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86-685: Xiaoguwei is about 17.9 km (6.9 sq mi). During the Canton trade , Xiaoguwei was used by French crews for repairs and burials. It lay on the southeastern side of the Huangpu or "Whampoa" anchorage . French access to Guangzhou was, however, frequently blocked by the British Navy amid its colonial , revolutionary , and Napoleonic Wars . Xiaoguwei is connected with Luntou ( 仑头 ) in Haizhu District by tunnel. Bridges on

172-417: A Dominican missionary who knew Koxinga, noted that Koxinga held samurai ideals on bravery, used "feigned and hearty laughter" to show anger, and adhered to bushido because of his samurai training and his Japanese upbringing. One Spanish missionary proffered a personal opinion that his bad temper and reported propensity for violence was due to Japanese heritage; however, this same missionary's account of

258-480: A Japanese woman known only by her surname "Tagawa," probably Tagawa Matsu . He was raised there until the age of seven with the Japanese name Fukumatsu (福松) and then moved to Fujian province of Ming dynasty China . In 1638, Zheng became a Xiucai ( 秀才 , lit. "successful candidate") in the imperial examination and became one of the twelve Linshansheng ( 廩膳生 ) of Nan'an . In 1641, Koxinga married

344-628: A career as a scholar-official, which would legitimize the power the Zheng family had acquired, using sometimes questionable means. Zheng Zhilong’s defection to the Qing must have seemed opportunistic and in stark contrast to Koxinga’s continued loyalty to the Ming. But it is difficult to deny that in refusing to submit to the Qing, Koxinga was risking the life of his father, and that the subsequent death of Zheng Zhilong could only be justified by claiming loyalty to

430-679: A complaint in Ningbo over corruption amongst the officials in Canton. He had hoped that his criticisms of the current system would usher in a new era of free trade but instead, not only did his plan to open up the ports of Zhejiang fail, the Qing authorities reacted by imposing further restrictions on foreign trade. Worse still, Flint found himself deported to Macau where he was imprisoned between December 1759 and November 1762. The emperor and his officials became alarmed at this breach of normal protocol and realized that something had to be done to control

516-593: A declaration of ongoing support to the Ming dynasty. Despite his deliberate self-identification as the noble, loyal vassal of a vanquished master, Koxinga’s actual relationship with the Longwu Emperor lasted only twelve months or so, beginning in September 1645 and ending with the Emperor's death the following year. Although many secondary sources claim that the two men shared a "close bond of affection", there

602-569: A factory in Canton. The Spanish traded chiefly through intermediaries belonging to the vast Chinese colony of Manila , which had extensive trading networks in Canton, in Fujian and in northern China, or through factories in Canton, where they had a presence since 1788. Qianlong's single port restrictions mainly affected British traders, and those of nationalities not protected by other treaties, namely Dutch, French, American, German and Nordic traders. The discovery of underground missionary activity in

688-447: A foreign trader were also to be guaranteed by the local merchant. With permission from the authorities, in 1760 Hong merchant Pan Zhencheng (潘振成) and nine others hong specializing in the western trade joined together to become the intermediary between the Qing government and the foreign traders. The role of the new body would be to purchase goods on behalf of the foreigners and deduct any taxes and duties payable for imports and exports; at

774-503: A long-term East India Company supercargo and a fluent speaker of Chinese, became the focus of the impetus for change. Flint had been repeatedly warned to remain in Canton during the trading season and not to venture north in search of commercial opportunities. Despite this, back in 1755 Flint, together with Company director Samuel Harrison, sailed north to explore possibilities for trade in Zhejiang. In 1759, he again journeyed north to file

860-543: A military base for loyalists who wanted to restore the Ming dynasty. Koxinga formulated a plan to give oxen and farming tools and teach farming techniques to the Taiwanese Aboriginals, giving them Ming gowns and caps and gifting tobacco to Aboriginals who were gathering in crowds to meet and welcome him as he visited their villages after he defeated the Dutch. In 1662, Koxinga's forces raided several towns in

