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88-470: On 25 July 1894, by decree of Emperor Alexander III , in commemoration of the marriage of Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna with Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich , the Kseniinsky Institute for Noble Maidens was established. The institute was created as a women's educational institution for the education and upbringing of orphans and half-orphans from noble families. The institute was part of

176-442: A native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration

264-407: A Scandinavian lifestyle of relative modesty. Alexander rejected foreign influence, German influence in particular, thus the adoption of local national principles was deprecated in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a Russia homogeneous in language, administration and religion. These ideas conflicted with those of his father, who had German sympathies despite being

352-446: A baby" when Dagmar gave birth to their first child, Nicholas. He was much more lenient with his children than most European monarchs, and he told their tutors, "I do not need porcelain, I want normal healthy Russian children." General Cherevin believed that the clever George was "the favourite of both parents". Alexander enjoyed a more informal relationship with his youngest son Michael and doted on his youngest daughter, Olga. Alexander

440-455: A committee?" He was worried that Nicholas had no experiences with women and arranged for the Polish ballerina Mathilde Kschessinskaya to become his son's mistress. Even at the end of his life, he considered Nicholas a child and told him, "I can't imagine you as a fiancé – how strange and unusual!" Each summer his parents-in-law, King Christian IX and Queen Louise , held family reunions at

528-571: A conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached Constantinople and the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the Congress of Berlin . Bismarck failed to do what was expected of him by the Russian emperor. In return for the Russian support which had enabled him to create

616-506: A man who stood above all others, but who carried a monstrous burden and who every minute had to fear for his life and the lives of those closest to him. In later years I came into contact with the Emperor on several occasions, and I felt not the slightest bit timid. In more ordinary cases Tsar Alexander III could be at once kind, simple, and even almost homely. In 1909, a bronze equestrian statue of Alexander III sculpted by Paolo Troubetzkoy

704-812: A patriot; Alexander II often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance. Some differences between father and son had first appeared during the Franco-Prussian War , when Alexander II supported the cabinet of Berlin while the Tsesarevich made no effort to conceal his sympathies for the French. These sentiments would resurface during 1875–1879, when

792-468: A playful and kind Goliath among all the romping children." On 29 October [ O.S. 17 October] 1888 the Imperial train derailed in an accident at Borki . At the moment of the crash, the imperial family was in the dining car. Its roof collapsed, and Alexander held its remains on his shoulders as the children fled outdoors. The onset of Alexander's kidney failure was later attributed to

880-543: A water hose on the visiting King Oscar II of Sweden . Alexander had an extremely poor relationship with his brother Grand Duke Vladimir . At a restaurant, Vladimir had brawled with the French actor Lucien Guitry when the latter kissed his wife, Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin . The prefect of St. Petersburg needed to escort Vladimir out of the restaurant. Alexander was so furious that he temporarily exiled Vladimir and his wife and threatened to exile them permanently to Siberia. When Alexander and his family survived

968-420: Is definite" but assured him that "your rights will be safeguarded." Alexander was furious over his father's decision to marry Catherine a month after his mother's death, which he believed "forever ruined all the dear good memories of family life." His father threatened to disinherit him if he left court out of protest against the marriage. He privately denounced Catherine as "the outsider" and complained that she

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1056-597: Is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by

1144-706: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

1232-706: The Angara embankment. Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using

1320-682: The Anichkov Palace , not the Winter Palace. Alexander resented having to take refuge at Gatchina. Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich remembered hearing the tsar say, "To think that after having faced the guns of the Turks I must retreat now before these skunks." In the 1860s, Alexander fell in love with his mother's lady-in-waiting, Princess Maria Elimovna Meshcherskaya . Dismayed to learn that Prince zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn had proposed to her in early 1866, he told his parents that he

1408-572: The Borki train disaster in 1888, Alexander joked, "I can imagine how disappointed Vladimir is going to be when he learns that we all stayed alive!" This tension was reflected in the rivalry between Maria Feodorovna and Vladimir's wife Marie Pavlovna. Alexander had better relationships with his other brothers Alexei (who he made rear admiral and then grand admiral of the Russian Navy), Sergei (who he made governor of Moscow) and Paul . Despite

1496-627: The Eastern question excited Russian society. At first, the Tsesarevich was more Slavophile than the Russian government. However, his phlegmatic nature restrained him from many exaggerations, and any popular illusions he may have imbibed were dispelled by personal observation in Bulgaria where he commanded the left wing of the invading army. Never consulted on political questions, Alexander confined himself to military duties and fulfilled them in

