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100-640: In 1795 some partners withdrew from the North West Company and began to trade on their own through the firm of Forsyth , Richardson & Company which already was engaged in the trade around Lake Superior . At the same time, an agreement was made between on the one hand McTavish , Frobisher & Company and on the other hand Alexander Mackenzie as agent and attorney of Angus Shaw , Roderick McKenzie , Cuthbert Grant , Alexander McLeod and William Thornburn , to begin independent trading operations in 1799 and continue with these until 1805. Due to

200-472: A partnership under the name Sir Alexander Mackenzie & Company , but it was nevertheless mostly called the XY Company. The vehement contest with the North West Company for market shares caused instability in the fur-producing regions and decreased revenue for both companies. In order to end the competition, thereby increasing profit, the two companies merged in 1804 with the North West Company absorbing

300-457: A "designated group," along with women, visible minorities , and people with physical or mental disabilities. First Nations are not defined as a visible minority by the criteria of Statistics Canada . North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700 and

400-551: A change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement. Colonization had a significant impact on First Nations diet and health. According to the historian Mary-Ellen Kelm, "inadequate reserve allocations, restrictions on the food fishery, overhunting, and over-trapping" alienated First Nations from their traditional way of life, which undermined their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health. As Canadian ideas of progress evolved around

500-620: A competitive means. North West Company increased its use of rum and other spirits from 10,000 gallons in 1799 to 16,000 in 1803. North West Company's average use of hard liquor 1802-1804 was 14,400 gallons, while the average for the XY Company during the same period was 5,000 gallons. Soon both companies were losing money, important fur trading areas became depleted and relations with the First Nations were impaired. The often close proximity of North West Company's and XY Company's post led to violent interactions between clerks and servants of

600-678: A neutral Indian state in the American Old Northwest, and made this demand as late as 1814 at the peace negotiations at Ghent. The Americans rejected the idea, the British dropped it, and Britain's Indian allies lost British support. In addition, the Indians were no longer able to gather furs in American territory. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, Great Lakes-area natives ultimately assimilated into American society, migrated to

700-532: A right of access." More than 6,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis served with British forces during First World War and Second World War . A generation of young native men fought on the battlefields of Europe during the Great War and approximately 300 of them died there. When Canada declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939, the native community quickly responded to volunteer. Four years later, in May 1943,

800-598: A supporting role in Richardson's abortive effort to establish the Canada Banking Company in 1792. He was among the founders, with Richardson, of the Bank of Montreal in 1817, and their firm, as well as Forsyth and Richardson individually, subscribed the maximum 20 shares each. Forsyth served as a director of the bank from 1817 to 1820 and as vice-president in 1825–26. Forsyth was commissioned an ensign in

900-885: A time Forsyth carried on. In August he informed his first cousin Edward Ellice that he was "on the best of terms" with Governor Lord Aylmer and "an intimate and old friend" of Aylmer's civil secretary, John Baskerville Glegg, and he offered to use these advantages to promote the development of Ellice's seigneury of Villechauve, more commonly known as Beauharnois, the management of which Forsyth, Richardson had long supervised. Forsyth spent his last years in Britain, where he died in 1837. Forsyth, Richardson & Co., survived until 1847 when it and Forsyth, Walker and Company were dissolved. First Nations in Canada First Nations ( French : Premières Nations )

1000-704: A variant of Métis . The Métis as of 2013 predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada, Michif in the United States, notably in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of North Dakota , where Michif is the official language of the Métis that reside on this Chippewa reservation. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif

1100-491: A wide range of chemical effects, including severe mercury poisoning. They suffered low birth rates, skewed birth-gender ratio, and health effects among the population. This led to legislation and eventually the Indian Health Transfer Policy that provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by First Nations people, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on

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1200-575: Is a misnomer, given to Indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed in the East Indies . The use of the term Native Americans , which the government and others have adopted in the United States, is not common in Canada. It refers more specifically to the Indigenous peoples residing within the boundaries of the US. The parallel term Native Canadian

1300-498: Is a term used to identify Indigenous peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis . Traditionally, First Nations in Canada were peoples who lived south of the tree line , and mainly south of the Arctic Circle . There are 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands across Canada. Roughly half are located in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia . Under Charter jurisprudence , First Nations are

