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96-585: The Xinjiang papers are a collection of more than 400 pages of internal Chinese government documents describing the government policy regarding Uyghur Muslims in the Xinjiang region . In November 2019, journalists Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckley at The New York Times broke the story that characterized the documents as "one of the most significant leaks of government papers from inside China's ruling Communist Party in decades." According to The New York Times ,

192-998: A "struggle against terrorism, infiltration, and separatism" in Xinjiang. Responding to terror attacks in Xinjiang, Xi called for the Chinese government to be "as harsh as them" and "show absolutely no mercy." Xi compared Islamic extremism to a "virus-like contagion" and a "dangerously addictive drug", which would require "a period of painful, interventionary treatment." Xi mentioned that internment camps must implement "effective educational remolding and transformation of criminals", and that "education and transformation" must continue after people were released. Xi warned that unrest in Syria and Afghanistan would allow terrorist organizations to infiltrate into Central Asia and launch terrorist attacks in Xinjiang. He stated that if violence spread to other parts of China, "social stability will suffer shocks,

288-492: A Chinese soldier has served his time in Turkestan and has to return to his native city of Pekin or Shanghai, he either leaves his temporary wife behind to shift for herself, or he sells her to a friend. If he has a family he takes the boys with him~—if he can afford it—failing that, the sons are left alone and unprotected to fight the battle of life, While in the case of daughters, he sells them to one of his former companions for

384-511: A collection of over 400 pages of leaked internal Chinese documents detailing the detention of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang by the Chinese Communist Party . They consist of internal speeches by CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping and other officials, reports of population control and surveillance of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang, and internal investigations into local officials. In a series of internal speeches in 2014, Xi called for

480-521: A joint statement with the United Kingdom calling for China to end its "human rights violations and abuses" in Xinjiang. Canada called on China to allow independent members of the international community to investigate the situation in Xinjiang. In coordination with the UK and other international partners, Canada announced business measures to address human rights abuses in Xinjiang. These measures include

576-483: A policy approach that combined centralized leadership with intense mass mobilization, and that this mode of governance is defined by continuous experimentation and improvisation. According to academics Jérôme Doyon and Chloé Froissart, the adaptive capacity resulting from a heritage of guerrilla warfare has made the CCP adept in dealing with uncertainty and has translated into a capacity to experiment first and then systemize

672-501: A premeditated policy from the highest levels of the Chinese government to eradicate our identity." According to an article in International Security , the Xinjiang papers "confirm the importance of terrorism in the minds of senior party leaders, including Xi Jinping." The Xinjiang papers have been cited as evidence of Uyghur genocide by the Chinese government against Uyghur Muslims. Along with other leaked documents,

768-664: A script for local officials in Turpan to use in order to answer questions asked by the children of parents sent to internment camps. Officials were instructed to tell returning students that their parents were in a "training school set up by the government" because they had been "infected by unhealthy thoughts." If students asked why their parents could not come home, officials were to say that they needed to "undergo enclosed, isolated treatment", and their unhealthy thoughts needed to be "dealt with like detox for drug addicts." Students were instructed to "not believe or spread rumors" and "abide by

864-457: A temporary wife, dispensing entirely with the services of the clergy, as being superfluous, and most of the high officials also give way to the same amiable weakness, their mistresses being in almost all cases natives of Khotan, which city enjoys the unenviable distinction of supplying every large city in Turkestan with courtesans. When a Chinaman is called back to his own home in China proper, or

960-516: A trifling sum. The natives, although all Mahammadans, have a strong predilection for the Chinese, and seem to like their manners and customs, and never seem to resent this behaviour to their womankind, their own manners, customs, and morals (?) being of the very loosest description. The Battle of Yarkand took place in Yarkant county, in April 1934. Ma Zhancang 's Chinese Muslim army defeated

1056-683: A variable number of vice premiers , five state councilors (protocol equal of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), the secretary-general , and 26 ministers and other cabinet-level department heads . It consists of ministries and agencies with specific portfolios. The State Council presents most initiatives to the NPCSC for consideration after previous endorsement by the CCP's Politburo Standing Committee . China's judicial organs are political organs that perform prosecutorial and court functions. Because of their political nature, China does not have judicial independence . China's courts are supervised by