1584-813: The First World War , the number of pupils was three hundred and eight pupils, in 1915 - three hundred and forty-four pupils, in 1916 - three hundred and forty-eight pupils. On 4 March 1918, the last graduation of the Ksenia Institute took place and the remaining boarders were transferred to the building of the Nikolaev Orphan Institute. After the October Revolution , by the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of

1672-718: The German Empire , it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with Russian interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of Saint Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of "honest broker" at the Congress, and shortly afterwards contracted an alliance with Austria-Hungary for the purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe . The Tsesarevich could refer to these results as confirmation of

1760-671: The Grand Church of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg , Alexander wed Dagmar, who converted to Orthodox Christianity and took the name Maria Feodorovna . The union proved a happy one to the end; unlike many of his predecessors since Peter I, there was no adultery in his marriage. The couple spent their wedding night at the Tsarevich's private dacha known as "My Property". Alexander and his father became estranged due to their different political views. In 1870, Alexander II supported Prussia in

1848-607: The Holy Synod of the Orthodox Church in Russia. Pobedonostsev instilled into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for Russian Orthodox thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism to be cultivated by every right-minded emperor. While he was heir apparent from 1865 to 1881 Alexander did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but allowed it to become known that he had ideas which did not coincide with

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1936-596: The Pale of Settlement ) and restricted the occupations in which they could engage. Encouraged by its successful assassination of Alexander II, the Narodnaya Volya movement began planning the murder of Alexander III. The Okhrana uncovered the plot and five of the conspirators, including Aleksandr Ulyanov , the older brother of Vladimir Lenin , were captured and hanged in May 1887. The general negative consensus about

2024-698: The Peter and Paul Fortress , with his funeral being attended by numerous foreign relatives, including King Christian IX of Denmark, the Prince and Princess of Wales, and Duke of York , and Duke and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and his daughter-in-law to be, Alix of Hesse, and her brother, Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse . In disposition, Alexander bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning great-uncle Emperor Alexander I . Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of

2112-620: The United Kingdom (see Panjdeh incident ), and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. His reign cannot be regarded as an eventful period of Russian history ; but under his hard rule the country made considerable progress. Alexander and his wife regularly spent their summers at Langinkoski manor along the Kymi River near Kotka on the Finnish coast, where their children were immersed in

2200-418: The ballet , Alexander was seen as lacking refinement and elegance. Indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as some of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct style of expression matched his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities. Alexander

2288-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958

2376-577: The British press, and Chekhov directed anti-cholera precautions in several villages. Alexander had the political goal of Russification, which involved homogenizing the language and religion of Russia's people. He implemented changes such as teaching only the Russian language in Russian schools in Germany, Poland, and Finland . He also patronized Eastern Orthodoxy and dissolved German, Polish, and Swedish cultural and religious institutions. Alexander

2464-547: The Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff , bringing Alexander, Maria and their children to Denmark. His sister-in-law, the Princess of Wales , would come from Great Britain with some of her children, and his brother-in-law and cousin-in-law, King George I of Greece , his wife, Queen Olga , who was a first cousin of Alexander and a Romanov Grand Duchess by birth, came with their children from Athens. In contrast to

2552-661: The Franco-Prussian War, which angered the younger Alexander. Influenced by his Danish wife Dagmar, Alexander criticized the "shortsighted government" for helping the "Prussian pigs". Alexander resented his father for having a long-standing relationship with Princess Catherine Dolgorukova (with whom he had several illegitimate children) while his mother, the Empress , was suffering from chronic ill-health. Two days after Empress Marie died, his father told him, "I shall live as I wish, and my union with Princess Dolgorukova

2640-414: The German frontier. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stambolov to destroy Russian influence in the principality roused his indignation, but he vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms. In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking conflict with

2728-542: The Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard

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2816-685: The National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using

2904-466: The Orthodox Church. On the day of his assassination, Alexander II signed an ukaz setting up consultative commissions to advise the monarch. On ascending to the throne, however, Alexander III took Pobedonostsev's advice and cancelled the policy before its publication. He made it clear that his autocracy would not be limited. All of Alexander III's internal reforms aimed to reverse the liberalization from his father's reign. The new Emperor believed that