946-430: A motley court and hastily assembled army. Despite one fruitless attempt, Koxinga was unable to do anything to aid the last Ming emperor. Instead, he decided to concentrate on securing his own position on the southeast coast. Koxinga had a series of military successes in 1651 and 1652 that increased the Qing government's anxiety over the threat he posed. Zheng Zhilong wrote a letter to his son from Beijing , presumably at

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1032-489: A native son and emphasized his maternal link to Japan in propaganda during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan . The People's Republic of China considers Koxinga a national hero for driving the imperialist Dutch away from Taiwan and establishing ethnic Chinese rule over the island. On mainland China , Koxinga is honoured as the "Conqueror of Taiwan, Great Rebel-Quelling General" a military hero who brought Taiwan back within

1118-595: A new given name, Chenggong ( 成功 ; Chénggōng ; Sêng-kong ; 'success'), and the title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname"). One of his cousins also had it. In 1646, Koxinga first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchu invaders and won the favor of the Longwu Emperor. The Longwu Emperor's reign in Fuzhou was brief, as Zheng Zhilong refused to support his plans for a counteroffensive against

1204-540: A result of a major storm, the Manchus were defeated, and they lost most of their fleet in the battle. Koxinga had sent one of his naval commanders to capture Zhoushan island prior to Jidu's attack, and now that the Manchus were temporarily without an effective naval force in the Fujian area, Koxinga was free to send a huge army to Zhoushan, which he intended to use as a base to capture Nanjing. Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having

1290-590: A storeroom without reading). The Qianlong Emperor granted Lord Macartney a golden scepter, an important symbol of peace and wealth, but this was dismissed by the British as worthless. The British, on the other hand, ignored Chinese laws and warnings not to deploy military forces in Chinese waters. The British landed troops in Macao despite a Chinese and Portuguese agreement to bar foreign forces from Macao, and then in

1376-619: A technical or scientific advisory capacity by the Qing Court. In 1745, Kangxi's grandson the Qianlong Emperor ordered his court to implement changes to the Ocean Trading House system. Thereafter a local Chinese merchant stood as guarantor for every foreign trading vessel entering Canton Harbour and took full responsibility for the ship and its crew along with the captain and supercargo . Any tax payments due from

1462-469: A trading company in Canton in 1686 to deal with Western trade known as the Yánghuò Háng (洋貨行, literally "Ocean Trading House"). This dealt with both imports and exports with sub-offices responsible for taxes and import/export declarations respectively. When a ship arrived or departed, the Chinese merchant involved would visit the Ocean Trading House to pay any taxes due. This set up became the basis for

1548-403: Is Bus 381, which connects every university to the two subway stations. There are regular buses and express commuter buses using the toll roads and having fewer stops. Many of the express buses connect different campuses of the island's universities. In addition to these routes, some universities offer their own shuttle services for their faculty and staff. The Guangzhou Metro has two stations on

1634-713: Is a temple dedicated to Koxinga and his mother in Tainan City , Taiwan. The National Cheng Kung University in Tainan, one of the most prestigious universities in Taiwan, is named after him. Koxinga's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. The Hongmen are associated with them. Tokugawa Japan imported books from Qing China including works on

1720-462: Is an absence of any reliable contemporary evidence on Koxinga’s relationship with the Longwu Emperor. In contrast, Koxinga's father Zheng Zhilong left his Japanese wife not long after the birth of his son; Koxinga was a boy of seven when he finally joined his father on the Fujianese coast. It seems that Zheng Zhilong recognized his son’s talent and encouraged him in his studies and the pursuit of

1806-664: The Cohong under the supervision of the Guangdong Customs Supervisor (Chinese: 粵海關部監督 ; pinyin: Yuèhǎi guānbù jiàn dù ; Jyutping: jyut6 hoi2 gwaan1 bou6 gaam1 duk1 ), informally known as the " Hoppo ", and the Governor-general of Guangzhou and Guangxi . At the start of his reign, the Kangxi Emperor (r.   1661–1722) faced a number of challenges, not the least of which