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1152-507: Is an important producer of wheat, corn, rice, rapeseed, and cotton in southern Xinjiang. The area also produces grapes, rugs, and leather products. Industries include electronics, coal, silk, tractor repair, and cotton and cooking oil processing. In 1885 there was about 154,600 acres (1,021,500 mu ) of cultivated land in Yarkant. As of 2015, 818,379 of the 851,374 residents of the county were Uyghur , 25,404 were Han Chinese and 7,591 were from other ethnic groups. As of 1999, 95.71% of

1248-571: Is assisted by several vice premiers , currently four, each of them overseeing a certain area of administration. The premier, vice premiers and the State Councilors collectively form the inner cabinet that regularly convenes for the State Council Executive Meeting. The State Council includes 26 constituent ministries, and officially oversees the provincial-level governments throughout China. Generally,

1344-534: Is based on the principle of unified state power , in which the legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is constitutionally enshrined as "the highest state organ of power." As China's political system has no separation of powers , there is only one branch of government which is represented by the legislature. The CCP through the NPC enacts unified leadership, which requires that all state organs, from

1440-479: Is more assertive than the NPC itself and has vetoed proposed laws. The CCP Politburo Standing Committee consists of the government's top leadership. Historically it has had five to nine members. As of 2024, it has seven members. Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to

1536-532: Is the general fiscal budget, which is a unitary budget that is allocated between central fiscal and local fiscal budgets. The central government sets targets for its fiscal revenue and expenditures, as well as local government fiscal revenue and expenditures. Yarkand County The fertile oasis is fed by the Yarkand River , which flows north down from the Karakorum mountains and passes through

1632-679: The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre . On the relationship between the government and the CCP, James Palmer, writing for Foreign Policy , states that, "[t]he Chinese government is essentially the shadow of the Communist Party, moving as the party does, and consequently government roles matter far less than party ones." According to The Economist , "[e]specially when meeting foreigners, officials may present name cards bearing government titles but stay quiet about party positions which may or may not outrank their state jobs." According to scholar Rush Doshi , "[t]he Party sits above

1728-529: The Australian Labor Party , called the report "deeply disturbing" and urged China to respond "transparently and swiftly." Australian Greens leader Richard Di Natale described the report as "horrifying" and stated that Australia needed to "play an active diplomatic role in putting maximum pressure on China." Citing evidence from the "Chinese Government's own documents, satellite imagery, and eyewitness testimony", Global Affairs Canada issued

1824-581: The Australian Strategic Policy Institute , the documents demonstrate the "scale and depth of Beijing's Xinjiang program" and make it difficult for China to deny allegations of Uyghur and Muslim persecution. Some claim that the documents constitute a "direct linkage" between CCP leadership and human rights abuses in Xinjiang. Dolkun Isa , president of the World Uyghur Congress , said that the papers "reveal

1920-573: The Chinese economic reform , China has been characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization. The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out, including developing the details of policy. Academics Sebastian Heilmann and Elizabeth Perry write that policy-making in China is influenced by the Chinese Communist Revolution , resulting in

2016-728: The Great Hall of the People on the west side of Tiananmen Square , Beijing . These annual meetings are usually timed to occur with the meetings of the CPPCC, providing an opportunity for the officers of state to review past policies and present future plans to the nation. The NPC generally has a reputation of approving the work of the State Council and not engaging in overmuch drafting of laws itself. However, it and its Standing Committee have occasionally asserted themselves. For example,

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2112-492: The International Reporting category. China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman Geng Shuang responded to The New York Times report in a press conference on November 18, 2019. Geng said that Xinjiang-related issues are purely domestic affairs and the government's measures "have been endorsed by all ethnic groups." Geng accused The New York Times of using "clumsy patchwork and distortion" to "hype up