2992-597: The RSFSR , the building of the Ksenin Institute was given to trade union organizations and received the name "Palace of Labor". Alexander III of Russia Alexander III (Russian: Александр III Александрович Романов , romanized : Aleksandr III Aleksandrovich Romanov ; 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) was Emperor of Russia , King of Congress Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894. He

3080-579: The Tsar's days were numbered, various imperial relatives began to descend on Livadia. Clergyman John of Kronstadt paid a visit and administered Communion to the Tsar. On 21 October, Alexander received Nicholas's fiancée, Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt , who had come from her native Darmstadt to receive the Tsar's blessing. Despite being exceedingly weak, Alexander insisted on receiving Alix in full dress uniform, an event that left him exhausted. Soon after, his health began to deteriorate more rapidly. He died in

3168-640: The Tsarina, as well as his own ambassadors. Though Alexander was indignant at the conduct of German chancellor Otto von Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany—even reviving the League of Three Emperors for a period of time and in 1887, signed the Reinsurance Treaty with the Germans. However, in 1890, the expiration of the treaty coincided with the dismissal of Bismarck by

3256-487: The United Kingdom and King George I of Greece . Great solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as tsesarevich , whereas Alexander received only the training of an ordinary Grand Duke of that period. This included acquaintance with French , English and German , and military drill . Alexander became tsesarevich upon Nicholas's sudden death in 1865. He had been very close to his older brother, and he

3344-507: The antipathy that Alexander had towards his stepmother, Catherine Dolgorukov, he nevertheless allowed her to remain in the Winter Palace for some time after his father's assassination and to retain keepsakes such Alexander II's blood-soaked uniform and his reading glasses. Even though he disliked their mother, Alexander was kind to his half-siblings. His youngest half-sister Princess Catherine Alexandrovna Yurievskaya remembered when he would play with her and her siblings: "The Emperor... seemed

3432-485: The arms of his wife, and in the presence of his physician, Ernst Viktor von Leyden , at Maly Palace in Livadia on the afternoon of 1 November [ O.S. 20 October] 1894 at the age of 49, and was succeeded by his eldest son Tsesarevich Nicholas, who took the throne as Nicholas II . After leaving Livadia on 6 November and traveling to St. Petersburg by way of Moscow, his remains were interred on 18 November at

3520-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

3608-566: The blunt trauma suffered in this incident. In 1894, Alexander III became ill with terminal kidney disease ( nephritis ). His first cousin, Queen Olga of Greece , offered to let him stay at her villa Mon Repos , on the island of Corfu , in the hope that it might improve the Tsar's condition. By the time that they reached Crimea , they stayed at the Maly Palace in Livadia , as Alexander was too weak to travel any farther. Recognizing that

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3696-483: The carriage and no amount of pleading from his wife could convince him to get back in. An account from the memoirs of the artist Alexander Benois gives one impression of Alexander III: After a performance of the ballet Tsar Kandavl at the Mariinsky Theatre , I first caught sight of the Emperor. I was struck by the size of the man, and although cumbersome and heavy, he was still a mighty figure. There

3784-504: The department of institutions of Empress Maria. The Kseniinsky Institute was given the Nicholas Palace , which had previously been owned by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolayevich . The palace was built from 1853 to 1861 by the architect Andrei Stackenschneider and his assistants Karl Ziegler and August Lange. At the palace there was an arena and a church , created by the architect N. V. Sultanov and consecrated on 12 February 1906 in

3872-602: The design, but it was approved because the Empress Dowager unexpectedly liked the monument. Following the Revolution of 1917, the statue remained in place as a symbol of tsarist autocracy until 1937 when it was placed in storage. In 1994, it was again put on public display, although in a different place – in front of the Marble Palace . Another pre-revolutionary memorial is located in the city of Irkutsk at

3960-408: The expense of the treasury. Children of nobles (both hereditary and personal), who were not in the service, were accepted only as scholarships or for a fee. When entering the institute, it was necessary to be able to write and read in Russian, French and German, as well as to know the set of basic prayers. The Kseniinsky Institute was designed for three hundred and fifty pupils, in terms of its status it

4048-538: The icon of the Mother of God “Joy of All Who Sorrow” with a sacristy from the cover on the coffin of his father Alexander III. In the Kseniinsky Institute, according to the Regulations approved by Emperor Alexander III, half-orphans and orphans of personal and hereditary nobles, headquarters and chief officers, generals and civil ranks who did not have the necessary funds to support their daughters were accepted at