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1892-613: The Han Chinese sphere of influence through expanded economic, trade and cultural exchanges. In China, Koxinga is honoured without the religious overtones found in Taiwan. The Republic of China , which withdrew to Taiwan after losing the Chinese Civil War , regards Koxinga as a patriot who also retreated to Taiwan and used it as a base to launch counterattacks against the Qing dynasty of mainland China (drawing parallels to

1978-466: The Kingdom of Tungning , which he established in modern-day Tainan . In Taiwan, Koxinga is remembered and revered as a divine national hero with hundreds of temples, schools, tertiary educations, and other public centers named in his honor. Koxinga is accredited with replacing Dutch colonial rule with a more modern political system. Furthermore, Koxinga transformed Taiwan into an agrarian society through

2064-486: The Nansha Port Expressway , a toll road , links it to Henan Island ( Haizhu District ) in the west and the rest of Panyu District to the south. A third bridge connects it to Haizhu's Yingzhou Ecological Park and a fourth to Huangpu District 's Changzhou Island in the northeast. Dozens of bus routes cross the island and connect its universities with downtown Guangzhou, the most important of which

2150-623: The Philippines . Koxinga's chief advisor was an Italian friar named Vittorio Riccio , whom he sent to Manila to demand tribute from the colonial government of the Spanish East Indies , threatening to expel the Spaniards if his demands were not met. The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Koxinga's sudden death in that year after expelling

2236-1203: The Rebellion of the Three Feudatories , which led to the capture of Taiwan in 1683. Once the rebellions had been quelled, in 1684 Kangxi issued an edict: Now the whole country is unified, everywhere there is peace and quiet, Manchu-Han relations are fully integrated so I command you to go abroad and trade to show the populous and affluent nature of our rule. By imperial decree I open the seas to trade. Hǎiguān (海關), Hoi Gwaan, or customs stations, were subsequently opened at Canton , Macau , and Xiangshan County in Guangdong; Fuzhou , Nantai , and Amoy in Fujian ; Ningbo and Dinghai County in Zhejiang Province ; and Huating County , Chongque, and Shanghai in Jiangsu Province . One year later in 1685, foreign traders received permission to enter Chinese ports. The Qing Court under Kangxi set up

2322-645: The Vigilance Towards Foreign Barbarian Regulations (Chinese: 防範外夷規條 ; pinyin: Fángfàn wàiyí guītiáo ; Jyutping: fong4 faan6 ngoi6 ji4 kwai1 tiu4 ) or Five Counter-Measures Against the Barbarians (Chinese: 防夷五事 ; pinyin: Fáng yí wǔ shì ; Jyutping: fong4 ji4 ng5 si6 ) contained the following provisions: These rules did not apply to all Western merchants alike. Russians had nominally had an open trade route into northern China since

2408-638: The War of 1812 attacked American ships deep in the inner harbour of Canton (the Americans had previously robbed British ships in Chinese waters as well). These, in combination with the British support to Nepal during their invasion of Tibet and later the British invasion of Nepal after it became a Chinese tributary state, led the Chinese authorities to become highly suspicious of British intentions. A seemingly insatiable western demand for tea from China towards

2494-461: The Yellow River , both vital arteries in the internal trade of Qing China. By 1866, only 18 foreign firms still had offices in Canton, while there were only 60 foreign residents, excluding British Indians and tidewaiters (who boarded boats as part of custom's inspections) employed by Sir Robert Hart's Imperial Maritime Customs Service . The Massachusetts General Hospital, McLean Hospital,

2580-405: The situation. The Qing court's previous laxity had effectively allowed a coterie of Chinese merchants and local officials to take over foreign commerce in the southern port according to their own best financial interests. One of the fundamental tenets of traditional Chinese diplomacy prohibited contact with Beijing except in the case of tributary envoys from other states. The new rules, known as

2666-460: The 1842 Treaty of Nanking , British subjects are "allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint" at Canton, Shanghai , Amoy (Xiamen), Ningbo and Fuzhou . In addition, Article V of the Treaty specifically abolishes the Canton system, allowing British merchants, and eventually all foreign merchants, to deal with whomever they please in