2208-684: The Kunlun Mountains , known historically as the Congling mountains (lit. 'Onion Mountains' - from the abundance of wild onions found there). The oasis now covers 3,210 square kilometres (1,240 sq mi), but was likely far more extensive before a period of desiccation affected the region from the 3rd century CE onwards. Today, Yarkant is a predominantly Uyghur settlement. The irrigated oasis farmland produces cotton , wheat , corn , fruits (especially pomegranates , pears and apricots ) and walnuts . Yak and sheep graze in

2304-547: The Soviet Union , which he attributed to "ideological laxity and spineless leadership." The Xinjiang papers also contain internal speeches by other CCP officials. Zhu Hailun , Xinjiang's former top security official, cited terrorist attacks in the United Kingdom as a "warning and lesson" for China to adequately control the propagation of extremism. Zhu claimed that the UK's terrorist attacks could be attributed to

2400-585: The State Council , the NPC's executive organ, is the premier . The CCP general secretary is China's leading official since the CCP is tasked with formulating and setting national policy which the state, after being adopted by the NPC or relevant state organ, is responsible for implementing. The State Council, also referred to as the Central People's Government, consists of, besides the Premier,

2496-587: The Supreme People's Court to the President of China , are elected by, answerable to, and have no separate powers than those granted to them by the NPC. By law, all elections at all levels must adhere to the leadership of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in all state bodies through a two-thirds majority in the NPC. The remaining seats are held by nominally independent delegates and eight minor political parties , which are non- oppositional and support

2592-663: The Wakhan corridor from where travellers could cross the relatively easy Baroghil Pass and Badakshan . As with much of southern Xinjiang, Yarkant has a temperate zone, continental desert climate ( Köppen BWk ), with a mean total of only 61 mm (2.40 in) of precipitation per annum. As spring and autumn are short, winter and summer are the main seasons. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from −5.2 °C (22.6 °F) in January to 25.3 °C (77.5 °F) in July;

2688-647: The highlands . Mineral deposits include petroleum , natural gas , gold , copper , lead , bauxite , granite and coal . The territory of Yārkand is first mentioned in the Book of Han (1st century BCE) as "Shaju" (Old Chinese, approximately, *s³a(j)-ka), which is probably related to the name of the Iranian Saka tribes. Descriptions in the Hou Hanshu ('History of the Later Han') contain insights into

2784-502: The British government's "excessive emphasis on human rights above security." Chen Quanguo , Party Secretary of Xinjiang, said that struggling against terror and safeguarding stability was a "protracted war" and a "war of offense." The documents contain directives and reports on the surveillance and control of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang. According to the leaked papers, the internment and surveillance of Uyghur Muslims expanded rapidly after

2880-696: The CCP's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee. The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence . Historically, the general secretary (or party chairman ) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the general secretary (also the president), premier, chairman of

2976-438: The CCP, and are mostly CCP members. All government departments, state-owned enterprises and public institutes include CCP committees, from the village level to the national level. The CCP committees in government bodies supervise and lead the bodies, with the State Council legally required to implement CCP policies. As outlined by the CCP constitution: "Government, the military, society and schools, north, south, east and west –

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3072-535: The CCP, and effectively acts as the state arm of the CCDI. It replaced the former Ministry of Supervision . The Supreme People's Court is the judicial organ of the People's Republic of China and is subject to the control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . Hong Kong and Macau , as special administrative regions, have separate judicial systems based on British common law traditions and Portuguese civil-law traditions, respectively. The judges of

3168-547: The CCP. All government bodies and state-owned enterprises have internal CCP committees that lead the decision-making in these institutions. The NPC meets annually for about two weeks in March to review and approve major new policy directions, and in between those sessions, delegates its powers to the working legislature, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC). This organ adopts most national legislation, interprets

3264-786: The Chagatai Khanate had collapsed; on the western part of the collapsed Chagatai Khanate, the Empire of Timur emerged in 1370, and became the dominant power in the region until its conquest in 1508 by the Shaybanids. Its eastern part became Moghulistan, which was created by Tughluk Timur Khan in 1347 with the capital centered in Almalik, around the Ili River Valley. It comprised all the settled lands of Eastern Kashgaria, as well as regions of Turpan and Kumul which were known at