4136-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

4224-431: The latter post). Journalists such as Mikhail Katkov supported the emperor's autocracy policies. The government was overwhelmed in dealing with the Russian famine of 1891–92 and the ensuing cholera epidemic, which caused 375,000 to 500,000 deaths, and some liberal activity was tolerated, and the zemstvos were recruited to help with relief. Among others, Leo Tolstoy helped with relief efforts on his estate and through

4312-613: The laudatory title of Tsar’-Mirotvorets enduring into 21st century historiography. His major foreign policy achievement was the Franco-Russian Alliance , a major shift in international relations that eventually embroiled Russia in World War I . His political legacy represented a direct challenge to the European cultural order set forth by German statesman Otto von Bismarck , intermingling Russian influences with

4400-546: The name of the Joy of All Who Sorrow icon, with a basement like a cave of the Empty tomb . From 1894 to 1895, for the needs of the institute, the building was rebuilt under the guidance of architects R. A. Gedike and I. A. Stefanits. On the first floor there was an apartment of the head of the institute, an office and living quarters for teachers. The two-height Banquet Hall was divided by a ceiling into two rooms. A stage for performances

4488-410: The new German emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II (for whom the Tsar had an immense dislike), and the unwillingness of Wilhelm II's government to renew the treaty. In response Alexander III then began cordial relations with France, eventually entering into an alliance with the French in 1892. Despite chilly relations with Berlin, the Tsar nevertheless confined himself to keeping a large number of troops near

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4576-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

4664-803: The nobility and peasantry and strengthed the Emperor's personal control. In such policies Alexander III followed the advice of Konstantin Pobedonostsev , who retained control of the Church in Russia through his long tenure as Procurator of the Holy Synod (from 1880 to 1905) and who became tutor to Alexander's son and heir, Nicholas. (Pobedonostsev appears as "Toporov" in Tolstoy's novel Resurrection .) Other conservative advisors included Count D. A. Tolstoy (minister of education, and later of internal affairs) and I. N. Durnovo (D. A. Tolstoy's successor in

4752-531: The organization Narodnaya Volya . As a result, Alexander ascended to the Russian imperial throne in the village of Nennal . He and Maria Feodorovna were officially crowned and anointed at the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow on 27 May 1883. Alexander's ascension to the throne was followed by an outbreak of anti-Jewish riots . Alexander III disliked the extravagance of the rest of his family. It

4840-410: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

4928-428: The principles of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality , introduced by his grandfather Nicholas I , would quell revolutionary agitation and save Russia. Alexander weakened the power of the zemstvo (elective local administrative bodies) and placed the administration of peasant communes under the supervision of land-owning proprietors appointed by his government, "land captains" ( zemskiye nachalniki ). This weakened

5016-429: The principles of the existing government. On his deathbed, Nicholas allegedly expressed the wish that his fiancé, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry Alexander. Alexander's parents encouraged the match. On 2 June 1866, Alexander went to Copenhagen to visit Dagmar. When they were looking at photographs of the deceased Nicholas, Alexander proposed to Dagmar. On 9 November [ O.S. 28 October] 1866 in

5104-401: The shifting balances of power . Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich was born on 10 March 1845 at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , Russian Empire , the second son and third child of Tsesarevich Alexander (Future Alexander II) and his first wife Maria Alexandrovna (née Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine ). He was born during the reign of his grandfather Nicholas I . Though he

5192-531: The strict security observed in Russia, Alexander and Maria revelled in the relative freedom that they enjoyed in Denmark, Alexander once commenting to the Prince and Princess of Wales near the end of a visit that he envied them being able to return to a happy home in England, while he was returning to his Russian prison. In Denmark, he was able to enjoy joining his children, nephews and nieces, in muddy ponds looking for tadpoles, sneaking into his father-in-law's orchard to steal apples, and playing pranks, such as turning

5280-436: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

5368-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

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5456-495: The three professional classes, two departments were created: fine needlework and counters, clerks and accountants. The difference between the Ksenia Institute and other institutes for noble maidens was that the pupils of this institute were taught to do much of what was done by servants at other institutes: they sewed and mended linen, made their own beds and kept their shoes in order, and from among high school students kitchen and storeroom attendants were appointed. Since 1914, during

