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133-555: Youth is an experience that may shape an individual's level of dependency , which can be marked in various ways according to different cultural perspectives. Personal experience is marked by an individual's cultural norms or traditions , while a youth's level of dependency means the extent to which they still rely on their family emotionally and economically . Around the world, the English terms youth , adolescent , teenager , kid , youngster and young person often mean

266-494: A public health emergency of international concern, marking the second such declaration in the last two years due to the virus's transmission. The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfils this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: As of 2012 , the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: Since

399-472: A trade-and-export orientation , was the best strategy for underdeveloped countries. The theory was developed from a Marxian perspective by Paul A. Baran in 1957 with the publication of his The Political Economy of Growth . Dependency theory shares many points with earlier, Marxist, theories of imperialism by Rosa Luxemburg and Vladimir Lenin , and has attracted continued interest from Marxists. Some authors identify two main streams in dependency theory:

532-500: A " core " of wealthy states , enriching the latter at the expense of the former. A central contention of dependency theory is that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the " world system ". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America . The theory arose as

665-502: A convention concerning the bubonic plague was signed by sixteen of the nineteen states attending the Venice conference. While Denmark , Sweden-Norway , and the US did not sign this convention, it was unanimously agreed that the work of the prior conferences should be codified for implementation. Subsequent conferences, from 1902 until the final one in 1938, widened the diseases of concern for

798-795: A cornerstone in reducing adolescent sexual risk behaviours and promoting sexual health. In addition to providing accurate information about consequences of Sexually transmitted disease or STIs and early pregnancy , such programmes build life skills for interpersonal communication and decision making. Such programmes are most commonly implemented in schools, which reach large numbers of teenagers in areas where school enrollment rates are high. However, since not all young people are in school, sex education programmes have also been implemented in clinics, juvenile detention centers and youth-oriented community agencies. Notably, some programmes have been found to reduce risky sexual behaviours when implemented in both school and community settings with only minor modifications to

931-516: A figure projected to grow 89.5 per cent by 2025. Moreover, this majority are extremely diverse: some live in rural areas but many inhabit the overcrowded metropolises of India , Mongolia and other parts of Asia and in South America, some live traditional lives in tribal societies , while others participate in global youth culture in ghetto contexts. Many young lives in developing countries are defined by poverty, some suffer from famine and

1064-439: A lack of clean water, while involvement in armed conflict is all common. Health problems are rife, especially due to the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in certain regions. The United Nations estimates that 200 million young people live in poverty, 130 million are illiterate and 10 million live with HIV/AIDS. Dependency theory Dependency theory is the idea that resources flow from a " periphery " of poor and exploited states to

1197-496: A large percentage of T1D youth population is not meeting this guideline. Common barriers include fear of hypoglycemia , loss of glucose stability, low fitness levels, insufficient or inadequate knowledge of strategies to prevent hypoglycemia, lack of time, and lack of confidence in the topic of exercise management in type 1 diabetes. Many Health and Care Professions Council members who work with children aren't educated enough about diabetes in children and exercise recommendations. It

1330-518: A leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , such as HIV/AIDS , Ebola , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer ; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . The agency advocates for universal health care coverage, engagement with

1463-421: A liberating revolution. Theotonio dos Santos described a "new dependency", which focused on both the internal and external relations of less-developed countries of the periphery, derived from a Marxian analysis. Former Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso (in office 1995–2002) wrote extensively on dependency theory while in political exile during the 1960s, arguing that it was an approach to studying

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1596-483: A lowly motivated workforce, a result from being accustomed to constant aid, and therefore the country is less likely to make economic progress and the living-standards are less likely to be improved. A country with long-term aid dependency remains unable to be self-sufficient and is less likely to make meaningful GDP growth which would allow for them to rely less on aid from richer countries. Food aid has been criticized heavily along with other aid imports due to its damage to