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2752-590: The 19th century when the idea of free trade was popularised in the West. The concept of restricting trade to a single port was also used in Western countries such as Spain and Portugal . Chinese merchants could also trade freely and legally with Westerners (Spanish and Portuguese) in Xiamen and Macao, or with any country when trade was conducted through ports outside China such as Manila and Batavia. Although shipping

2838-845: The Boston Athenæum, the Bunker Hill Monuments, public libraries, and an orphanage were built with the proceeds of opium smuggling. By the time Hong Kong became a full-fledged British colony , many of the merchants would be led by a newer generation of western hong merchants . Many of these companies would become the backbone of the young Hong Kong economy . Notes Bibliography Koxinga Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping ( Chinese : 鄭成功 ; pinyin : Zhèng Chénggōng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Tīⁿ Sêng-kong ; 27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), better known internationally as Koxinga (Chinese: 國姓爺 ; pinyin: Guóxìngyé ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kok-sèng-iâ ),

2924-669: The Chinese did not require it for themselves; but requiring it now, it was only fair that Dutch strangers, who came from far regions, should give way to the masters of the island." The Taiwanese Aboriginal tribes, who were previously allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652, now turned against the Dutch during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia by defecting to Koxinga's Chinese forces. The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Koxinga after he offered them amnesty and proceeded to work for

3010-574: The Chinese, beheading Dutch people. The frontier Aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on 17 May 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule by hunting down Dutch people and beheading them and by destroying Dutch Protestant school textbooks. On 1 February 1662, the Dutch Governor of Formosa, Frederick Coyett , surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. According to Frederick Coyett's own self-justifying account written after

3096-490: The Chinese. Koxinga was reputed to be mentally unstable: to have a vicious temper and a tendency towards ordering executions. While this might be explained by the trauma of his family being killed by the Qing army and his mother's reported suicide (in order to prevent capture by the Qing), it was also speculated that he suffered from syphilis, a suspicion held by a Dutch doctor, Christian Beyer, who treated him. Vittorio Riccio,

3182-651: The Dutch from Taiwan. Koxinga's threat to invade the islands and expel the Spanish was an important factor in the Spanish failure to conquer the Muslim Moro people in Mindanao . The threat of Chinese invasion forced the Spanish to withdraw their forces to Manila. They immediately evacuated their fort on Zamboanga in Mindanao following Koxinga's threats. They left some troops in Jolo and by Lake Lanao to engage

3268-637: The Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus considered returning to Manchuria and abandoning China according to a 1671 account by a French missionary. The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that

3354-623: The Guangdong Navy, which was subsequently increased in strength. Thereafter all such commerce was to be conducted via a single port under what became known as the Canton System (Chinese: 一口通商; Cantonese : jat1 hau2 tung1 soeng1 ; Mandarin : Yī kǒu tōngshāng; literally, "Single-port commerce system"). During Qianlong's reign Qing foreign trade policies had a political aspect largely based on real or imagined threats from abroad; historian Angela Schottenhammer suggests that although

3440-504: The Ming. It has even been suggested that Koxinga’s fury at the incestuous relationship between his son, Zheng Jing, and a younger son’s wet nurse was due to the fact that strict Confucian morality had played such a crucial role in justifying his lack of filial behaviour. The one possible exception to this may have been his relationship with his mother, which has generally been described as being extremely affectionate, particularly in Chinese and Japanese sources. Their time together, however,

3526-570: The Moro in protracted conflict. They permanently abandoned their colony in the Maluku Islands (Moluccas) and withdraw their soldiers from there to Manila. Tonio Andrade judged that Koxinga would most likely have been able to defeat the Spanish if the threatened invasion had taken place. Koxinga died of unspecified illness in June 1662, only a few months after defeating the Dutch in Taiwan, at

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3612-466: The Qianlong Emperor banned all non-Russian ships from the ports of northern China. Russians were however not allowed to use Canton. All customs offices other than the one at Canton were closed. The emperor did this after receiving a petition regarding the presence of armed Western merchant ships all along the coast. The Western merchant ships were protected from pirates, and guarded against, by