3360-493: The Chinese party's brutal detention and systematic repression of Uyghurs." Pompeo said that the documents align with a growing body of evidence that China is committing human rights violations. He called for the Chinese government to end its policies in Xinjiang and "immediately release all those who are arbitrarily detained." In a speech to the United States Senate , Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell called

3456-566: The Dughlats but established his own Yarkent khanate instead. This put an end to the dominance in the cities of Kashgaria of the Dughlat emirs, who had controlled them since 1220, when most of Kashgaria had been granted to the Dughlat by Chagatai Khan himself. The conquest of the Dughlats allowed the Yarkent state to become the foremost power in the region. The Qing dynasty gained control of

3552-597: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, the top leader in the one-party system. The office is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the president serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress, the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. The current president is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. The office

3648-764: The NPC Standing Committee , the chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference , the secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection , the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked secretary of the CCP secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee. Ranked below the party's Politburo Standing Committee are deputy state leaders including

3744-407: The People's Republic of China is put in practice through its comprehensive control of the state, military, and media. The National People's Congress (NPC) is the national legislature of China. With 2,977 members in 2023, it is the largest parliamentary body in the world. Under China's current Constitution, the NPC is structured as a unicameral legislature , with the power to legislate, to oversee

3840-604: The Presidency was gone. The 3rd promulgation in 1978 expanded the number of articles, but was still under the influence of the very-recent Cultural Revolution . The current constitution is the PRC's fourth promulgation, declared on 4 December 1982, and has served as a stable constitution for 30 years. The legal power of the CCP is guaranteed by the PRC Constitution and its position as the supreme political authority in

3936-456: The State Council and the CCP were unable to secure passage of a fuel tax in 2009 to finance the construction of expressways . Likewise, the Ministry of Finance has sought to institute property taxes since the early 2010s, but opposition from the NPC (as well as local governments) have prevented any property tax proposals from reaching the NPC's legislative agenda. The NPC Standing Committee

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4032-638: The Supreme People's Court (SPC), which answers to the NPC. The Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP) is responsible for prosecutions and supervises procuracies at the provincial, prefecture, and county levels. At the same administrative ranking as the SPC and SPP, the National Supervisory Commission (NSC) was established in 2018 to investigate corruption within the CCP and state organs. All courts and their personnel are subject to

4128-497: The Supreme People's Court are appointed by the National People's Congress. The governors of China's provinces and autonomous regions and mayors of its directly administered municipalities are appointed by the State Council after receiving the nominal consent of the National People's Congress (NPC). The Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions (SARS) have significant local autonomy including separate governments, legal systems, and basic constitutional laws, but must follow

4224-640: The Turkic Uighur and Kirghiz army, and the Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah , and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head was sent to Idgah mosque . Almost all the ancient buildings of the old city were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1968) with only the central mosque, the main gate of the old palace and the royal cemetery surviving. Violent clashes occurred in

4320-540: The UK announced business measures to ensure that UK organizations are not "contributing to the abuse of the Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang." This includes a review of export controls to Xinjiang and the introduction of financial penalties for organizations violating the Modern Slavery Act . In a press conference on November 26, 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that the Xinjiang papers "detail

4416-542: The US to boycott the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics . While US Department of State spokesman Ned Price said the US wished to discuss a possible boycott with allies to object to China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims, the State Department has denied that any discussions had been ongoing. The Xinjiang papers leak contributed to accusations of extrajudicial detention and genocide against the Chinese government. According to

4512-407: The Xinjiang papers leak, the Xinjiang regional government ordered government officials to tighten control on sensitive information by deleting data, destroying documents, and restricting information transfer. Along with other reports of Uyghur repression in China, "Absolutely No Mercy: Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detention of Muslims" was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 2020 under

4608-632: The Yettishar kingdom, and the region returned to Qing Chinese control. Chinese merchants and soldiers, foreigners like Russians, foreign Muslims, and other Turki merchants all engaged in temporary marriages with Turki (Uyghur) women, since a lot of foreigners lived in Yarkand, temporary marriage flourished there more than it did towards areas with fewer foreigners like areas towards Kucha's east. The Earl of Dunmore wrote in 1894: Almost every Chinaman in Yarkand, soldier or civilian, takes unto himself