1729-620: A more open economy as well as cold war competition. In 1970, the United Nations agreed on 0.7% of Gross National Income per country as the target for how much should be dedicated for international aid. In his book “Ending Aid Dependence”, Yash Tondon describes how organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) have driven many African countries into dependency. During

1862-448: A national school-based survey conducted by CDC as well as state and local school-based surveys conducted by education and health agencies. Universal school-based interventions such as formal classroom curricula, behavioural management practices, role‐play, and goal‐setting may be effective in preventing tobacco use, alcohol use, illicit drug use, antisocial behaviour, and improving physical activity of young people. Type 1 diabetes (T1D)

1995-495: A possible type 2 diabetes, children are encouraged to keep their BMI and adipose tissue percentage at normal levels. Exercising regularly improves insulin resistance, reduces blood glucose levels, and keep an individual at a healthy weight to stay away from a possible T2D diagnosis. Obesity now affects one in five children in the United States, and is the most prevalent nutritional disease of children and adolescents in

2128-507: A potentially more serious threat to healthy youth development. The definition of bullying is widely agreed on in literature on bullying. The majority of research on bullying has been conducted in Europe and Australia. Considerable variability among countries in the prevalence of bullying has been reported. In an international survey of adolescent health-related behaviors, the percentage of students who reported being bullied at least once during

2261-521: A reaction to modernization theory , an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment , technology transfers , and closer integration into

2394-540: A resolution on disability prevention and rehabilitation , with a focus on community-driven care. 1977 and 1978: The first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of " Health For All " was declared. 1986: The WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS . Two years later preventing discrimination against patients was attended to and in 1996 the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)

2527-429: A resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss , the secretary general of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of

2660-507: A say in where the money would be distributed towards. Recipient-led cases such as Botswana are more effective partially because it negates the donor's desirability to report numbers on the efficiency of their programs (that often include short-term figures such as food distributed) and instead focuses more on long-term growth and development that may be directed more towards infrastructure, education, and job development. World Health Organization The World Health Organization ( WHO )

2793-508: A series of conferences that took place until 1938, about 87 years. The first conference, in Paris, was almost solely concerned with cholera , which would remain the disease of major concern for the ISC for most of the 19th century. With the cause , origin, and communicability of many epidemic diseases still uncertain and a matter of scientific argument, international agreement on appropriate measures

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2926-559: A significant infusion of financial and technical resources. The WHO's official mandate is to promote health and safety while helping the vulnerable worldwide. It provides technical assistance to countries, sets international health standards, collects data on global health issues, and serves as a forum for scientific or policy discussions related to health. Its official publication, the World Health Report , provides assessments of worldwide health topics. The WHO has played

3059-449: A wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being

3192-458: Is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for global public health . It is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland, and has six regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide. Only sovereign States can participate, and it is the largest intergovernmental health organization at the international level. The WHO's purpose is to achieve the highest possible level of health for all

3325-666: Is a distinction made between the economic and political spheres: economically, one may be developed or underdeveloped; but even if (somewhat) economically developed, one may be politically autonomous or dependent. More recently, Guillermo O'Donnell has argued that constraints placed on development by neoliberalism were lifted by the military coups in Latin America that came to promote development in authoritarian guise (O'Donnell, 1982). These positions particularly in regard of Latin America were notably challenged theoretically in

3458-400: Is accumulated for investing in development. The more recent kind of economic activity in the periphery is industry—but of a particular kind. It is usually carried out by foreigners, although often in conjunction with local interests. It is often under special tariff protection or other government concessions. The surplus from this production mostly goes to two places: part of it is sent back to

3591-470: Is also defined as a social position that reflects the meanings different cultures and societies give to individuals between childhood and adulthood. The term in itself when referred to in a manner of social position can be ambiguous when applied to someone of an older age with very low social position; potentially when still dependent on their guardians. Scholars argue that age-based definitions have not been consistent across cultures or times and that thus it