3698-593: The Qianlong Emperor believed that good treatment of foreigners was essential for the government. In 1806, Chinese officials compromised with the British on the murder of a Chinese man by British seamen, as Westerners refused to be punished under Chinese law, even though local citizens vigorously protested what they considered a miscarriage of justice. In 1816, the Jiaqing Emperor dismissed a British embassy for their refusal to kowtow, but he sent them an apologetic letter with gifts (the British simply discarded them in

3784-526: The Qing dynasty. She was caught by Manchu forces in Anping and committed suicide after refusal to submit to the enemy, according to traditional accounts. By 1650, Koxinga was strong enough to establish himself as the head of the Zheng family . He pledged allegiance to the Yongli Emperor of Southern Ming, who created him Prince of Yanping (延平王). The Yongli Emperor was fleeing from the Manchus with

3870-415: The Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements — though cavalry attacks by

3956-550: The Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing

4042-608: The Qing. Zheng Zhilong agreed and ignored the objections of his family, surrendering himself to the Qing forces in Fuzhou on 21 November 1646. Koxinga and his uncles were left as the successors to the leadership of Zheng Zhilong's military forces. Koxinga operated outside Xiamen and recruited many to join his cause in a few months. He used the superiority of his naval forces to launch amphibious raids on Manchu-occupied territory in Fujian and he managed to take Tong'an in Quanzhou prefecture in early 1647. However, Koxinga's forces lacked

4128-614: The Republic of China's hypothetical reclamation of the mainland, comparing the ROC to the Ming dynasty and the PRC to the Qing dynasty). In Taiwan, Koxinga is honored as the island’s most respected saint for expelling the Dutch and seen as the original ancestor of a free Taiwan, and is known as Kaishan Shengwang, or "the Sage King who Opened up Taiwan" and as "The Yanping Prince", referring to

4214-405: The West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton (now Guangzhou ). The protectionist policy arose in 1757 as a response to a perceived political and commercial threat from abroad on the part of successive Chinese emperors. From the late seventeenth century onwards, Chinese merchants, known as Hongs (Chinese: 行 ; pinyin: háng ), managed all trade in

4300-539: The Westerners to be highly successful, intrepid, clever, and profitable, already had concerns early on about the serious omnidirectional Western threat to China, if China ever became weakened. The Canton system did not completely affect Chinese trade with the rest of the world as Chinese merchants, with their large three-masted ocean junks, were heavily involved in global trade. By sailing to and from Siam , Indonesia and Philippines , they were major facilitators of

4386-520: The Westerners, successfully aligning trading interests with the government's revenue collection. This was the predecessor for the later Cohong system. Although he now had the foreign trade situation under control, Kangxi's liberal attitude towards religion led to a clash between Chinese and Christian spiritual authority. After Pope Clement XI issued his 1715 papal bull Ex illa die , which officially condemned Chinese religious practices, Kangxi expelled all missionaries from China except those employed in

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4472-474: The Xiaoguwei Island. 23°3′8.3″N 113°23′21.27″E  /  23.052306°N 113.3892417°E  / 23.052306; 113.3892417 Canton System The Canton System (1757–1842; Chinese : 一口通商 ; pinyin : Yīkǒu tōngshāng ; Jyutping : jat1 hau2 tung1 soeng1 , lit. "Single [port] trading relations") served as a means for Qing China to control trade with

4558-545: The Xinhai revolution broke out and the Qing dynasty fell, after which they moved back to Anhai and Nan'an in southern Fujian. They still live there to this day. His descendants through one of his sons Zheng Kuan live in Taiwan. One of Koxinga's descendants on mainland China, Zheng Xiaoxuan 鄭曉嵐, fought against the Japanese invaders in the Second Sino-Japanese War . His son Zheng Chouyu  [ zh ]

4644-524: The Zheng family. The Qing built a shrine to commemorate Koxinga to counteract the Japanese and French in Taiwan in the 19th century. Zheng Juzhong's books Zheng Chenggong zhuan was imported to Japan and reprinted in 1771. Koxinga has received renewed attention since rumors began circulating that the People’s Liberation Army Navy were planning to name their newly acquired aircraft carrier ,

