. Purnima is auspicious for this kshetram . During Fridays Thayaar will be taken to a separate mandapam for puja. Two annual festival are celebrated. Chitra Festival
1580-494: A large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region. The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to Java and
1738-399: A many obstacles including dissatisfied nobles, the rebellious chief of Ummattur in the south, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom under King Prataparudra, a growing threat from the newly formed Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur under Yusuf Adil Khan and Portuguese interest in controlling the west coast. Not one to be unnerved by these pressures he strengthened and consolidated the empire, one victory at
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#17327904010331896-535: A monthly basis by each governor was created under royal decree. Temples were taxed for land ownership to cover military expenses. In the Telugu districts the temple tax was called Srotriyas , in the Tamil speaking districts it was called as Jodi . Taxes such as Durgavarthana , Dannayivarthana and Kavali Kanike were collected towards protection of movable and immovable wealth from robbery and invasions. Jeevadhanam
2054-563: A pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Muslim invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak in the early 16th century under Krishnadevaraya , it subjugated almost all of Southern India's ruling dynasties and pushed the Deccan sultanates beyond the Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab region, in addition to annexing
2212-682: A place. The Tottiyans were shepherds who later gained marginal ruling status ( poligars ), Saurashtrans were traders who came from present-day Gujarat and rivalled the Brahmins for some benefits, the Reddys were agriculturists and the Uppilia were salt farmers . According to Chopra et al., in addition to their monopoly over priestly duties, Brahmins occupied high positions in political and administrative fields. The Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes observed an increasing presence of Brahmins in
2370-557: A price on the bride was a possible influence of the Islamic Mahr system. To oppose this influence, in the year 1553, the Brahmin community passed a mandate under royal decree and popularized the kanyadana within the community. According to this practice money could not be paid or received during marriage and those who did were liable for punishment. There is a mention of Streedhana ("woman's wealth") in an inscription and that
2528-578: A result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the tenth century and many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th century. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas ( Moplahs ) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between
2686-518: A sister of Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was married to Burhan Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar , the town of Sholapur was given to the bride by her family. Ayyangar notes that when the Gajapati King of Kalinga gave his daughter in marriage honoring the victorious Krishnadevaraya he included several villages as dowry. Inscriptions of the 15th and 16th centuries record the practice of dowry among commoners as well. The practice of putting
2844-588: A special form of Vishnu. Each of these special forms is given a special name in texts such as the Agni Purana and the Padma Purana . These texts, however, are inconsistent. Rarely, Vishnu is depicted bearing the bow Sharanga or the sword Nandaka . He is depicted with the Kaustubha gem in a necklace and wearing Vaijayanti , a garland of forest flowers. The shrivatsa mark is depicted on his chest in
3002-408: A time. He was an astute ruler who hired both Hindus and Muslims into his army. In the following decades, the empire covered Southern India and successfully defeated invasions from the five established Deccan sultanates to its north. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529) when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire gained territory from
3160-476: A well-dressed jewelled man. He is typically shown with four arms, but two-armed representations are also found in Hindu texts on artworks. The historic identifiers of his icon include his image holding a conch shell ( shankha named Panchajanya ) between the first two fingers of one hand (left back), a war discus ( chakra named Sudarshana ) in another (right back). The conch shell is spiral and symbolizes all of interconnected spiraling cyclic existence, while
3318-656: A while but eventually made him very unpopular among his people and the Muslim rulers. He made a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to stop the supply of horses to Bijapur , then defeated the Bijapur sultan and inflicted humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar . Eventually the Deccan sultanates to the north of Vijayanagara united and attacked Rama Raya's army in January 1565 in the Battle of Talikota . Regarding
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#17327904010333476-454: Is Vishnu is the all. Vishnu is described to be permeating all object and life forms, states S. Giora Shoham, where he is "ever-present within all things as the intrinsic principle of all", and the eternal, transcendental self in every being. The Vedic literature, including its Brahmanas layer, while praising Vishnu do not subjugate others gods and goddesses. They present an inclusive pluralistic henotheism . According to Max Muller , "Although
3634-459: Is also important here. Puliyodharai (Tamarind Rice), Dhadhyannam (Curd Rice), Pongal, Chakkarai Pongal, Vada , Adhirasam , Murukku are offered to the deity as prasadam . The temple follows the traditions of the Vadakalai sect of Vaishnavite tradition and follows pancharatram agama . This temple is under control of Ahobila mutt , and follows the prayer accordingly. The temple priests perform
3792-463: Is equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a close friend of Indra. Elsewhere in Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishadic texts, Vishnu is equivalent to Prajapati, both are described as the protector and preparer of the womb, and according to Klaus Klostermaier, this may be the root behind
3950-728: Is freedom and life. The Shatapatha Brahmana elaborates this theme of Vishnu, as his herculean effort and sacrifice to create and gain powers that help others, one who realizes and defeats the evil symbolized by the Asuras after they had usurped the three worlds, and thus Vishnu is the saviour of the mortals and the immortals ( Devas ). To what is One Seven germs unripened yet are heaven's prolific seed: their functions they maintain by Vishnu's ordinance. Endued with wisdom through intelligence and thought, they compass us about present on every side. What thing I truly am I know not clearly: mysterious, fettered in my mind I wonder. When
4108-405: Is in a recumbent position (called Bhujanga sayanm ) facing east. His right hand blesses the sage Salihotra and left hand in gnana mudra preaches to Brahma . The Vimanam (pyramidal roof over the sanctum) is called Vijayakoti Vimanam as it is a symbol of victory against Madhukaidapas asuras who were killed by Vishnu. The Thayar is called Kanakavalli (also known by the name Vasumati) and her shrine