3724-463: Is an autoimmune disease that occurs when pancreatic cells, also called beta cells , are destroyed by the immune system . Beta cells are responsible to produce insulin , which is required by the body to convert blood sugar into energy. Symptoms associated with T1D include frequent urination, increased hunger and thirst, weight loss, blurry vision, and tiredness. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is characterized by high blood sugar and insulin resistance. This

3857-534: Is associated with young men from 12 to 30 or 35 years of age. Youth in Nigeria includes all members of the Federal Republic of Nigeria aged 18–35. Many African girls experience youth as a brief interlude between the onset of puberty and marriage and motherhood . But in urban settings, poor women are often considered youth much longer, even if they bear children outside of marriage. Varying culturally,

3990-478: Is common for donors to fund projects outside of this budget and therefore go without parliament review. This further reinforces presidentialism and establishes practices that undermine democracy. Disputes over taxation and use of revenues are important in a democracy and can lead to better lives for citizens, but this cannot happen if citizens and parliaments don't know the complete proposed budget and spending priorities. Aid dependency also compromises ownership which

4123-439: Is essential. Although several periods of increased risk appear in childhood, it is not clear whether obesity with onset early in childhood carries a greater risk of adult morbidity and mortality. Bullying among school-aged youth is increasingly being recognized as an important problem affecting well-being and social functioning. While a certain amount of conflict and harassment is typical of youth peer relations, bullying presents

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4256-411: Is given by foreign donors . A nation having an aid dependency ratio of about 15%-20% or higher is correlated with negative outcomes for that nation. What causes dependency is the inhibition of development and economic/political reform that results from trying to use aid as a long-term solution to poverty-ridden countries. Aid dependency arose from long term provisions of aid to countries in need in which

4389-505: Is given to countries that were former colonies , and also to countries in which they have significant investment interest and strong trade relations. A main concern revolving around the issue of foreign aid is that the citizens in the country that is benefiting from aid lose motivation to work after receiving aid. In addition, some citizens will deliberately work less, resulting in a lower income, which in turn qualifies them for aid provision. Aid dependent countries are associated with having

4522-472: Is important for parents to educate themselves to support their children throughout this chapter of their lives. Structured exercises lasting longer than 60 minutes can reduce HbA1c levels and insulin dose per day. Moderate activities can increase cardiorespiratory fitness in children which is crucial for their future health. Cardiorespiratory fitness reduces the risk of other diseases, such as microvascular complications and cardiovascular diseases . To avoid

4655-417: Is legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and their sex partner as the offender. The defense of infancy is a form of defense known as an excuse so that defendants falling within the definition of an " infant " are excluded from criminal liability for their actions , if at

4788-632: Is less pressure on the government to remain accountable and transparent as a result of the weakened private sector. Aid assists corruption which then fosters more corruption and creates a cycle. Foreign aid provides corrupt governments with free cash flow which further facilitates the corruption. Corruption works against economic growth and development, holding these poor countries down. Since 2000, aid dependency has decreased by about ⅓. This can be seen in countries like Ghana , whose aid dependency decreased from 47% to 27%, as well as in Mozambique , where

4921-484: Is marked by the ability of a government to implement its own ideas and policies. In aid dependent countries, the interests and ideas of aid agencies start to become priority and therefore erode ownership. Aid dependent countries rank worse in terms of level of corruption than in countries that are not dependent. Foreign aid is a potential source of rents, and rent-seeking can manifest as increased public sector employment. As public firms displace private investment, there

5054-403: Is more accurate to focus on social processes in the transition to adult independence for defining youth. Youth is the stage of constructing the self-concept . The self-concept of youth is influenced by variables such as peers, lifestyle, gender, and culture. It is a time of a person's life when their choices are most likely to affect their future. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the term "youth"

5187-560: Is not an autoimmune disease and is mostly a result of obesity and lack of exercise. Exercise is a crucial addition to a child's everyday routine. It can increase the overall psychosocial well-being, metabolic health and cardiovascular benefits. American College of Sports Medicine recommends at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity each day. Recommended activities include running, bicycle riding and team sports. Furthermore, at least 3 days of bone and muscle strengthening activities should be incorporated. Unfortunately, in reality