4704-644: The Yuanchu period (114-120 CE), when the Yuezhi or Kushans placed a hostage prince on the throne of Kashgar: In 130 CE, Yarkand, along with Ferghana and Kashgar , sent tribute and offerings to the Chinese Emperor. There is very little information on Yarkant's history for many centuries, apart from a couple of brief references in Tang dynasty (618-907) histories and it appears to have been of less note than

4800-456: The ability to exercise social control and regulation, (3) coercive resources, (4) the capacity to consult and collaborate with emerging social groups and organizations to balance conflicting interests, and (5) the ability to learn from failures and mistakes. China's fiscal budget has four parts: general fiscal budget, budget for government funds, budget for operating income of state-owned capital, and social insurance budget. The largest part

4896-493: The annual mean is 12.01 °C (53.6 °F). The diurnal temperature variation is not particularly large for a desert, averaging 13.3 °C (23.9 °F) annually. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 56% in March to 75% in October, the county seat receives 2,860 hours of bright sunshine annually. Yarkant County includes 5 subdistricts , 14 towns , 14 townships , and 1 ethnic township . Yarkant County

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4992-503: The appointment of Chen Quanguo as the Party Secretary of Xinjiang in 2016. Chen ordered officers to "prepare for a smashing, obliterating offensive" and "round up everyone who should be rounded up." This included the detention of anyone with "symptoms of religious radicalism or antigovernment views", including giving up smoking or drinking, wearing long beards, praying outside mosques, and studying Arabic . The documents contain

5088-625: The authority of government departments is defined by regulations and rules rather than law. The State Council issues regulations on the forms of official government and CCP documentation which govern the level of authority, urgency, and confidentiality required by the document. Official documents include ones which must be strictly implemented by lower levels of government (such as "Decisions" and "Orders"), ones which can be treated more flexibly (such as "Opinions" and "Notices"), and ones with less or more general content (such as "Letters" and "Minutes"). The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises

5184-591: The base of the government and party hierarchies. Power is concentrated in the "paramount leader," an informal title currently occupied by Xi Jinping, who heads the four most important political and state offices: He is the general secretary of the CCP Central Committee , Chairman of the Central Military Commission , and President of the PRC. Near the end of Hu Jintao's term in office, experts observed growing limitations to

5280-497: The central government allowed local governments to issue bonds to finance public capital spending for projects like infrastructure and hospitals. The quantity of such bonds is set by the central government. Local governments cannot issue bonds to pay for current spending, such as salaries. China's civil service is divided into tiers. The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making. After

5376-479: The central government in foreign policy and national security , and their chief executives are effectively picked by the CCP Politburo. Below the provincial level, there are prefectures and counties. Counties are divided into townships and villages . While most are run by appointed officials, some lower-level jurisdictions have direct elections. While operating under strict control and supervision by

5472-429: The central government, China's local governments manage relatively high share of fiscal revenues and expenditures. Their level of authority and autonomy in economic decision-making is high, and they have played a major role in national economic development. They do not have the right to make tax laws but may have the ability to adjust certain tax rates within boundaries established by the central government. Through

5568-601: The complex political situation China faced in attempting to open up the " Silk Routes " to the West in the 1st century CE. According to the "Chapter on the Western Regions " in the Hou Hanshu : "Pei Zun, the Administrator of Dunhuang , wrote saying that foreigners should not be allowed to employ such great authority and that these decrees would cause the kingdoms to despair. An Imperial decree then ordered that

5664-410: The constitution and laws, and conducts constitutional reviews , and is headed by the chairman , one of China's top officials. The president represents China abroad, though since the 1990s, the presidency has always been held by the CCP general secretary . Elected separately by the NPC, the vice president has no power other than what the president bestowed on them but assists the president. The head of