5544-685: The tradition, every Easter commissioning an egg for his wife Alexandra Feodorovna, and one for his mother Dagmar. When Dagmar nursed him in his final illness, Alexander told her, "Even before my death, I have known an angel." He died in Dagmar's arms, and his daughter Olga wrote that "my mother still held him in her arms" long after he died. Alexander had six children by Dagmar, five of whom survived into adulthood: Nicholas (b. 1868), George (b. 1871), Xenia (b. 1875), Michael (b. 1878) and Olga (b. 1882). He told Dagmar that "only with [our children] can I relax mentally, enjoy them and rejoice, looking at them." He wrote in his diary that he "was crying like

5632-439: The tsar ordered him to go straight to Denmark and propose to Princess Dagmar. The young Alexander wrote in his diary "Farewell, dear Dusenka." Despite his initial reluctance, Alexander grew fond of Dagmar, by the end of his life they loved each other deeply. A few weeks after their wedding, he wrote in his diary: "God grant that... I may love my darling wife more and more... I often feel that I am not worthy of her, but even if this

5720-456: The tsar's foreign policy follows the conclusions of the British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury in 1885: In foreign affairs Alexander III was a man of peace, but not at any price, and held that the best means of averting war is to be well-prepared for it. Diplomat Nikolay Girs , scion of a rich and powerful family, served as his Foreign Minister from 1882 to 1895 and established the peaceful policies for which Alexander has been given credit. Girs

5808-545: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in

5896-472: The views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War; he concluded that for Russia, the best thing was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion, and prepare for future contingencies by military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced. Alexander III took initiatives to stimulate the development of trade and industry, as his father did before him. Russia's economy

5984-430: Was "designing and immature". After his father's assassination, he reflected that his father's marriage to Catherine had caused the tragedy: "All the scum burst out and swallowed all that was holy. The guardian angel flew away and everything turned to ashes, finally culminating in the dreadful incomprehensible 1 March." Defunct On 13 March 1881 (N.S.) Alexander's father, Alexander II , was assassinated by members of

6072-403: Was advised that it would be difficult for him to be kept safe at the Winter Palace , and he relocated his family to the Gatchina Palace 30 kilometres (20 mi) south of St. Petersburg . The palace was surrounded by moats, watch towers, and trenches, and soldiers were on guard night and day. Under heavy guard, he would make occasional visits into St. Petersburg, but even then he would stay in

6160-439: Was also expensive for the Crown to pay so many grand dukes each year. Each one received an annual salary of 250,000 rubles, and grand duchesses received a dowry of a million when they married. He limited the title of grand duke and duchess to only children and male-line grandchildren of emperors. The rest would bear a princely title and the style of Serene Highness . He also forbade morganatic marriages , as well as those outside of

6248-684: Was an architect of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1891, which was later expanded into the Triple Entente with the addition of Great Britain. That alliance brought France out of diplomatic isolation, and moved Russia from the German orbit to a coalition with France, one that was strongly supported by French financial assistance to Russia's economic modernisation. Girs was in charge of a diplomacy that featured numerous negotiated settlements, treaties and conventions. These agreements defined Russian boundaries and restored equilibrium to dangerously unstable situations. The most dramatic success came in 1885 , settling long-standing tensions with Great Britain, which

6336-574: Was concerned that his heir-apparent, Nicholas, was too gentle and naive to become an effective Emperor. When Witte suggested that Nicholas participate in the Trans-Siberian Committee, Alexander said, "Have you ever tried to discuss anything of consequence with His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke? Don't tell me you never noticed the Grand Duke is ... an absolute child. His opinions are utterly childish. How could he preside over such

6424-566: Was destined to be a strongly counter-reforming emperor, Alexander had little prospect of succeeding to the throne during the first two decades of his life, as he had an elder brother, Nicholas , who seemed of robust constitution. Even when Nicholas first displayed symptoms of delicate health, the notion that he might die young was never taken seriously, and he was betrothed to Princess Dagmar of Denmark , daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark and Queen Louise of Denmark , and whose siblings included King Frederik VIII of Denmark , Queen Alexandra of

6512-450: Was devastated. When he became tsar, he reflected that "no one had such an impact on my life as my dear brother and friend Nixa [Nicholas]" and lamented that "a terrible responsibility fell on my shoulders" when Nicholas died. As tsesarevich, Alexander began to study the principles of law and administration under Konstantin Pobedonostsev , then a professor of civil law at Moscow State University and later (from 1880) chief procurator of