5320-557: Is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis, and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of

5453-530: Is similar to drug addiction.” While the widespread belief is that aid is motivated only by assisting poor countries, and this is true in some cases, there is substantial evidence that suggests strategic, political, and welfare interests of the donors are driving forces behind aid. Maizels and Nissanke (MN 1984), and McKinlay and Little (ML, 1977) have conducted studies to analyze donors’ motives. From these studies they found that US aid flows are influenced by military as well as strategic factors. British and French aid

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5586-450: Is the minimum age established by law that a person must attain to be eligible to vote in a public election . Typically, the age is set at 18 years; however, ages as low as 16 and as high as 21 exist (see list below). Studies show that 21% of all 18-year-olds have experience with voting. This is an important right since, by voting, they can support politics selected by themselves and not only by people of older generations. Age of candidacy

5719-414: Is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access . The age of consent is the age at which a person is considered legally competent to consent to sexual acts , and is thus the minimum age of a person with whom another person

5852-495: The First World War , but its present form is usually associated with the work of Wallerstein. Dependency theorists hold that short-term spurts of growth notwithstanding, long-term growth in the periphery will be imbalanced and unequal, and will tend towards high negative current account balances. Cyclical fluctuations also have a profound effect on cross-national comparisons of economic growth and societal development in

5985-490: The Industrial Revolution – is at the center of stage. The Center countries controlled the technology and the systems for generating technology. Foreign capital could not solve the problem, since it only led to limited transmission of technology, but not the process of innovation itself. Baran and others frequently spoke of the international division of labour – skilled workers in the center; unskilled in

6118-585: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011 , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted as to why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio

6251-857: The USSR , called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. 1965: The first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer . 1966: The WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed headquarters elsewhere in Geneva. 1967: The WHO intensified

6384-985: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank . 1975: The WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical diseases (the TDR). Co-sponsored by UNICEF , UNDP, and the World Bank, it was established in response to a 1974 request from the WHA for an intensive effort to develop improved control of tropical diseases. The TDR's goals are, firstly, to support and coordinate international research into diagnosis, treatment and control of tropical diseases; and, secondly, to strengthen research capabilities within endemic countries. 1976: The WHA enacted

6517-572: The World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$ 5 million (then £1,250,000 ) for the 1949 year. G. Brock Chisholm was appointed director-general of the WHO, having served as executive secretary and a founding member during the planning stages, while Andrija Štampar was the assembly's first president. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria , tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections , and to improve maternal and child health , nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act

6650-1159: The World Health Organization (WHO). It is also shaped by the notion of adolescence that has entered everyday life in Brazil through a discourse on children's rights. The OECD defines youth as "those between 15 and 29 years of age". August 12 was declared International Youth Day by the United Nations. Children's rights cover all the rights that belong to children. When they grow up, they are granted new rights (like voting, consent, driving, etc.) and duties (criminal response, etc.). There are different minimum limits of age at which youth are not free, independent or legally competent to take some decisions or actions. Some of these limits are: voting age , age of candidacy , age of consent , age of majority , age of criminal responsibility , drinking age , driving age , etc. After youth reach these limits, they are free to vote, have sexual intercourse, buy or consume alcoholic beverages or drive cars , etc. Voting age

6783-477: The food insecurity Political corruption has been a strong force associated with maintaining dependency and being unable to see economic growth. During the Obama administration, congress claimed that the anti-corruption criteria The Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) used was not strict enough and was one of the obstacles to decreasing aid dependence. Often, in countries with a high corruption perception index

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6916-433: The semi-periphery , intermediate between the core and periphery. Wallerstein believed in a tri-modal rather than a bi-modal system because he viewed the world-systems as more complicated than a simplistic classification as either core or periphery nations. To Wallerstein, many nations do not fit into one of these two categories, so he proposed the idea of a semi-periphery as an in between state within his model. In this model,