5760-530: The cost of providing public goods has devolved to local governments from the central government and therefore local governments need to generate fees to provide public services. Local governments are the key provider of public of goods in China. Since 2014, the National New-Type Urbanization Plan has resulted in the consolidation of planning processes that were formerly distributed across different bureaucracies, such as urban and rural land use, tourism planning, and environmental planning. Beginning in 2015,

5856-432: The county in the summer of 2014, in which dozens of people were killed according to local officials, though some estimates claim the death toll to be as high as 3,000. In August 2015, it was reported by Chinese media that the amount of farmland per capita was increased from 2.6 mu per person to 3.5 mu after clearing up more arable lands. Yarkant is strategically located about halfway between Kashgar and Khotan , at

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5952-412: The direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs. The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels. China has a high degree of state capacity . Academic Thomas Heberer attributes China's state capacity to: (1) the legitimacy of its political system as viewed by its citizens, (2)

6048-441: The documents a "chilling portrait of the Chinese government's campaign of mass detention and ethnic cleansing." Schumer wrote that the Xinjiang papers "exposes the Chinese Communist Party's lies" and reveals a "brutal [and] repressive campaign" against Uyghur Muslims. Warren described China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims as a "horrifying human rights violation" and said that "we must stand up to hatred and extremism at home -- and around

6144-414: The documents were leaked by a source inside the Chinese Communist Party and include a breakdown of how China created and organized the Xinjiang internment camps . In response to the Xinjiang papers' publication, the Chinese government claimed the documents were "sheer, pure fabrication". The leak has led to increased scrutiny and criticism of China's internment camps in Xinjiang. The Xinjiang papers are

6240-409: The documents were provided by a Chinese government official who requested anonymity and hoped to "prevent party leaders, including Mr. Xi, from escaping culpability for the mass detentions." The publication of the Xinjiang papers was followed by the China Cables leak a few days later. Other documents allegedly leaked from Chinese government sources include the Aksu List and the Karakax List. Following

6336-403: The effective control of the CCP's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission . The CCP constitution states that the party is the highest force for political leadership. The party's institutions overlap with government institutions and the party has authority over government decisions at both the local and central levels. Senior government officials throughout the country are appointed by

6432-409: The establishment of Yarkent Khanate to its fall (1514–1713). The Khanate was predominantly Uyghur/Turki; some of its most populated cities were Hotan, Yarkent, Kashgar, Yangihissar, Aksu, Uchturpan, Kucha, Karashar, Turpan and Kumul. It enjoyed continued dominance in the region for about 200 years until it was conquered by the Dzungar Khan, Tsewang Rabtan in 1705. In the first half of the 14th century

6528-399: The general unity of people of every ethnicity will be damaged, and the broad outlook for reform, development, and stability will be affected." In their campaign in Xinjiang, Xi encouraged officials to emulate America's " war on terror " following the September 11 attacks . According to The New York Times, Xi's speeches show how he views threats to the party through the lens of the collapse of

6624-450: The junction of a branch road north to Aksu . It also was the terminus for caravans coming from Kashmir via Ladakh and then over the Karakoram Pass to the oasis of Niya in the Tarim Basin . The Xinjiang-Tibet Highway China National Highway 219 , built in 1956 commences in Yecheng/Yarkant and heads south and west, across Aksai Chin and into central Tibet. From Yarkant another important route headed southwest via Tashkurgan Town to

6720-434: The late 1980s and the early 1990s, the municipal government regulatory mechanisms expanded, as did their capacity to regulate peri-urban areas. The 1994 fiscal reforms resulted in the need of local governments to generate non-tax revenue, which they did in the form of revenues through land development and use fees. This resulted in their increase in both administrative size and geographic size. From 2002 to at least 2023,

6816-435: The law of Mahomet , and there are also some Nestorian Christians . They are subject to the Great Khan's nephew. It is amply stocked with the means of life, especially cotton." At the end of the 16th century Yarkant was incorporated into the Khanate of Kashgar and became its capital. The Jesuit Benedict Göez , who sought a route from the Mughal Empire to Cathay (which, according to his superiors, may or may not have been