4266-426: Is located parallel to the sanctum. There are shrines of Alvars , Ranganatha and Hanuman located around the sanctum in the first precinct. The sacred tank is called Hrutatapanasini. The presiding deity Veeraraghava Perumal is believed to cure diseases of his devotees and hence he is called "Vaithiya Veeraraghavan". There is another legend that Lord Shiva got rid of his Brahmahathi Dosha after worshipping Vishnu in
4424-515: Is one of the principal deities of Hinduism . He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism , one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism . Vishnu is known as The Preserver within the Trimurti , the triple deity of supreme divinity that includes Brahma and Shiva . In Vaishnavism, Vishnu is the supreme Lord who creates, protects, and transforms the universe . Tridevi
4582-515: Is stated to be the energy and creative power ( Shakti ) of each, with Lakshmi being the equal complementary partner of Vishnu. He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. According to Vaishnavism, the supreme being is with qualities ( Saguna ), and has definite form, but is limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman , and
4740-441: Is the bond to the wide-striding one: the wellspring of honey in the highest step of Viṣṇu. आहं पितॄन्सुविदत्राँ अवित्सि नपातं च विक्रमणं च विष्णोः । बर्हिषदो ये स्वधया सुतस्य भजन्त पित्वस्त इहागमिष्ठाः ॥३॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१५-३ 3. I have found here the forefathers good to find and the grandson and the wide stride of Viṣṇu. Those who, sitting on the ritual grass, share in the pressed soma and the food at (the cry of) "svadhā", they are
4898-635: Is the primary focus of the Vaishnavism-focused Puranas genre of Hindu texts . Of these, according to Ludo Rocher , the most important texts are the Bhagavata Purana , Vishnu Purana , Nāradeya Purana , Garuda Purana and Vayu Purana . The Purana texts include many versions of cosmologies, mythologies, encyclopedic entries about various aspects of life, and chapters that were medieval era regional Vishnu temples-related tourist guides called mahatmyas . One version of
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5056-485: Is under the administration of Ahobila Matha . It has five tiered Raja gopuram (main gate). There are separate shrines for Kanakavalli, Ganesha , Alvars, and Gajalakshmi Thayar. Here, the Lord married Vasumathi the daughter of a king Dharmasena. There are also shrines to Ganesha, Gopalan, Nammalvar , Chakratalvar , Andal , Vedanta Desika , Ramanujacharyar , and Lakshmi Narasimhar. The presiding deity Veeraraghava swamy
5214-596: The puja (rituals) during festivals and on a daily basis. As at other Vishnu temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the Vaishnavaite community, a Brahmin varna. The temple rituals are performed four times a day: Kalasanthi at 8:00 a.m., Uchikalam at 12:00 p.m., Sayarakshai at 6:00 p.m., and Ardha Jamam at 8:30 p.m. Each ritual has three steps: alangaram (decoration), neivethanam (food offering) and deepa aradanai (waving of lamps) for Veeraraghava Perumal and Kanakavalli Thayar. During
5372-570: The Alvar saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is counted as one among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu. Vishnu is worshipped as Veeraraghava Perumal, and his consort Lakshmi as Kanakavalli Thayar. The temple is believed to be of significant antiquity and is believed to be initiated by the Pallavas of the late 8th century CE, with later contributions at different times from Thanjavur Nayaks . The temple has three inscriptions dating from
5530-701: The Aravidu dynasty , founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his empire to his three sons. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara, including
5688-575: The Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara (modern-day Hampi ) whose extensive ruins are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes , Fernão Nunes , and Nicolò de' Conti . These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in
5846-565: The Deccan sultanates , including Raichur in 1520 and Gulbarga in the central Deccan, and from wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda in the eastern Deccan; the Kalinga region as well was gained from the Gajapatis of Odisha . This was in addition to the already established presence in the southern Deccan. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Emperor Krishna Deva Raya. Krishna Deva Raya
6004-513: The Far East . Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and Pulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals , camphor , porcelain, silk and luxury goods. Mahanavami festival marked the beginning of a financial year from when the state treasury accounted for and reconciled all outstanding dues within nine days. At this time, an updated annual assessment record of provincial dues, which included rents and taxes, paid on
6162-586: The Gajapati Empire ( Odisha ) up to the Krishna River, becoming one of the most prominent states in India. The empire's territory covered most of the lands of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , Goa , and some parts of Telangana and Maharashtra . The empire lasted until 1646, although its power declined greatly after a major military defeat in
6320-606: The Garuda Purana Saroddhara ) . Perumal ( Tamil : பெருமாள் )—also known as Thirumal (Tamil: திருமால் ), or Mayon (as described in the Tamil scriptures)— was accepted as a manifestation of Vishnu during the process of the syncretism of South Indian deities into mainstream Hinduism. Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam . Tamil Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or
6478-731: The Garuda Purana Saroddhara , a commentary or 'extracted essence' written by Navanidhirama about the Garuda Purana (i.e. not the Purana itself, with which it seems to be confused): The Fish , the Tortoise , the Boar , the Man-Lion , the Dwarf , Parasurama , Rama , Krisna , Buddha , and also Kalki : These ten names should always be meditated upon by the wise. Those who recite them near
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6636-862: The Hindu god Shiva ) but made grants to Vishnu temples. Their patron saint Vidyaranya was from the Advaita order at Sringeri . The Varaha (the boar avatar of Vishnu) was the emblem of the empire. Over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found an "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter". Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava (followers of Vishnu) by faith, but also worshipped Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati as well as Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, refers to Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised
6794-596: The Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli . Islamic contact with South India began as early as the seventh century,
6952-461: The Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of present-day Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28 . The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of
7110-518: The Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads . It is unclear when these texts were composed, and estimates vary from the 1st-century BCE to 17th-century CE for the texts. These Upanishads highlight Vishnu, Narayana , Rama or one of his avatars as the supreme metaphysical reality called Brahman in Hinduism. They discuss a diverse range of topics, from ethics to the methods of worship. Vishnu
7268-565: The Nayakas of Chitradurga , Keladi Nayaka , Mysore Kingdom , Nayak Kingdom of Gingee , Nayaks of Tanjore , and Nayaks of Madurai . The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained the administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms. The emperor, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military , and ally formed the seven critical elements that influenced every aspect of governance. The emperor