1400-651: Is growing due to outreach within the five provincial Métis councils after at least a generation of steep decline. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs define Métis to be those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry. Allied with the French, the first nations of the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia fought six colonial wars against the British and their native allies (See the French and Indian Wars , Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War ). In

1500-786: Is not commonly used, but Native (in English) and Autochtone (in Canadian French ; from the Greek auto , own, and chthon , land) are. Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , also known as the "Indian Magna Carta , " the Crown referred to Indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized. Bands and nations may have slightly different meanings. Within Canada,

1600-513: Is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and Norsemen . According to the Sagas of Icelanders , the first European to see what is now Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson , who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986 CE. The first European explorers and settlers of what is now Canada relied on

1700-568: Is on the west coast of Vancouver Island . In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are relations of the Kwakwaka'wakw , the Haisla , and the Ditidaht . The Nuu-chah-nulth language is part of

1800-596: Is passed on through oral tradition of the Squamish indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . Prior to colonization and the introduction of writing had only oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, and knowledge across generations. The writing system established in the 1970s uses the Latin alphabet as a base. Knowledgeable elders have the responsibility to pass historical knowledge to

1900-495: The Citizenship Act was amended to grant formal citizenship to Status Indians and Inuit, retroactively as of January 1947. In 1960, First Nations people received the right to vote in federal elections without forfeiting their Indian status. By comparison, Native Americans in the United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s. In his 1969 White Paper , then- Minister of Indian Affairs , Jean Chrétien , proposed

2000-628: The Atlantic coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal. While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the St. Lawrence River , the Algonquins settled along the Ottawa River ( Kitcisìpi ), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not realized until after

2100-608: The British Parliament's Slavery Abolition Act finally abolished slavery in all parts of the British Empire . Historian Marcel Trudel has documented 4,092 recorded slaves throughout Canadian history, of which 2,692 were Aboriginal people, owned by the French, and 1,400 blacks owned by the British, together owned by approximately 1,400 masters. Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves. British agents worked to make

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2200-697: The Cowichan and Fraser rivers, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests. Since 1881, those First Nations people living in the prairie provinces required permits from Indian Agents to sell any of their produce. Later the government created a pass system in the old Northwest Territories that required indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian Agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time. Indigenous people regularly defied those laws, as well as bans on Sun Dances and potlatches, in an attempt to practice their culture. The 1930 Constitution Act or Natural Resources Acts

2300-547: The District of Saskatchewan under Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people. In 1884, 2,000 Cree from reserves met near Battleford to organize into a large, cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Métis at armed rebellion, Wandering Spirit and other young militant Cree attacked

2400-668: The Great Lakes and the Illinois Country . The alliance involved French settlers on the one side, and on the other side were the Abenaki, Odawa, Menominee , Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Mississaugas , Illiniwek , Huron- Petun , Potawatomi etc. It allowed the French and the Indians to form a haven in the middle- Ohio valley before the open conflict between the European powers erupted. In the Royal Proclamation of 1763 ,

2500-707: The Liberals began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the Calder case decision in 1973. After the Canadian Supreme Court recognized that indigenous rights and treaty rights were not extinguished, a process was begun to resolve land claims and treaty rights and is ongoing today. In 1970, severe mercury poisoning , called Ontario Minamata disease , was discovered among Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation and Wabaseemoong Independent Nations people, who lived near Dryden, Ontario . There

2600-552: The Makah tribe practising death by starvation as punishment and Pacific coast tribes routinely performing ritualized killings of slaves as part of social ceremonies into the mid-1800s. Slave-owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the Yurok and Haida lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California . Fierce warrior indigenous slave-traders of the Pacific Northwest Coast raided as far south as California. Slavery

2700-586: The North Saskatchewan River and purchased a great deal of European trade goods through Cree middlemen from the Hudson's Bay Company . The lifestyle of this group was semi-nomadic, and they followed the herds of bison during the warmer months. They traded with European traders, and worked with the Mandan , Hidatsa , and Arikara tribes. In the earliest oral history , the Algonquins were from

2800-622: The North-West Territories . Offended by the concepts of the treaties, Cree chiefs resisted them. Big Bear refused to sign Treaty 6 until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882. His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made progress. In 1884 the Métis (including the Anglo-Métis) asked Louis Riel to return from the United States, where he had fled after the Red River Rebellion , to appeal to