6912-399: The leaked documents a "handbook for [an] Orwellian campaign to effectively erase a religious and ethnic minority." Several US politicians retweeted the article by The New York Times , including Joe Biden , Ilhan Omar , Chuck Schumer , and Elizabeth Warren . Biden described China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims as "among the worst abuses of human rights in the world today", while Omar called

7008-517: The main deliberative bodies of China, and are often referred to as the Two Sessions . Aside from the CCP, eight minor political parties participate, but are non- oppositional and have no real power. They must accept the primacy of the CCP to exist and their members are preapproved by the CCP's United Front Work Department . The NPC, elected for a term of five years, holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting from 10 to 14 days, in

7104-553: The oasis of Kharghalik (see Yecheng and Yecheng County ) to its south. The area became the main base in the region for Chagatai Khan (died 1241), who inherited Kashgaria (and also much of the land between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers) after his father, Genghis Khan , died in 1227. Marco Polo described Yarkant in 1273, but said only that this "province" (of Kublai Khan 's nephew, Kaidu , d. 1301) was, "five days' journey in extent. The inhabitants follow

7200-581: The operations of the government, and to elect the major officials of state. Its delegates are elected for a five-year term through a multi-tiered electoral system . According to the Constitution, the NPC is the highest state institution within China's political system. The NPC and the National Committee of the People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a consultative body whose members represent various people's organizations , are

7296-469: The paramount leader's de facto control over the government, but at the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, Xi Jinping's term limits were removed and his powers were expanded. Under the PRC's constitution, the President of the People's Republic of China is a largely ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by

7392-577: The party and state systems. The commission is headed by the CMC Chairman. The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the highest state supervisory ( anti-corruption ) agency of China. At the same administrative ranking as the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate , it supervises all public officials who exercise public power. It closely operates together with the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of

7488-457: The party leads them all." Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping , there were proposals to increase the separation of the state and the party, especially advocated by more liberal officials such as Zhao Ziyang . The proposals included abolishing CCP committees from some government departments, increasing the influence of the State Council, and having professional managers leader SOEs instead of CCP committees. These proposals were abandoned after

7584-446: The party's chief staff, vice premiers, and the party secretaries of China's most important municipalities and provinces. Ministers and provincial governors are next in rank, followed by deputy ministers and deputy provincial governors. Ministry director generals and sub provincial municipality mayors rank below this, followed by ministry deputy director generals and third-tier city mayors. There are five ranks below these which reach to

7680-491: The prohibition of imports produced by forced labor, a Xinjiang Integrity Declaration for Canadian companies, and the issuance of a third-party analysis on forced labor and supply chain risks. Following the Xinjiang papers and China Cables leaks, the UK cited the "Chinese authorities' own government documents" as evidence of human rights violations against Uyghur Muslims, including forced labor and extrajudicial detention. In coordination with international partners, including Canada,

7776-415: The publication of the Xinjiang papers led to increased attention and scrutiny of China's internment camps in Xinjiang. Government of China The government of the People's Republic of China is based on a system of people's congress within the parameters of a unitary communist state , in which the ruling Chinese Communist Party (CCP) enacts its policies through people's congresses. This system

7872-707: The region in the middle of the 18th century. By the 19th century, due to its active trade with Ladakh , and an influx of foreign merchants, it became "the largest and most populous of all the States of Káshghar."( Kashgar ). Yakub Beg (1820–1877) conquered Khotan , Aksu , Kashgar , and neighbouring towns with the help of the Russians in the 1860s. He made Yarkant the capital of the newly founded Turkic state of Yettishar , where he received embassies from England in 1870 and 1873. The Qing dynasty defeated Yakub at Turpan in 1877 after which he committed suicide. Thus ended

7968-557: The release of over 7,000 inmates, which allegedly led him to be stripped of power and imprisoned. According to The New York Times , the party "made an example" of Wang to show they would not tolerate any resistance to their campaign. On November 16, 2019, Ramzy and Buckley of The New York Times published the Xinjiang papers in an article titled "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detention of Muslims". The documents were published along with translated excerpts and their own analysis. Ramzy and Buckley state that