7426-563: The Nirukta defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā ('one who enters everywhere'); also adding atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati ('that which is free from fetters and bondage is Vishnu'). In the tenth part of the Padma Purana (4-15th century CE), Danta (Son of Bhīma and King of Vidarbha ) lists 108 names of Vishnu (17.98–102). These include the ten primary avatars (see Dashavarara , below ) and descriptions of
7584-466: The Puranas in the table below. However, this is a complicated process, and the lists are unlikely to be exhaustive because: The Dashavatara is a list of the so-called Vibhavas , or '10 [primary] Avatars ' of Vishnu. The Agni Purana , Varaha Purana , Padma Purana , Linga Purana , Narada Purana , Garuda Purana , and Skanda Purana all provide matching lists. The same Vibhavas are also found in
7742-732: The Saivite Vaitheeswaran Kovil . Thousands of devotees take a holy dip during new moon days and also pour molasses into the temple tank. Ramalinga Swamigal is believed to have been cured off his stomach pain after worshiping in the temple. He glorified the presiding temple in his works in Potri Panchangam . The temple is revered in Naalayira Divya Prabandham , the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by Thirumangai Alvar and Thirumalisai Alvar . The Alvar has sung praise, imagining himself as
7900-600: The Sri Vaishnava denomination of Hinduism, Perumal is venerated in popular tradition as Venkateshwara at Tirupati , and Sri Ranganathaswamy at Srirangam . Vishnu is a Rigvedic deity , but not a prominent one when compared to Indra , Agni and others. Just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda are dedicated to Vishnu, although he is mentioned in other hymns. Vishnu is mentioned in the Brahmana layer of text in
8058-514: The Tamil month of Chittirai (March–April), is the most prominent festival of the temple. The jeers of Sri Ahobila Matha are the hereditary trustees. The temple is maintained and administered by the Ahobila Matha. Markandeya Purana details the history of the temple. A sage named Salihotra had his hermitage in this place. He used to grind rice for a living and offered half of the flour to
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#17327904010338216-698: The Trivikrama , which is one of the lasting mythologies in Hinduism since the Vedic times. It is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves , which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the celebrated three steps or "three strides" of Vishnu. Starting as a small insignificant looking being, Vishnu undertakes
8374-513: The guru (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa ( Pitamaha or "Father of Carnatic music" ) and Kanakadasa earned the devotion of Emperor Krishnadevaraya. The emperor considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and honoured him in his writings. During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present-day Andhra Pradesh . The defeat of
8532-656: The "dark one" and as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the plains and mountains of Tamilakam . The verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the Supreme god of Tamils . He is a popular Hindu deity among Tamilians in Tamil Nadu , as well among the Tamil diaspora . Revered by
8690-534: The 9th and 10th centuries have a systematic arrangement of subsidiary deities as seen in this temple along with the Appakkudathaan Perumal Temple at Koviladi, Sowmya Narayana Perumal temple at Thirukoshtiyur, Rajagopalaswamy temple at Mannargudi and Rangantha temple at Srirangapatna . There are inscriptions in the temple from the period of Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1122 CE) indicating gift of 1000 kulis of land by Tiruvenkatadeva to
8848-638: The Bahmani Sultanate. His governor Saluva Narasimha reduced the loss of territory by holding almost all of coastal Andhra Pradesh south of the Krishna river, Chittoor, the two Arcots and Kolar. Saluva Narashimha defeated the Gajapatis and held Udayagiri, drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore, and took procession of Machilipatnam and Kondaveedu . He later defeated Bahmani forces and recovered most of
9006-519: The Chola period. The temple has a seven-tiered rajagopuram (gateway tower) and enshrined within a granite wall. The complex contains all the shrines and Hritayathabhanasini, the temple tank, is located to the west of the temple. A Goshala (cow shed) is maintained by the temple administration. Veeraraghava Perumal is believed to have appeared to marry his consort Lakshmi in the place. The temple observes six daily rituals and three yearly festivals. The chariot festival and float festival, celebrated during
9164-432: The Deccan sultanates and called himself "Sultan of the World". This included both Deccani Muslims recruited from anywhere in the Deccan or Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf. He was keenly interfering in the internal affairs of the various sultanates in the Deccan and on playing off the Muslim powers against one another, while making himself the ruler of the most powerful and influential regional power. This worked for
9322-469: The Deccan sultanates turning the tide decisively in favor of them. The generals captured Rama Raya and beheaded him, and Sultan Hussain had the severed head stuffed with straw for display. Rama Raya's beheading created confusion and havoc in the Vijayanagara army, which were then completely routed. The Deccan sultanates' army plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains today. After Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started
9480-407: The Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India. Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara Empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka I , the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in
9638-435: The Tamil country by occupying the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry, Kondaveedu, Kanchipuram , and Tiruchirapalli . These defeats reduced the Vijayanagara Empire's prestige, described by an inscription which described the Gajapati king as "a yawning lion to the sheep of the Karnatak King". Mallikarjuna's successor Virupaksha Raya II led a life of pleasure perusing wine and women leading to the loss of Goa and much of Karnataka to
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#17327904010339796-399: The Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom , who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Muhammad bin Tughluq at Warangal . According to tradition, based on
9954-519: The Vedas, thereafter his profile rises and over the history of Indian scriptures, states Jan Gonda , Vishnu becomes a divinity of the highest rank, one equivalent to the Supreme Being. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of the Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3. In these hymns, the Vedic scriptures assert that Vishnu resides in that highest home where departed Atman (Self) reside, an assertion that may have been
10112-427: The Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr (Sun god), who also bears the name Suryanarayana . Again, this link to Surya is a characteristic Vishnu shares with fellow Vedic deities named Mitra and Agni, wherein in different hymns, they too "bring men together" and cause all living beings to rise up and impel them to go about their daily activities. In hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu
10270-465: The Veera Raghavar temple. He is also called Vaidya Veera Raghavar, in view of his ailment curing abilities. In this temple people submit small metal sheets with a specific human organ engraved on them as a request to god to cure the illness or problems with those organs. It is believed that those suffering from incurable diseases are cured if they worship the presiding deity. Devotees come here for marriage, progeny, and for relief from hardships. The water in
10428-430: The Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahamani Sultanate to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. In the early 15th century, Deva Raya built a mosque for the Muslims in Vijayanagara and placed a Quran before his throne. The introduction of Christianity began as early as the eighth century as shown by the finding of copper plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of
10586-475: The Vijayanagara Empire as "The Kingdom of Narasinga", a name derived from "Narasimha" by the Portuguese. It is not clear whether the name was derived from Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II . Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal , and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from
10744-418: The Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various community-based gaming activities. Engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors indicate these were popular locations of casual social interaction. Some of these are gaming boards similar to the ones in use today and others are yet to be identified. Dowry was in practice and can be seen in both Hindu and Muslim royal families. When
10902-403: The Vijayanagara defeat in battle, Kamath opines that the Sultanate armies, though numerically disadvantaged, were better equipped and trained. Their artillery was manned by expert Turkish gunmen while the Vijayanagara army depended on European mercenaries using outdated artillery. The Sultanate cavalry rode fast moving Persian horses and used spears that were fifteen to sixteen feet long giving them
11060-476: The avatar (or incarnation) within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trimurti . The avatars of Vishnu descend to empower the good and to destroy evil, thereby restoring Dharma and relieving the burden of the Earth. An oft-quoted passage from the Bhagavad Gita describes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu: Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth. For
11218-402: The cause of the conflict. Contemporary Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak attributes the war to the Bahamani Sultan capitalizing on the confusion caused by an internal revolt within the Vijayanagara Empire, including an attempt to assassinate the Raya by his brother. Deva Raya II was succeeded by his elder son Mallikarjuna Raya in 1446. The Gajapati emperor removed the Vijayanagara control over
11376-411: The collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers, and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics , shieldmen with swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so large that armour was not necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle. The capital city
11534-768: The commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of royalty were full of ceremonial pomp. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery. Their numbers ensured their daily duties were light. Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment, and women wrestlers are also mentioned in records. Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records mention regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peacetime. Royal palaces and marketplaces had special arenas where royalty and common people amused themselves by watching sports such as cock fight , ram fight and female wrestling. Excavations within
11692-626: The construction of Hindu temples . Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada , Telugu , Tamil , and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy , mathematics , medicine , fiction , musicology , historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music , evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in
11850-681: The cosmology, for example, states that Vishnu's eye is at the Southern Celestial Pole from where he watches the cosmos. In another version found in section 4.80 of the Vayu Purana, he is the Hiranyagarbha , or the golden egg from which were simultaneously born all feminine and masculine beings of the universe. The Vishnu Purana presents Vishnu as the central element of its cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are. The reverence and
12008-514: The courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudal chiefs. Some members of the royal family were writers of merit and authored important works such as Jambavati Kalyana by Emperor Krishnadevaraya, and Madura Vijayam (also known as Veerakamparaya Charita ) by Princess Gangadevi , a daughter-in-law of Emperor Bukka I , dwells on the conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara Empire. The Kannada poets and scholars of
12166-485: The discus symbolizes him as that which restores dharma with war if necessary when cosmic equilibrium is overwhelmed by evil. One of his arms sometimes carries a club or mace ( gada named Kaumodaki ) which symbolizes authority and power of knowledge. In the fourth arm, he holds a lotus flower ( padma ) which symbolizes purity and transcendence. The items he holds in various hands vary, giving rise to twenty four combinations of iconography, each combination representing
12324-618: The diseased are called relatives. Apparent disagreements concerning the placement of either the Buddha or Balarama in the Dashavarara seems to occur from the Dashavarara list in the Shiva Purana (the only other list with ten avatars including Balarama in the Garuda Purana substitutes Vamana, not Buddha). Regardless, both versions of the Dashavarara have a scriptural basis in the canon of authentic Vedic literature (but not from
12482-461: The emperor's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. Emperor Krishnadevaraya 's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen, and over 900 elephants. The whole army was claimed to number over 1.1 million soldiers, with up to 2 million having been recorded, along with a navy led by a Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy). The army recruited from all classes of society, supported by
12640-553: The empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Veerashaiva ( Lingayatism ) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat based), Ugabhoga (melody based) and Mundige (cryptic). Their inspirations were
12798-467: The empire enjoyed a high level of monetization. This is especially evident from the number of temple cash grants that were made. Coins were minted using gold, silver, copper and brass and their value depended on material weight. Coins were minted by the state, in the provinces and by merchant guilds. Foreign currency was in circulation. The highest denomination was the gold Varaha (or Hun/Honnu , Gadyana ) weighted 50.65 – 53 grains. The Partab or Pratapa
12956-760: The empire from their traditional enemies, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan. He also subdued rebelling chiefs of the Chera, the Chola and the Pandya territories. Despite many attempts by nobles and members of the royal family to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka retained control as regent till 1503. In 1503, Narasa Nayaka's son Vira Narasimha had prince Immadi Narasimha of the Saluva dynasty assassinated and took over