2900-738: The North-Western Territory , the XY Company built posts in the immediate vicinity of those of the North West Company; depots near Fort Chipewyan , the posts at the Great Slave Lake , Fort Liard on the Mackenzie River , and at Great Bear Lake . In the Peace River are the XY Company estqablished four posts. It also had depots at Île-à-la-Crosse and Green Lake . The rivalry between North West Company and XY Company led to an increased use of hard liquor as

3000-770: The Three Sisters ( maize / beans / squash ), the Iroquois became powerful because of their confederacy. Gradually the Algonquians adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained. The Assiniboine were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, engaging in wars against the Gros Ventres alongside them, and later fighting the Blackfoot. A Plains people, they went no further north than

3100-525: The Treaty of Tordesillas , these two kingdoms decided to draw the dividing line running north–south, 370 leagues (from 1,500 to 2,200 km (930 to 1,370 mi) approximately depending on the league used) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Land to the west would be Spanish, to the east Portuguese. Given the uncertain geography of the day, this seemed to give the "new founde isle" to Portugal. On

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3200-756: The Wakashan language group. In 1999 the discovery of the body of Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi provided archaeologists with significant information on indigenous tribal life prior to extensive European contact. Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi (meaning "Long Ago Person Found" in Southern Tutchone ), or "Canadian Ice Man", is a naturally mummified body that a group of hunters found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park in British Columbia. Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with

3300-541: The 1502 Cantino map , Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line (as does Brazil). An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to "resemble gypsies in colour, features, stature and aspect; are clothed in the skins of various animals ...They are very shy and gentle, but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ...." Some captives, sent by Gaspar Corte-Real , reached Portugal. The others drowned, with Gaspar, on

3400-424: The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and Europeans , mainly French. The Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Northern Dene women ( Anglo-Métis ). The Métis spoke or still speak either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif . Michif , Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of Métif ,

3500-670: The 18th-century Tseax Cone eruption. Written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers , traders , explorers , and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture. In addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics , have helped scholars piece together an understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Collectively, First Nations (Indians), Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Indigenous peoples in Canada , Indigenous peoples of

3600-584: The 19th century, the Canadian Indian residential school system was intended to force the assimilation of Aboriginal and First Nations people into European-Canadian society. The purpose of the schools, which separated children from their families, has been described by commentators as "killing the Indian in the child." Funded under the Indian Act by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, a branch of

3700-445: The 20th century of cultural genocide and ethnocide . There was widespread physical and sexual abuse . Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of tuberculosis , and death rates of up to 69%. Details of the mistreatment of students had been published numerous times throughout the 20th century, but following the closure of the schools in the 1960s, the work of indigenous activists and historians led to

3800-470: The Americas , or " first peoples ". First Nation as a term became officially used by the government beginning in 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. The First Nations people had begun to identify by this term during 1970s activism, in order to avoid using the word Indian , which some considered offensive. No legal definition of

3900-695: The Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Maliseet , Innu , Abenaki and Mi'kmaq . The Blackfoot Confederacy resides in the Great Plains of Montana and Canadian provinces of Alberta , British Columbia and Saskatchewan . The name Blackfoot came from the dye or paint on the bottoms of their leather moccasins . One account claimed that the Blackfoot Confederacies walked through the ashes of prairie fires, which in turn blackened

4000-547: The Beothuk disappeared entirely. There are reports of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. Aboriginal first contact period

4100-528: The British agents discouraged any warlike activities or raids on American settlements, but the Americans became increasingly angered, and this became one of the causes of the War of 1812 . In the war, the great majority of First Nations supported the British, and many fought under the aegis of Tecumseh . But Tecumseh died in battle in 1813 and the Indian coalition collapsed. The British had long wished to create

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4200-533: The British ceded the Old Northwest to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, it kept fortifications and trading posts in the region until 1795. The British then evacuated American territory, but operated trading posts in British territory, providing weapons and encouragement to tribes that were resisting American expansion into such areas as Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin. Officially,

4300-471: The British recognized the treaty rights of the indigenous populations and resolved to only settle those areas purchased lawfully from the indigenous peoples. Treaties and land purchases were made in several cases by the British, but the lands of several indigenous nations remain unceded and/or unresolved. First Nations routinely captured slaves from neighbouring tribes. Sources report that the conditions under which First Nations slaves lived could be brutal, with