4730-478: The ability to defend the newly occupied territory. Following the fall of Tong'an to Zheng, the Manchus launched a counterattack in the spring of 1647, during which they stormed the Zheng family's hometown of Anping . Koxinga's mother, Lady Tagawa, had come from Japan in 1645 to join her family in Fujian (Koxinga's younger brother, Tagawa Shichizaemon, remained in Japan). She did not follow her husband to surrender to

4816-459: The age of 37. Contemporary accounts named heat stroke and cold as causes and modern historians suspect malaria. Qing history claimed that he died in a sudden fit of madness when his officers refused to carry out his orders to execute his son Zheng Jing , who had had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her. Zheng Jing succeeded his father as the Prince of Yanping . According to

4902-484: The city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and slipped back to the ships which had brought them. In 1661, Koxinga led his troops on a landing at Lakjemuyse to attack the Dutch colonists in Dutch Formosa . Koxinga said to the Dutch "Hitherto this island had always belonged to China, and the Dutch had doubtless been permitted to live there, seeing that

4988-606: The end of the 18th century caused a significant deficit in the British balance of trade . The Chinese had little interest in Western goods and would only accept silver in payment. This spurred the East India Company to sell opium grown on its plantations in India to independent traders, who shipped it on to China to sell in exchange for silver, despite the fact that opium was already illegal in China. China tried to stop

5074-519: The ex-Soviet Varyag , the "Shi Lang". Admiral Shi Lang famously defeated Koxinga’s descendants in the 1683 Battle of Penghu , thus bringing Taiwan under Qing rule . However, the Chinese government denied all allegations that the vessel would be dedicated to the decorated Qing dynasty admiral. Koxinga is regarded as a hero in the People's Republic of China , Taiwan, and Japan , but historical narratives regarding Koxinga frequently differ in explaining his motives and affiliation. Japan treats him as

5160-412: The global trading system; the era was even described by Carl Trocki as a "Chinese century" of global commerce. Under the system, the Qianlong Emperor restricted trade with foreigners on Chinese soil only for licensed Chinese merchants (Cohongs), while the British government on their part issued a monopoly charter for trade only to the British East India Company . This arrangement was not challenged until

5246-403: The historian Roberts Antony, "the death of Zheng Chenggong began the downturn of family fortunes." Zheng Chenggong’s short but eventful career was characterized by family tension and conflicting loyalties. The title of Koxinga ("Lord of the Imperial Surname") was one that Zheng himself used during his lifetime to emphasize his status as an adopted son of the deposed imperial house, so it was also

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5332-410: The importation of this opium, but the traders persisted. Chinese attempts to regain control led to the First Opium War , when British gunboat diplomacy quickly forced China to sign the treaty of Nanjing that gave Hong Kong to the British along with allowing free trade to British merchants in China. Additionally China was forced to pay reparations for the destroyed opium.. Following the signature of

5418-414: The inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fujian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his coastal fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the Qing armies alone. Longwu's forces were destroyed; he was captured and was executed in October 1646. The Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong secretly and offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fujian and Guangdong provinces if he would surrender to

5504-404: The initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in Nanjing ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the Dutch at the Battle of Liaoluo Bay , throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of

5590-406: The introduction of new agricultural methods such as the proliferation of iron farming tools and new farming methods with cattle. For these reasons, Koxinga is often associated with "hints of [a] consciousness of Taiwanese independence ," although Koxinga himself wanted Taiwan unified with the rest of China. Great care was taken to symbolize support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of

5676-458: The late 1750s may have contributed to the Emperor's decision to concentrate foreigners in a single port. In his edict to establish the restriction, the Emperor specifically mentioned concerns about the strategic value of the interior regions to foreigners: Chinese government consultants were aware of Western military technological superiority and Westerners' record of having "set out to conquer every land they visited". The Kangxi Emperor , considering