13114-638: The empire was Kannada. The latter gained even more cultural and literary prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara emperors, especially Krishnadevaraya. Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, written by well known figures such as Sayanacharya (who wrote a treatise on the Vedas called Vedartha Prakasha whose English translation by Max Muller appeared in 1856), and Vidyaranya that extolled
13272-417: The empire was fertile and well cultivated. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment. Salt production and
13430-560: The empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . The ports of Mangalore , Honavar , Bhatkal , Barkur , Cochin , Cannanore , Machilipatnam , and Dharmadam were important for they not only provided secure harbors for traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal but some also served as ship building centers. When merchant ships docked,
13588-459: The empire's earlier losses. After the death of Virupaksha Raya II in 1485, Saluva Narasimha led a coup that ended the dynastic rule while continuing to defend the empire from raids by the Sultanates created from the continuing disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate in its north. Saluva Narasimha left his two adolescent sons under the care of general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka who ably defended
13746-478: The empire, while some areas, such as Keladi and Madurai , came under the direct supervision of a commander. On the battlefield, the emperor's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small-scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long-range artillery, which were commonly manned by foreign gunners. Army troops were of two types:
13904-479: The entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice . The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon , cardamom, myrobalan , tamarind timber , anafistula , precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk , ambergris , rhubarb , aloe , cotton cloth and porcelain . Cotton yarn
14062-661: The equivalence of the Brahman with Vishnu, a foundational theology in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition. Vijayanagara Empire The Vijayanagara Empire ( / v ɪ ˌ dʒ ə j ə ˈ n ə ɡ ə r ə / ) or the Karnata Kingdom was a late medieval Hindu empire that ruled much of southern India . It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty , members of
14220-463: The essence in every being and everything in the empirically perceived universe. In this Brahmana, states Klaus Klostermaier, Purusha Narayana (Vishnu) asserts, "all the worlds have I placed within mine own self, and my own self has I placed within all the worlds." The text equates Vishnu to all knowledge there is (Vedas), calling the essence of everything as imperishable, all Vedas and principles of universe as imperishable, and that this imperishable which
14378-417: The father of Dakshyani and wife of Siva for a big yagna (sacrifice). Siva, in his anger, opened his third eye out of which Virabhadra was created. He was directed by Siva to kill Daksha and he followed his orders. Siva incurred Brahmahatti Dosham on account of the execution. He was directed to the sacred tank of the temple to propitiate himself off the sins. The shrine of Siva in the form of Theertheswarar on
14536-519: The first Sultanate was formed in South Asia. Similar conical headdress is seen in other sites such as the Ajanta Caves , Ellora Caves , Aihole and Badami , variously dated from the 2nd century to 10th century. as well as that Indian kingdoms recognized their religious identity of being Hindu by the early 14th century. Others interpret the term Hinduraya Suratrana to mean "protectors of
14694-417: The first-born of holy Law approached me, then of this speech, I first obtain a portion. (...) They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title. — Rigveda 1.164.36–37, 46 The Shatapatha Brahmana contains ideas which Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism has long mapped to a pantheistic vision of Vishnu as supreme, he as
14852-475: The form of a curl of hair. He generally wears yellow garments. He wears a crown called the Kiritamukuta . Vishnu iconography shows him either in standing pose, seated in a yoga pose, or reclining. A traditional depiction of Vishnu is as Narayana , showing him reclining on the coils of the serpent Shesha floating over the divine ocean Kshira Sagara , accompanied by his consort Lakshmi , as he "dreams
15010-439: The form of an Avatar (incarnation) to restore the cosmic order and protect dharma . The Dashavatara are the ten primary avatars of Vishnu. Out of these ten, Rama and Krishna are the most important. Vishnu (also spelled Viṣṇu, Sanskrit : विष्णु ) means 'all pervasive' and, according to Medhātith ( c. 1000 CE), 'one who is everything and inside everything'. Vedanga scholar Yaska (4th century BCE) in
15168-468: The forms of a swan [Hamsa], a tortoise [ Kurma ], a fish [ Matsya ], O foremost of regenerate ones, I shall then display myself as a boar [ Varaha ], then as a Man-lion ( Nrisingha ), then as a dwarf [ Vamana ], then as Rama of Bhrigu's race, then as Rama , the son of Dasaratha, then as Krishna the scion of the Sattwata race, and lastly as Kalki . Specified avatars of Vishnu are listed against some of
15326-488: The gift of lands for conducting various festivals by other kings in the region like Maduranthaka Deva, Sadasiva Maharaya (1542–1570), Rama Deva Raya (1617–1632) and Venkata III (1632-42). Most scholars believe that the major structures of the temple were built by Vijayanagar kings during 14th century. There is an inscription on the Eastern wall in 1542 CE indicating grants to the temple by Thanjai nayak kings. The temple
15484-600: The gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small, the young and the old (Rig Veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute." The Vaishnava Upanishads are minor Upanishads of Hinduism , related to Vishnu theology. There are 14 Vaishnava Upanishads in
15642-512: The gods of (or among) the Hindu kings". The empire's founders, the Sangama brothers (Harihara I and Bukka Raya I), came from a pastoral cowherd background, possibly the Kuruba people, that claimed Yadava lineage in an attempt to claim Kshatriya status like the rest of South Indian dynasties who originated from a pastoral background. The founders of the empire were devout Shaivas (worshippers of
15800-442: The heroic deeds of Visnu, who has measured out the terrestrial regions, who established the upper abode having, wide-paced, strode out triply… The Vishnu Sukta 1.154 of Rigveda says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those encompassing the earth and air) are visible to the mortals and the third is the realm of the immortals. The Trivikrama describing hymns integrate salvific themes, stating Vishnu to symbolize that which
15958-440: The history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as an unifying factor. 'Vijaynagar' translates to 'City of Victory'. Karnata Rajya (Karnata Kingdom) was another name for the Vijayanagara Empire, used in some inscriptions and literary works of the Vijayanagara times including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by Emperor Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu . Europeans referred to