4400-528: The Carolinas all stimulated destructive wars over land with their immediate Indian neighbors...Settlement patterns in New France also curtailed the kind of relentless and destructive expansion and land-grabbing that afflicted many British colonies." The Métis (from French métis – "mixed") are descendants of unions between Cree , Ojibwe , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee and other First Nations in

4500-417: The Corse of Monelly. He was a first cousin of the politician Edward Ellice through the influential Phynn family. Forsyth came to New York just before the American Revolution , but as a loyalist he removed to Quebec . He joined his brother, Thomas, at Montreal, Quebec . They worked in the Montreal offices of their uncle's merchant's firm Phynn, Ellice & Co., of London . When Ellice died in 1790,

4600-435: The Creator, or in the Squamish language keke7nex siyam . He called this man his brother. It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Squamish spread back through their territory. The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec. The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142. Adept at cultivating

4700-409: The First Nations into military allies of the British, providing supplies, weapons, and encouragement. During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) most of the tribes supported the British. In 1779, the Americans launched a campaign to burn the villages of the Iroquois in New York State. The refugees fled to Fort Niagara and other British posts, with some remaining permanently in Canada. Although

4800-421: The First Nations peoples, for resources and trade to sustain a living. The first written accounts of interaction show a predominantly Old world bias, labelling the indigenous peoples as "savages", although the indigenous peoples were organized and self-sufficient. In the early days of contact, the First Nations and Inuit populations welcomed the Europeans, assisting them in living off the land and joining forces with

4900-411: The Forsyth brothers and their first cousin John Richardson became partners of what was from then known as Forsyth, Richardson & Co., of Montreal . Much of their business was centred on the fur trade and they became partners in the North West Company for a period. John Forsyth focused on the smooth day-to-day running of the company, leaving his forceful cousin to drive it forward. Forsyth played

5000-563: The French and British in their various battles. It was not until the colonial and imperial forces of Britain and France established dominant settlements and, no longer needing the help of the First Nations people, began to break treaties and force them off the land that the antagonism between the two groups grew. The Portuguese Crown claimed that it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI – assuming international jurisdiction – had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal. The next year, in

5100-410: The Montreal Battalion of British Militia in 1797, and he reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the Royal Montreal Cavalry by 1828. He served as a captain with the Montreal Incorporated Volunteers during the War of 1812 and was granted land for his services. He was made a justice of the peace in 1821 and was a life governor of the Montreal General Hospital . Diligent in support of Richardson during

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5200-440: The Port Royal settlement. Champlain persuaded First Nations to allow him to settle along the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec City. The colony of Acadia grew slowly, reaching a population of about 5,000 by 1713. New France had cod -fishery coastal communities, and farm economies supported communities along the St. Lawrence River. French voyageurs travelled deep into

5300-418: The XY Company contested the North West Company dominance in the Canadian Northwest. Its robust financial support made it possible to open competing fur trading posts on the Red River , at Rainy Lake and Bas de la Rivière Winnipic and many other sites in close vicinity to already existing North West Company posts. In 1801 the XY Company had posts on the Saskatchewan , in 1803 on the Great Bear Lake , and

5400-491: The XY Company. The XY Company becoming a part owner receiving 25 of the reconstructed North West Company's 100 shares. Yet, McTavish, Frobisher & Company continued as the only agent of the North West Company, and Alexander McKenzie was barred from any engagement in the fur trade. Increased profitability after the merger was reached, among other measures, by lowering the salaries of the clerks. John Forsyth (loyalist) John Forsyth (December 8, 1762 – December 27, 1837)

5500-505: The abolition of the Indian Act of Canada, the rejection of Aboriginal land claims , and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than as a distinct group. Harold Cardinal and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta responded with a document entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper". In it, they explained Status Indians' widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and

5600-602: The age of 35 ). By 1790 the abolition movement was gaining ground in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States. The Act Against Slavery of 1793 legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into Upper Canada , and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25. The act remained in force until 1833 when