8064-496: The results. New policies are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback. This method of first implementing policy through local pilot testing was also used during the Mao era. Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to

8160-505: The same place as China), arrived in Yarkant with a caravan from Kabul in late 1603. He remained there for about a year, making a short trip to Khotan during that time. He reported: During his journey, Göez also noted the presence of large marble quarries in the area, leading him to write that amongst native travellers from Yarkant to Cathay: Yarkent served as capital for the Yarkent Khanate , also known as Yarkent State , from

8256-476: The seal and ribbons of "Protector General" be recovered, and replaced with the seal and ribbon of "Great Han General." Xian's envoy refused to make the exchange, and (Pei) Zun took them by force. In 90 CE the Yuezhi or Kushans invaded the region with an army of reportedly 70,000 men, under their Viceroy, Xian, but they were forced to withdraw without a battle after Ban Chao instigated a "burnt earth" policy. After

8352-415: The so-called 'internal documents'" and "smear China's counter-terrorism and de-radicalization efforts." A spokesperson for the Xinjiang regional government stated that the report was "full of nonsense, lies, and sinister intentions" and was "completely fabricated." China's ambassador to the United Kingdom described the documents as "sheer, pure fabrication". While The New York Times said that Wang Yongzhi

8448-442: The state, runs parallel to the state, and is enmeshed in every level of the state." The integration of the CCP and the state has accelerated under Xi Jinping, chairing eight party commissions that direct government bodies. Under Xi, several government and party bodies have also merged, with one party organization having an external state government name under the one institution with two names system, further integrating party and

8544-466: The state. The Constitution of the PRC was first created on 20 September 1954, before which an interim constitution -like document created by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference was in force. The second promulgation in 1975 shortened the constitution to just about 30 articles, containing CCP slogans and revolutionary language throughout. The role of courts was slashed, and

8640-403: The states' laws and rules", which could then "add points" for their relatives and shorten their detentions. The documents state that the internment campaign faced doubts and resistance from local officials, some of whom were purged or jailed. They specifically mention Wang Yongzhi, the former Party Secretary of Yarkand County . Wang privately disagreed with the scale of the detentions and ordered

8736-614: The supreme command and control over the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police, and the Militia. It operates within the CCP under the name "Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China", and as the military arm of the central government under the name "Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China". Under the arrangement of " one institution with two names ", both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and operate under both

8832-704: The time as Uyghurstan, according to Balkh and Indian sources of the 16th and 17th centuries. The reigning dynasty of the Yarkent Khanate originated from this state, which existed for more than a century. In 1509 the Dughlats, vassal rulers of the Tarim basin, rebelled against the Moghulistan Khanate and broke away. Five years later Sultan Said Khan, a brother of the Khan of Moghulistan in Turfan, conquered

8928-442: The title was " Chairman "; after 1982, this translation was changed to " President ", although the Chinese title remains unchanged. In March 2018, presidential term limits were abolished. The State Council is the chief administrative authority and national cabinet of China. It is appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the premier and includes the heads of each governmental department and agency. The premier

9024-721: The world." Several US lawmakers cited the Xinjiang papers in calling for the passage of the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act , which condemns human rights violations in Xinjiang and calls for sanctions against Chen Quanguo. The Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act was signed into law by President Donald Trump on June 17, 2020. Under the Global Magnitsky Act , the US has imposed sanctions on Chen Quanguo, Zhu Hailun, and two other government officials "in connection with serious human rights abuses" in Xinjiang. The Xinjiang papers leak also prompted calls for

9120-598: Was arrested for refusing to carry out detentions, a 2018 report from China Daily wrote that Wang was removed for "serious disciplinary violations" including "bribery, corruption, and abuse of power." Following The New York Times publication, some netizens shared the article on Chinese platform Sina Weibo and wrote tributes to him on social media. Australian Foreign Minister Marise Payne called The New York Times report "disturbing" and stated that it reinforced Australia's resolve to raise their human rights concerns with Beijing. Penny Wong , foreign affairs spokesperson for

9216-485: Was first established in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi . Liu fell into political disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, but with reduced powers. The official English-language translation of

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