16116-587: The kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim . By 1436 the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were successfully dealt with and had to accept Vijayanagara overlordship. After a few years of tranquility, wars broke out with the Bahamani Sultanate in 1443 with some successes and some reversals. The Persian visitor Firishta attributes Deva Raya II's war preparations, which included augmenting his armies with Muslim archers and cavalry, to be
16274-468: The last step of worship, nagaswaram (pipe instrument) and tavil (percussion instrument) are played, religious instructions in the Vedas (sacred text) and Naalayira Divya Prabandam are recited by priests, and worshippers prostrate themselves in front of the temple mast . There are weekly, monthly and fortnightly rituals performed in the temple. During the Tamil month of Chittirai , Brahmotsavam,
16432-559: The latter defaulted in paying the tribute. Such wars for tribute payment by Vijayanagara were repeated in the 15th century. Deva Raya II (eulogized in contemporary literature as Gajabetekara ) succeeded to the throne in 1424. He was possibly the most successful of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords and the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded Sri Lanka and became overlord of
16590-586: The latter encompassing the Bhagavad Gita ), and Rama (most notably in the Ramayana ). Krishna in particular is venerated in Vaishnavism as the ultimate, primeval, transcendental source of all existence, including all the other demigods and gods, such as Vishnu. In the Mahabharata , Vishnu (as Narayana ) states to Narada that He will appear in the following ten incarnations: Appearing in
16748-650: The lives of millions. The Haridasas represented two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta , the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas , Upanishads and other Darshanas , while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs ( Devaranamas and Kirthanas ). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha , Jayatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vyasatirtha , Vadirajatirtha and others. Vyasatirtha,
16906-552: The local languages, and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have provided ample information about the history and power of the empire. The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over Southern India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architectural style . This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in
17064-578: The majority of the epigraphs in the language were inscribed in the limited period from 1500 to 1649. Talbot explains this scenario as one of shifting political solidarity. The Vijayanagara Empire was originally founded in Karnataka, with Andhra Pradesh serving as a province of the empire. After its defeat to the Deccan sultanates in 1565 and the sacking of the royal capital Vijayanagara, the diminished empire moved its capital to Southern Andhra Pradesh, creating an enterprise dominated by Telugu language. The Persian visitor Abdur Razzak wrote in his travelogues that
17222-518: The majority of the inscriptions recovered are from the rule of the Tuluva dynasty (from 1503 to 1565) with the Saluva dynasty (from 1485 to 1503) inscribing the least in its brief control over the empire. The Sangama dynasty (from 1336 to 1485) which ruled the longest produced about one third of all epigraphs inscribed during the Tuluva period. Despite the popularity of Telugu language as a literary medium,
17380-455: The manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable. Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones , ivory, rhino horn, ebony , amber , coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits and brought Chinese products to
17538-481: The merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities ( Arabs , Persians , Guzerates , Khorassanians ) settled in Calicut , drawn by the thriving trade business. Ship building prospered and keeled ships between 1000 and 1200 bahares ( burden ) were built without decks by sewing
17696-408: The military. The separation of the priestly class from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and the nobility and aristocracy ensured their presence in every town and village to maintain order. Vanina notes that within the warrior class was a conglomerate of castes, kinship and clans that usually originated from landholding and pastoral communities. They ascended
17854-490: The most welcome arrivals here. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps kill the symbol of evil named Vritra . His distinguishing characteristic in the Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu. In section 7.99 of the Rigveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In
18012-724: The north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana ) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate . Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in 1294. He created
18170-483: The northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's Karnataka. It was moved to Vijayanagara during Bukka Raya I's reign because it was easier to defend against the Muslim armies, who were persistently attacking from the northern lands. With the Vijayanagara Empire now imperial in stature, Harihara II , the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the empire beyond the Krishna River and South India
18328-498: The northern banks of the temple is believed to be place where Siva cleansed himself. The temple is originally believed to have been built by the Pallavas during the 8th century. There are inscriptions dating back to the later half of the 9th century Pallava dynasty reign here. Local folklore claims that the temple is around 5000 years old. According to historian K.V. Soundararajan, the Rangantha temples in South India built during
18486-403: The notable women poets of the Sanskrit language. Early Telugu women poets such as Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla became popular. Further south the provincial Nayaks of Tanjore patronised several women poets. The Devadasi system , as well as legalized prostitution, existed and members of this community were relegated to a few streets in each city. The popularity of harems among men of
18644-452: The place. There is a small shrine for Shiva in this temple premises. The temple tank, Hritayathabhanasini, is located to the West of the temple and is believed to have medicinal effects. There is an ornate four pillared black stone hall called Vellikilamai mandapam where the festival image of the presiding deities are displayed every Friday. Vishnu as Veera Raghavar is the presiding deity of
18802-605: The post-Vedic fusion of all the attributes of the Vedic Prajapati unto the avatars of Vishnu. In the Yajurveda , Taittiriya Aranyaka (10.13.1), " Narayana sukta ", Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being. The first verse of "Narayana Suktam" mentions the words paramam padam , which literally mean 'highest post' and may be understood as the 'supreme abode for all Selfs'. This is also known as Param Dhama , Paramapadam , or Vaikuntha . Rigveda 1.22.20 also mentions
18960-430: The previous centuries, such as Lingayatism , provided momentum for flexible social norms that helped the cause of women. By this time South Indian women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in fields hitherto considered the monopoly of men such as administration, business, trade and the fine arts. Tirumalamba Devi who wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi the author of Madhuravijayam were among