6600-543: Was extremely strong. He tore packs of cards in half with his bare hands to entertain his children. When the Austrian ambassador threatened that Austria would mobilize two or three army corps against Russia, he twisted a silver fork into a knot and threw it onto the plate of the ambassador. He said, "That is what I am going to do to your two or three army corps." Unlike his extroverted wife , Alexander disliked social functions and avoided St. Petersburg. At palace balls, he

6688-476: Was fearful that Russian expansion to the south would be a threat to India. Girs was usually successful in restraining the aggressive inclinations of Tsar Alexander convincing him that the very survival of the Tsarist system depended on avoiding major wars. With a deep insight into the tsar's moods and views, Girs was usually able to shape the final decisions by outmaneuvering hostile journalists, ministers, and even

6776-492: Was highly reactionary in domestic affairs and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II , a policy of "counter-reforms" (Russian: контрреформы ). Under the influence of Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827–1907), he acted to maximize his autocratic powers . During his reign, Russia fought no major wars, and he came to be known as The Peacemaker (Russian: Миротворец , romanized : Mirotvorets , IPA: [mʲɪrɐˈtvorʲɪt͡s] ), with

6864-580: Was hostile to Jews, and his reign witnessed a sharp deterioration in their economic, social, and political condition. His policy was eagerly implemented by tsarist officials in the May Laws of 1882. These laws encouraged open anti-Jewish sentiment and dozens of pogroms across the western part of the empire. As a result, many Jews emigrated to Western Europe and the United States. The laws banned Jews from inhabiting rural areas and shtetls (even within

6952-399: Was impatient for the events to end. He would order each musician of the orchestra to leave and turn off the lights until the guests left. After an unpleasant childhood experience on a bad-tempered mount, he developed a lifelong fear of horses. His wife once convinced him to go on a carriage ride with her, but as he reluctantly entered the carriage, the ponies reared back. He immediately left

7040-406: Was indeed something of the muzhik [Russian peasant] about him. The look of his bright eyes made quite an impression on me. As he passed where I was standing, he raised his head for a second, and to this day I can remember what I felt as our eyes met. It was a look as cold as steel, in which there was something threatening, even frightening, and it struck me like a blow. The Tsar's gaze! The look of

7128-589: Was lower than the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens . The students of the institute included 175 paid boarders and 175 government boarders. Three hundred schoolgirls over ten years old were placed in the building of the institute, and fifty boarders aged eight to ten years old were placed in the juvenile department of the Nikolaev Orphan's Institute. The ten-year course of study at the institute included three professional and seven general classes. In

7216-629: Was placed in Znamenskaya Square in front of the Moscow Rail Terminal in St. Petersburg . Both the horse and rider were sculpted in massive form, leading to the nickname of "hippopotamus". Troubetzkoy envisioned the statue as a caricature , jesting that he wished "to portray an animal atop another animal", and it was quite controversial at the time, with many, including the members of the Imperial Family, opposed to

7304-417: Was prepared to give up his rights of succession in order to marry his beloved "Dusenka". In 1866 after tsesarevich Nicholas's death, tsar Alexander II informed the new tsesarevich Alexander that Russia had come to a marriage agreement with the parents of Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who had been Nicholas' fiancée. Initially, the tsesarevich refused to travel to Copenhagen because he wanted to marry Maria. Enraged,

7392-410: Was set up in the lower one, and dormitories for pupils in the upper one. The classrooms are located on the second floor. The stable was rebuilt into a dining room, the arena was rebuilt into bedrooms. Architectural work cost the treasury 700,000 rubles. On 25 March 1895, the Kseniinsky Institute was solemnly opened, the ceremony was attended by Emperor Nicholas II , who presented the temple in the name of

7480-570: Was still challenged by the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878, which created a deficit, so he imposed customs duties on imported goods. To further alleviate the budget deficit, he implemented increased frugality and accounting in state finances. Industrial development increased during his reign. Also during his reign, construction of the Trans Siberian Railway was started. Following his father's assassination, Alexander III

7568-569: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,

7656-570: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by

7744-423: Was true, I will do my best to be." When she left his side, he missed her bitterly and complained: "My sweet darling Minny, for five years we've never been apart and Gatchina is empty and sad without you." In 1885, he commissioned Peter Carl Fabergé to produce the first jeweled Easter eggs for her, and she was so delighted that Alexander gave her an egg every Easter. After Alexander died, his heir Nicholas doubled

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