5700-422: The animosity that arose between Simon McTavish and Alexander McKenzie this agreement was superseded in 1798 when new partners were admitted and others retired. After the Jay Treaty of 1794 , Britain evacuated its military posts at Michilimackinac and Detroit which meant that Canadian firms operating on United States territory had to leave, either to dissolved or to compete with the North West Company north of

5800-416: The body placed the age of the find between 1450 AD and 1700 AD. Genetic testing showed that he was a member of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations . Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD, but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts noted friendliness on

5900-399: The bottoms of their moccasins. They had migrated onto the Great Plains (where they followed bison herds and cultivated berries and edible roots) from the area of now eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Historically, they allowed only legitimate traders into their territory, making treaties only when the bison herds were exterminated in the 1870s. Pre-contact Squamish history

6000-456: The canoe routes west and a land route to the west coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. One of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while

6100-409: The companies. In August 1802, a clerk of the XY Company shot and killed a clerk of the North West Company after the latter attempted to steal his furs. The killer was indicted for murder in Montreal, but he was set free as the court had doubt about its jurisdiction ; the act having taken place at Fort de l'Isle on the North Saskatchewan River . In 1803, Alexander Mackenzie reorganized the company as

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6200-433: The concept of self-determination in health. Through this process, the decision to enter into transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities are able to take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities. The capacity, experience and relationships developed by First Nations as

6300-425: The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought large numbers of European settlers west who encroached on Indigenous territory. European Canadians established governments, police forces, and courts of law with different foundations from indigenous practices. Various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from

6400-476: The development of agriculture, the surest foundation of a colony in the New World. According to David L. Preston , after French colonisation with Champlain "the French were able to settle in the depopulated St. Lawrence Valley, not directly intruding on any Indian nation's lands. This geographic and demographic fact presents a striking contrast to the British colonies' histories: large numbers of immigrants coming to New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and

6500-432: The dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place", estimated at 2,000 years ago near present-day Detroit . According to their tradition, and from recordings in birch bark scrolls ( wiigwaasabak ), Ojibwe (an Algonquian-speaking people) came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island , and from along the east coast. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of

6600-448: The federal government, the schools were run by churches of various denominations – about 60% by Roman Catholics, and 30% by the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of Canada , along with its pre-1925 predecessors, Presbyterian , Congregationalist and Methodist churches. The attempt to force assimilation involved punishing children for speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths, leading to allegations in

6700-475: The founding of the Montreal Committee of Trade in 1822, he was elected its first chairman but declined the honour and was replaced by Thomas Blackwood. He was largely inactive in the affairs of his church, the Scotch Presbyterian Church, later known as St Gabriel Street Church. In 1827, Forsyth was appointed to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada on Lord Dalhousie ’s recommendation. However, unlike many prominent businessmen, and most notably his partner, Forsyth

6800-411: The fur trade, conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers and loss of land and a subsequent loss of nation self-suffiency. For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed more than half of the Huron , who controlled most of the early fur trade in what became Canada. Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people, the Huron Wendat were attacked by the Iroquois, their traditional enemies. In the Maritimes,

6900-454: The government declared that, as British subjects , all able Indian men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas. Following the end of the Second World War, laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951. Provincial governments began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. In June 1956, section 9 of

7000-399: The government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response. In March 1885, Riel, Gabriel Dumont , and Honoré Jackson (a.k.a. Will Jackson) set up the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan , believing that they could influence the federal government in the same way as they had in 1869. The North-West Rebellion of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the Métis people of

7100-420: The hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, as well as what is now the American Midwest and the Mississippi Valley ), trading with First Nations as they went – guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs. The fur trade kept the interest in France's overseas colonies alive, yet only encouraged a small colonial population, as minimal labour was required. The trade also discouraged

7200-586: The international border, west of Lake Superior . The XY Company was founded in 1798 when the Forsyth, Richardson & Company (which was a subsidiary of the London firm of Phyn, Ellis & Company) and Leith, Jamieson & Company of Detroit united in order to increase its competitive advantage against the North West Company. It was invigorated when John Ogilvy and John Mure entered the company in 1800 and Alexander Mackenzie joined in 1802. From its beginning,

7300-614: The late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged First Nations to assimilate into the European-based culture, referred to as " Canadian culture ". The assumption was that this was the "correct" culture because the Canadians of European descent saw themselves as dominant, and technologically, politically and culturally superior. There was resistance against this assimilation and many businesses denied European practices. The Tecumseh Wigwam of Toronto, for example, did not adhere to