19118-424: The primal Atman (Self) of the universe. There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of Vishnu. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient being sleeping on the coils of the serpent Shesha (who represents time) floating in the primeval ocean of milk called Kshira Sagara with his consort, Lakshmi. Whenever the world is threatened with evil, chaos, and destructive forces, Vishnu descends in
19276-562: The principal cash crops, and large-scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric , pepper, cardamom , and ginger grew in the remote Malnad hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold. Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of masons , sculptors , and other skilled artisans. According to Abdur Razzak, much of
19434-564: The protection of the good and for the destruction of evil, and for the establishment of righteousness, I come into being age after age. Vedic literature, in particular the Puranas (ancient; similar to encyclopedias ) and Itihasa (chronicle, history, legend), narrate numerous avatars of Vishnu. The most well-known of these avatars are Krishna (most notably in the Vishnu Purana , Bhagavata Purana , and Mahabharata ;
19592-523: The qualities, attributes, or aspects of God. The Garuda Purana (chapter XV) and the " Anushasana Parva " of the Mahabharata both list over 1000 names for Vishnu, each name describing a quality, attribute, or aspect of God. Known as the Vishnu Sahasranama , Vishnu here is defined as 'the omnipresent'. Other notable names in this list include : Vishnu iconography shows him with dark blue, blue-grey or black coloured skin, and as
19750-402: The reason for his increasing emphasis and popularity in Hindu soteriology . He is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. तदस्य प्रियमभि पाथो अश्यां नरो यत्र देवयवो मदन्ति । उरुक्रमस्य स हि बन्धुरित्था विष्णोः पदे परमे मध्व उत्सः ॥५॥ ऋग्वेद १-१५४-५ 5. Might I reach that dear cattle-pen of his, where men seeking the gods find elation, for exactly that
19908-505: The remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines. In the fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River , canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks . These canals had sluices that were opened and closed to control
20066-574: The royalty and the existence of seraglio is well known from records. Well-to-do men wore the Petha or Kulavi , a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets , bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water , civet musk , musk , or sandalwood . In stark contrast to
20224-624: The rule in a coup thus becoming the first of the Tuluva dynasty rulers. This did not go well with the nobles who revolted. Seeing internal troubles grow, the Gajapati king and the Bahamani Sultan began to encroach on the empire even as the governors of Ummattur, Adoni , and Talakad colluded to capture the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region from the empire. The empire came under the rule of Krishna Deva Raya in 1509, another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. Initially Krishnadevaraya faced
20382-427: The sage readily offered his hermitage. On arriving at the hermitage, the guest revealed his true form and blessed the sage. As per another legend, Vishnu appeared in the place to marry Lakshmi , who was born as the daughter of Dilipa, the king of Dharmasenapura. He appeared in the place and married her. The place is also called Thiruevvul and Veshranniem. As per yet another legend, Shiva was not invited by Daksha ,
20540-498: The saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi . Endowments were made to temples in the form of land, cash, produce, jewellery and constructions. The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas (devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading
20698-532: The same paramam padam . In the Atharvaveda , the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, but without the word Vishnu or his alternate avatar names. In post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called
20856-657: The scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by Francis Xavier (1545) and later the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south. Stone inscriptions were the most common form of documents used on temple walls, boundary of properties and open places for public display. Another form of documentation
21014-400: The seekers and used to consume the rest himself. He was an ardent devotee of Vishnu. To test his devotion, Vishnu appeared as a guest to him one day. He requested Salihotra to offer him food, which the sage did. The guest felt hungry and requested the sage to offer more food. The sage offered the other half portion of the flour which he used to consume himself. The guest asked a place to rest and
21172-567: The social ladder by abandoning their original occupations and adopting to a martial code of living, ethics and practices. In South India they were loosely called the Nayakas . Sati practice is evidenced in Vijayanagara ruins by several inscriptions known as Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). There are controversial views among historians regarding this practice including religious compulsion, marital affection, martyrdom or honor against subjugation by foreign intruders. The socio-religious movements that gained popularity in
21330-586: The superiority of the Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies. Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title Tikacharya for his polemical writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticized the beliefs of Adi Sankara . Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned
21488-534: The tank is considered more sacred than that of river Ganga. A dip in the tank is believed to relieve the devotee from sins he committed in thought as well as action. Abishekam, the sacred ablution to the presiding deity is done only with sandalwood oil. The temple is considered the Vaishnavite temple equivalent of healing abilities of the presiding deity to that of the Vaitheeswaran, the presiding deity of
21646-402: The teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha . Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution. Kumara Vyasa , the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata , a translation of the epic Mahabharata . This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada. Chamarasa
21804-547: The temple. The inscriptions from the eastern wall of the Vahanamandap indicates gift of 130 pons of gold by Veera Raghava Sadagoppa Jiyar, the thirteenth seer of Ahobila Matha to the temple during 1630-75. There are inscriptions indicating gift of lands to the temple by Vijayanagara kings were Ramadeva Maharaya (1620–30), Narasimha Deva, Vira Venkatapathi Rayadeva Maharayar and Sri Venkatarayadeva Mahakavi, Kulothunga Deva and Rajendra I. There are also inscriptions referring to
21962-673: The term Hinduraya Suratrana , which historian Benjamin Lewis Rice translates as "the Suratrana of Hindu Rayas". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "the Sultan among Hindu kings" and state this to be evidence of some Islamic political traditions being adopted by Hindu monarchs, The long headdress are also seen in the royalty-related and secular artwork in Pattadakal dated from the 7th and 8th century, about 5 centuries before
22120-597: The title of "master of the eastern and western seas" ( Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ). By 1374 Bukka Raya I , successor to Harihara I, defeated the chiefdom of Arcot , the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai , and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra- Krishna River doab in the north. The original capital of the empire was in the principality of Anegondi on