7049-612: The world market . Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy . Some writers have argued for its continuing relevance as a conceptual orientation to the global division of wealth. Dependency theorists can typically be divided into two categories: liberal reformists and neo-Marxists . Liberal reformists typically advocate for targeted policy interventions, while

7182-827: The 1979 Convention on the Rights of the Child , those under the age of 18 are regarded as children. The UN also states they are aware that several definitions exist for youth within UN entities such as Youth Habitat 15–32 , NCSL 12-24 , and African Youth Charter 15–35. On November 11, 2020, the State Duma of the Russian Federation approved a project to raise the cap on the age of young people from 30 to 35 years (the range now extending from 14 to 35 years). Although linked to biological processes of development and aging, youth

7315-480: The 21st century and have one of the highest aid dependency ratios in Africa. As aid dependence can shift accountability away from the public and to being between state and donors, “presidentialism” can arise. Presidentialism is when the president and the cabinet within a political system have the power in political decision-making. In a democracy , budgets and public investment plans are to be approved by parliament. It

7448-527: The American Marxist schools had significant differences but, according to economist Matias Vernengo, they agreed on some basic points: [B]oth groups would agree that at the core of the dependency relation between center and periphery lays [lies] the inability of the periphery to develop an autonomous and dynamic process of technological innovation. Technology – the Promethean force unleashed by

7581-568: The Arab world was primarily refined by the Egyptian economist Samir Amin . Tausch, based on works of Amin from 1973 to 1997, lists the following main characteristics of periphery capitalism: The American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein refined the Marxist aspect of the theory and expanded on it, to form world-systems theory . World Systems Theory is also known as WST and aligns closely with

7714-486: The Dependency Theory. The idea of national dependency on another nation is not a relatively new concept even though the dependency theory itself is rather new. Dependency is perpetuated by using capitalism and finance. The dependent nations come to owe the developed nations so much money and capital that it is not possible to escape the debt, continuing the dependency for the foreseeable future. An example of

7847-557: The Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II , the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze , a delegate from China, conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get

7980-686: The ISC, and included discussions of responses to yellow fever , brucellosis , leprosy , tuberculosis , and typhoid . In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau (1902), and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique or " International office of Public Hygiene " in english(1907) were soon founded. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, it established

8113-908: The Latin American Structuralist , typified by the work of Prebisch, Celso Furtado , and Aníbal Pinto at the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC, or, in Spanish, CEPAL); and the American Marxist, developed by Paul A. Baran , Paul Sweezy , and Andre Gunder Frank . Using the Latin American dependency model, the Guyanese Marxist historian Walter Rodney , in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa , described in 1972 an Africa that had been consciously exploited by European imperialists, leading directly to

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8246-543: The Latin American Structuralists. Fajnzylber has made a distinction between systemic or authentic competitiveness, which is the ability to compete based on higher productivity, and spurious competitiveness, which is based on low wages. The third-world debt crisis of the 1980s and continued stagnation in Africa and Latin America in the 1990s caused some doubt as to the feasibility or desirability of "dependent development". The sine qua non of

8379-764: The Philippines, Saudi Arabia , Slovenia , the United Kingdom (Mainland) and the United States. The Canadian province of Alberta and several U.S. states permit youth driving as low as 14. Niger has the highest minimum driving age in the world at 23. In India, driving is legal after getting a license at the age of 18. The legal working age is the minimum age required by law for a person to work in each country or jurisdiction . The threshold of adulthood, or "the age of majority " as recognized or declared in law in most countries, has been set at age 18. Some types of labor are commonly prohibited even for those above

8512-471: The UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks. Driving age is the age at which a person can apply for a driver's license . Countries with the lowest driving ages (below 17) are Argentina , Australia , Canada, El Salvador , Iceland, Israel , Macedonia , Malaysia , New Zealand ,