7400-405: The late 20th century, members of various nations more frequently identify by their tribal or national identity only, e.g., "I'm Haida ", or "We're Kwantlens ", in recognition of the distinct First Nations. First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed, each with its own culture, customs, and character. In

7500-711: The most prominent business figures in Montreal. In the 1790s he had welcomed into his home refugees from the French Revolution . Forsyth founded the Montreal Hunt in 1826 and was a member of the Beaver Club at Montreal. In 1798, at St Andrew's Church, Quebec , Forsyth married Margaret Grant (1777-1818), daughter of Charles Grant (d.1784), a prominent Quebec merchant from an influential Scots-Quebecer family trading between London and Canada . Charles

7600-543: The next generation. People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the Great Flood . In another story, after the Flood, they repopulated from the villages of Schenks and Chekwelp , located at Gibsons . When the water lines receded, the first Squamish came to be. The first man, named Tseḵánchten, built his longhouse in the village, and later on another man named Xelálten, appeared on his longhouse roof and sent by

7700-579: The northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. Under Samuel de Champlain, the Saint Croix settlement moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia ), a new site across the Bay of Fundy , on the shore of the Annapolis Basin , an inlet in western Nova Scotia. Acadia became France's most successful colony to that time. The cancellation of Dugua's fur monopoly in 1607 ended

7800-807: The northwest were the Athapaskan-speaking peoples, Slavey , Tłı̨chǫ , Tutchone-speaking peoples, and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Haida, Tsimshian , Salish, Kwakiutl , Nuu-chah-nulth , Nisga'a and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Blackfoot, Kainai , Sarcee and Northern Peigan . In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe , Algonquin , Iroquois and Wyandot . Along

7900-633: The ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem . The Nuu-chah-nulth are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . The term Nuu-chah-nulth is used to describe fifteen separate but related First Nations, such as the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations , Ehattesaht First Nation and Hesquiaht First Nation whose traditional home

8000-492: The one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem , the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii ( Bullhead ), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane ), Aan'aawenh ( Pintail Duck ), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear ) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose ), then these six miigis beings returned into

8100-746: The part of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation. The Aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million in the late 15th century. The effect of European colonization was a 40 to 80 percent Aboriginal population decrease post-contact. This is attributed to various factors, including repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza , measles and smallpox (to which they had not developed immunity), inter-nation conflicts over

8200-440: The plains who had relied heavily on bison for food and clothing. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food and help to begin farming. Just as the bison disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), Lieutenant-Governor Edgar Dewdney cut rations to indigenous people in an attempt to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885, approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in

8300-403: The return voyage. Gaspar's brother, Miguel Corte-Real , went to look for him in 1502, but also failed to return. In 1604 King Henry IV of France granted Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons a fur-trade monopoly. Dugua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near to the mouth of the St. Croix River . Samuel de Champlain , his geographer, promptly carried out a major exploration of

8400-662: The sale of their lands in 1916 and 1917, the Department of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented. In British Columbia, the McKenna–McBride Royal Commission was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands (reserves) for First Nations. Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near

8500-591: The same year posts were established on the Peace and the Swan rivers. When the North West Company in 1802 moved its rendezvous from Grand Portage to Kaministiquia , the XY Company followed in 1804. The company then also had a trading fort at Qu'Appelle River and a winter post at Fishing Lake . The XY Company also had a post at Fort Charlotte, by the Pigeon River at the upper end of the portage from Lake Superior. In

8600-461: The second war, Queen Anne's War , the British conquered Acadia (1710). The sixth and final colonial war between the nations of France and Great Britain (1754–1763), resulted in the French giving up their claims and the British claimed the lands of Canada (New France) . In this final war, the Franco-Indian alliance brought together Americans, First Nations and the French, centred on

8700-699: The small town of Frog Lake , killing Thomas Quinn, an Indian agent , and eight others. Although Big Bear actively opposed the attacks, he was charged and tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison. After the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870, Métis moved from Manitoba to the District of Saskatchewan, where they founded a settlement at Batoche on the South Saskatchewan River . In Manitoba settlers from Ontario began to arrive. They pushed for land to be allotted in