22278-536: The universe into reality." His abode is described as Vaikuntha and his mount ( vahana ) is the bird king Garuda . Vishnu was associated with the sun because he used to be "a minor solar deity but rose in importance in the following centuries." Particularly in Vaishnavism , the Trimurti (also known as the Hindu Triad or Great Trinity ) represents the three fundamental forces ( guṇas ) through which
22436-481: The universe is created, maintained, and destroyed in cyclic succession . Each of these forces is represented by a Hindu deity: The trimurti themselves are beyond three gunas and are not affected by it. In Hindu tradition, the trio is often referred to as Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh . All have the same meaning of three in one; different forms or manifestations of One person the Supreme Being . The concept of
22594-623: The villagers should not give away land as dowry. These inscriptions reinforce the theory that a system of social mandates within community groups existed and were widely practiced even though these practices did not find justification in the family laws described in the religious texts. The Vijayanagara emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects , as writings by foreign visitors show. The emperors used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya ( literally , "protector of cows and Brahmins") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism. The Nāgarī script inscription at Hampi includes
22752-546: The water flow. In other areas, the administration encouraged digging wells, which were monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit. The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Wheat , Sorghum ( jowar ), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane and rice thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves , areca (for chewing), and coconut were
22910-478: The worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part of Vishnu Purana, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others. The Vishnu Purana also discusses the Hindu concept of supreme reality called Brahman in the context of the Upanishads ; a discussion that the theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja interprets to be about
23068-406: The years since Raichur because his victory against a technologically superior army led him to underestimate technology's value. Despite these disadvantages, Kamath, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund concur that the vast Vijayanagara army appeared to have the upper hand until two Muslim generals (identified as the mercenary Gilani brothers according to Kamath) switched sides and joined forces with
23226-438: Was collected for cattle graze on non-private lands. Popular temple destinations charged visitor fees called Perayam or Kanike . Residential property taxes were called Illari . The Hindu social order was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma ( lit , "helpers of the four classes and four stages"). According to Talbot, caste
23384-431: Was controlled by the Vijayanagara Empire. The next ruler, Deva Raya I , was successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook works of fortification and irrigation. Firuz Bahmani of Bahmani Sultanate entered into a treaty with Deva Raya I in 1407 that required the latter to pay Bahmani an annual tribute of "100,000 huns, five maunds of pearls and fifty elephants". The Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when
23542-436: Was dependent on water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, ensuring a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in the semiarid regions of South India. Contemporary records and notes of foreign travellers describe huge tanks constructed by labourers. Excavations uncovered
23700-482: Was divided into five main provinces ( Rajya ), each under a commander ( Dandanayaka or Dandanatha ) and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes. A Rajya was divided into regions ( Vishaya , Vente or Kottam ) and further divided into counties ( Sime or Nadu ), themselves subdivided into municipalities ( Kampana or Sthala ). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to
23858-423: Was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage ( Gotra ) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes and caste clusters ("Jati"). According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and
24016-534: Was on copper plates that were meant for record keeping. Usually verbose inscriptions included information such as a salutation, a panegyric of the emperor or local ruler, the name of the donor, nature of the endowment (generally either cash or produce), the manner in which the grant would be used, obligations of the donee, share received by the donor and a concluding statement that officiated the entire donation and its obligations. Some inscriptions record an instance of victory in war or religious festival, and retribution or
24174-494: Was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia . Chief imports from Palestine were copper , quicksilver ( mercury ), vermilion , coral, saffron , coloured velvets, rose water , knives, colored camlets , gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two-week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal . East coast trade routes were busy, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet , pulses and tobacco were grown on
24332-495: Was succeeded by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya , the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya, was appointed emperor, and Rama Raya , Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law, becoming the caretaker. When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne, Rama Raya made him a virtual prisoner and became the de facto ruler. He hired Muslim generals in his army from his previous diplomatic connections with
24490-447: Was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers ( Pradhana ) headed by the prime minister ( Mahapradhana ). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary ( Karyakartha or Rayaswami ) and the imperial officers ( Adhikari ). All high-ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training. A secretariat near the emperor's palace employed scribes and officers to maintain records made official by using
24648-404: Was used to identify communities across merchant and artisan classes while Boya identified herders of all types. Artisans consisted of blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brasssmiths and carpenters. These communities lived in separate sections of the city to avoid disputes, especially when it came to social privileges. Conquests led to large-scale migration of people leading to marginalisation of natives of
24806-453: Was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same. Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within
24964-774: Was valued at half a Varaha , the Fanam , Phanam or Hana , an alloy of gold and copper was the most common currency valued at a third of the Varaha . A Tar made of pure silver was a sixth of a Phanam and a Chital made of brass was a third of the Tar . Haga , Visa and Kasu were also coins of lower denominations. During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry, medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court language of
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