5762-464: The later Thirteen Factories through which all foreign trade would be conducted. Although many ports on the coasts of China were open, most Westerners chose to trade at Canton as it is closer to Southeast Asia and it was not profitable to go further north. In 1704, the Baoshang system was established. This system licensed trade with Western merchants: licences were granted to a number of Chinese merchants as long as they helped to collect duties from

5848-412: The newly opened ports. In 1859 Canton's trade moved to a new site on the reclaimed sandbank of Shameen Island , a short distance west of the former factories. By then much of the foreign trade with China had shifted to the by then British colony of Hong Kong (acquired under the Treaty of Nanking), and to the northern ports, with their advantage of proximity to Beijing as well as the Grand Canal and

5934-469: The niece of Dong Yangxian, an official who was a Jinshi from Hui'an . In 1644, Koxinga studied at the Guozijian (Imperial University), where he met the scholar Qian Qianyi and became his student. Following the fall of Ming Dynasty in 1644, in 1645, the Prince of Tang was installed on the throne of the Southern Ming as the Longwu Emperor with support from Zheng Zhilong and his family. The Longwu Emperor established his court in Fuzhou , which

6020-448: The number of executions attributed to Koxinga was greatly exaggerated. Koxinga suffered from "depressive insanity" and mental illness according to Dr. Li Yengyue. It is debated whether he was clean-shaven or wore a beard. Koxinga's legacy is treated similarly on each side of the Taiwan Strait . Koxinga is worshiped as a god in coastal China , especially Fujian , by overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia and in Taiwan . There

6106-494: The peace treaty, Koxinga was styled "Lord Teibingh Tsiante Teysiancon Koxin" ( simplified Chinese : 大明招讨大将军国姓 ; traditional Chinese : 大明招討大將軍國姓 ; pinyin : Dàmíng Zhāotǎo Dàjiāngjūn Guóxìng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Tāibêng Chiauthó Tāichiang-kun Kok-sìⁿ ; lit. ' Great Ming Commander in Chief of the Punitive Expedition (Lord) Imperial-Surname'). This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule on Taiwan. Koxinga then devoted himself to transforming Taiwan into

6192-701: The port. Operating from the Thirteen Factories located on the banks of the Pearl River outside Canton, in 1760, by order of the Qing Qianlong Emperor , they became officially sanctioned as a monopoly known as the Cohong . Thereafter Chinese merchants dealing with foreign trade (Chinese: 洋行 ; pinyin: yángháng ; Jyutping: joeng4 hong2 ; lit. "ocean traders", i.e. "overseas traders" or "foreign traders") acted through

6278-413: The rapidly expanding forces of the newly established Qing dynasty by the Manchus. Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass ( 仙霞關 ), Shi Fu (a.k.a. Shi Tianfu, a relative of Shi Lang ), to retreat to Fuzhou even when Qing armies approached Fujian. For this reason, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass. In September 1646, Qing armies broke through

6364-639: The request of the Shunzhi Emperor and the Qing government, urging his son to negotiate with the Manchurians. The long series of negotiations between Koxinga and the Qing dynasty lasted until November 1654. The negotiations ultimately failed. The Qing government then appointed Prince Jidu (son of Jirgalang ) to lead an attack on Koxinga's territory after this failure. On 9 May 1656, Jidu's armies attacked Kinmen (Quemoy), an island near Xiamen that Koxinga had been using to train his troops. Partly as

6450-484: The same time, according to Guangdong customs records (粵海關志, jyut6 hoi2 gwaan1 zi3 , Yuèhǎi guān zhì ), they established a new harbour authority to deal with tribute from Thailand and handle pay for the troops involved in trade as well as manage domestic maritime trade in the South China Sea . Henceforth, the Cohong possessed imperial authority to levy taxes on the foreign merchants as they saw fit. In 1757

6536-520: The siege, Koxinga's life was saved at the end of the siege by a certain Hans Jurgen Radis of Stockaert, a Dutch defector who strongly advised him against visiting the ramparts of the fort after he had taken it, which Radis knew would be blown up by the retreating Dutch forces. This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no mention of any defector. In