8800-447: The square concession system of English Canada , rather than the seigneurial system of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their French-Canadian culture. The history of colonization is complex, varied according to the time and place. France and Britain were the main colonial powers involved, though the United States also began to extend its territory at the expense of indigenous people as well. From

8900-588: The start of the 20th century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their communal lands and encouraging assimilation. Amendments to the Indian Act in 1905 and 1911 made it easier for the government to expropriate reserve lands from First Nations. The government sold nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta to settlers. When the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept

9000-582: The term First Nations has come into general use for Indigenous peoples other than Inuit and Métis . Outside Canada, the term can refer to Indigenous Australians , U.S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest , as well as supporters of the Cascadian independence movement . The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves , is the term First Nations person (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman ). Since

9100-485: The term exists. Some Indigenous peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. A band is a "body of Indians (a) for whose use and benefit in common lands ... have been set apart, (b) ... moneys are held ... or (c) declared ... to be a band for the purposes of", according to the Indian Act by the Canadian Crown . The term Indian

9200-507: The villages of the Fox nation , a tribe that was an ancient rival of the Miami people and their Algonquian allies. Native (or "pani", a corruption of Pawnee ) slaves were much easier to obtain and thus more numerous than African slaves in New France, but were less valued. The average native slave died at 18, and the average African slave died at 25 (the average European could expect to live until

9300-524: The west or to Canada, or were relocated onto reservations in Michigan and Wisconsin. Historians have unanimously agreed that the Indians were the major losers in the War of 1812. Living conditions for Indigenous people in the prairie regions deteriorated quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, settlers and hunters of European descent contributed to hunting the North American bison almost to extinction;

9400-425: The widely practiced Lord's Day observance, making it a popular spot, especially on Sundays. Moreover, Canadian policies were at times contradictory, such as through the late 19th century- Peasant Farm Policy that severely restricted farming on reserves, despite this practice being seen as important to assimilation efforts. These kinds of attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Founded in

9500-717: Was a partner in the influential commercial house of Forsyth, Richardson & Co. He was a politician, co-founder and vice-president of the Bank of Montreal , and Colonel of the Royal Montreal Cavalry . He founded the Montreal Hunt in 1826 and was a member of the Beaver Club . He is the ancestor of the Forsyth-Grants of Ecclesgreig Castle. Born at Huntly , Aberdeenshire , he was the fifth son of William Forsyth (b.1721) 4th Laird of Tailzerton, and his wife Jean, daughter of George Phynn, Lord of

9600-687: Was extensive mercury pollution caused by Dryden Chemicals Company's waste water effluent in the Wabigoon - English River system. Because local fish were no longer safe to eat, the Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish. Previously it had made up the majority of their diet. In addition to the acute mercury poisoning in northwestern Ontario , Aamjiwnaang First Nation people near Sarnia , Ontario, experienced

9700-428: Was hereditary, the slaves and their descendants being considered prisoners of war . Some tribes in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s. Among Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves. The citizens of New France received slaves as gifts from their allies among First Nations peoples. Slaves were prisoners taken in raids against

9800-563: Was not offered, or did not he accept any great number of government appointments. From the 1790s at least, Forsyth was part of the social circuit on which the upper echelon of the Montreal business community prided itself. Jacob Mountain dined in a large company at Forsyth’s home in 1794: "The house itself is elegant, and the dinner splendid... People here are fond of good living and take care to want no luxury". Forsyth's political and social views and activities were representative of those of

9900-400: Was part of a shift acknowledging indigenous rights . It enabled provincial control of Crown land and allowed Provincial laws regulating game to apply to Indians, but it also ensured that "Indians shall have the right ... of hunting, trapping and fishing game and fish for food at all seasons of the year on all unoccupied Crown lands and on any other lands to which the said Indians may have

10000-544: Was the third son of the Laird of Kincorth and a grandson of Grant of Glenbeg, whose portrait hung at Castle Grant . Mrs Forsyth's mother, Jane Holmes (1750-1805), afterwards married The Hon. John Blackwood . The Forsyths were the parents of two sons and a daughter, all of whom married within Forsyth's business circle: A nephew, James Bell Forsyth , represented Forsyth, Richardson at Quebec City , in association with William Walker from 1821. Richardson died in May 1831, and for

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