6622-697: The signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, although rather than send merchant vessels, in practice they limited their activity to caravan trade sent through Siberia and Kyakhta , on the land border with Outer Mongolia . The Portuguese and Spanish were still allowed to trade both in Canton and in Xiamen , although they rarely exercised the privilege of trading directly in Xiamen. The Portuguese preferred to trade through Chinese intermediaries from Canton via their possessions in Macao and, in fact, they did not maintain

6708-461: The single port trading policy arose in part from lobbying by officials and Chinese merchants, it was more likely triggered by the activities of Flint in what became known as The Flint Affair ( Hóng Rènhuī Shìjiàn , 洪任輝事件). Although the foreign merchants knew of the Cohong restriction, they had to balance a breach of etiquette against the risks of seeing their substantial investments in China destroyed by bribery and corruption. Englishman James Flint ,

6794-518: The term guan instead of bu to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of China . The play The Battles of Coxinga was written by Chikamatsu Monzaemon in Japan in the 18th century, first performed in Kyoto . A 2001 film titled The Sino-Dutch War 1661 starred Vincent Zhao as Koxinga. The film

6880-514: Was a Southern Ming general who resisted the Qing conquest of China in the 17th century, fighting them on China's southeastern coast. In 1661, Koxinga defeated the Dutch outposts on Taiwan and established Zheng rule of the island on behalf of Ming Dynasty from 1661 to 1683. Zheng Chenggong was born in 1624 in Hirado , Hizen Province , Japan, to Zheng Zhilong , a Chinese merchant, and

6966-554: Was apparently very short – despite frequent entreaties from Zheng Zhilong for her to join him in China, Koxinga’s mother was only reunited with her son some time in 1645, and a year later she was killed when the Qing took Xiamen. A portrait of Zheng was in the hands of Yuchun who was his descendant in the eight generation. Koxinga's descendants live in both mainland China and Taiwan and descendants of his brother Shichizaemon live in Japan. His descendants through his grandson Zheng Keshuang served as Bannermen in Beijing until 1911 when

7052-481: Was born in Shandong in mainland China and called himself a "child of the resistance" against Japan and he became a refugee during the war, moving from place to place across China to avoid the Japanese. He moved to Taiwan in 1949 and focuses his poetry work on building stronger ties between Taiwan and mainland China. Zheng Chouyu identified as Chinese. He felt alienated after he was forced to move to Taiwan in 1949 which

7138-569: Was controlled by the Zhengs. In the later part of the year, Prince Lu proclaimed himself regent ( 監國 ) in Shaoxing and established his own court there. Although Prince Lu and Longwu's regimes stemmed from the same dynasty, each pursued different goals. Owing to the natural defenses of Fujian and the military resources of the Zheng family , the emperor was able to remain safe for some time. The Longwu Emperor granted Zheng Zhilong's son, Zheng Sen,

7224-630: Was previously under Japanese rule and felt strange and foreign to him. Chouyu is Koxinga's 11th generation descendant and his original name is Zheng Wenji. "Koxinga: Chronicles of the Tei Family" was written by R. A. B. Posonby-Fane. In 1661, during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Koxinga executed Dutch missionary Antonius Hambroek and took his teenage daughter as a concubine. Other Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their "wives". In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of

7310-640: Was regulated, the Qianlong emperor's administration was diligent in accommodating the requisites of Western merchants. They hired a growing body of Western assistants for the Customs Office to help manage their fellow countrymen. The order to stay in Macao during the winter was lifted, tax was exempted on food, drink and basic supplies for Western merchants, and protections were granted to Westerners and their property. Chinese merchants were actually banned by Qing law from suing foreigners in Chinese courts, as

7396-579: Was to integrate his relatively new dynasty with the Chinese Han majority . The Manchu -led Qing dynasty had only come to power in 1644, replacing the Ming dynasty . Support for the previous rulers remained strong, particularly in the south of the country. Kangxi twice banned all maritime trade for strategic reasons, to prevent any possible waterborne coup attempt. Several rebellions took place, including one led by Ming loyalist Koxinga and separately

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