8645-422: The UN itself can be made between teenagers (i.e. those between the ages of 13 and 19) and young adults (those between the ages of 20 and 24). While seeking to impose some uniformity on statistical approaches, the UN is aware of contradictions between approaches in its own statutes. Hence, under the 15–24 definition (introduced in 1981) children are defined as those under the age of (someone 12 and younger) while under

8778-603: The United Nations together with the exchange of letters related thereto, and taking into account the respective co-ordinating responsibilities of both organizations, it is recognized by the World Health Organization that the International Atomic Energy Agency has the primary responsibility for encouraging, assisting and co-ordinating research and development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout

8911-409: The United States even after a large decrease in aid. In countries where there is a primary-product dependency on an item being imported as aid, such as wheat, economic shocks can occur and push the country further into an economic crisis. Political dependency occurs when donors have too much influence in the governance of the receiving country. Many donors maintain a strong say in the government due to

9044-439: The United States, European Nations such as Germany and Britain, China, and rising India that hundreds of other nations rely on for military aid, economic investments, etc. Aid dependency is an economic problem described as the reliance of less developed countries (LDCs) on more developed countries (MDCs) for financial aid and other resources. More specifically, aid dependency refers to the proportion of government spending that

9177-550: The United States. Although obesity-associated morbidities occur more frequently in adults, significant consequences of obesity as well as the antecedents of adult disease occur in obese children and adolescents. Discrimination against overweight children begins early in childhood and becomes progressively institutionalized. Obese children may be taller than their non-overweight peers, in which case they are apt to be viewed as more mature. The inappropriate expectations that result may have an adverse effect on their socialization. Many of

9310-483: The WHO over the organization's unwillingness to share the penicillin recipe. They would not return until 1956. 1950: A mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine gets under way. 1955: The malaria eradication programme was launched, although objectives were later modified. (In most areas, the programme goals became control instead of eradication.) 1958: Viktor Zhdanov , Deputy Minister of Health for

9443-604: The WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S /AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine . For the time being, insecticide -treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio . It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since WHO partnered with Rotary International ,

9576-425: The WHO's role and priorities in public health, ranging from narrowing its mandate to strengthening its independence and authority. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012,

9709-503: The World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The WHO formally began its work in September 1, 1948. The first meeting of

9842-406: The aid dependency decreased from 74% to 58%. Target areas to decrease aid dependence include job creation, regional integration, and commercial engagement and trade. Long-term investment in agriculture and infrastructure are key requirements to end aid dependency as it will allow the country to slowly decrease the amount of food aid received and begin to develop its own agricultural economy and solve

9975-426: The aid money is taken from government officials in the public sector or taken from other corrupt individuals in the private sector . Efforts to disapprove aid to countries where corruption is very prevalent have been a common tool used by organizations and governments to ensure funding is used properly but also to encourage other countries to fix the corruption. It has been proven that foreign aid can prove useful in

10108-577: The basis for global prevention, treatment, and support the plan to fight the AIDS pandemic . 2006: The WHO launches the Global action plan for influenza vaccines 2016: The Global action plan for influenza vaccines ends with a report which concludes that while substantial progress has been made over the 10 years of the Plan, the world is still not ready to respond to an influenza pandemic. 2016: Following

10241-424: The budget and activities. The WHO is funded primarily by contributions from member states (both assessed and voluntary), followed by private donors. Its total approved budget for 2020–2021 is over $ 7.2 billion, while the approved budget for 2022–2023 is over $ 6.2 billion. The budget is $ 6.83 billion for 2024–2025. The International Sanitary Conferences (ISC), the first of which was held on 23 June 1851, were

10374-513: The cardiovascular consequences that characterize adult-onset obesity are preceded by abnormalities that begin in childhood. Hyperlipidemia , hypertension , and abnormal glucose tolerance occur with increased frequency in obese children and adolescents. The relationship of cardiovascular risk factors to visceral fat independent of total body fat remains unclear. Sleep apnea , pseudotumor cerebri , and Blount's disease represent major sources of morbidity for which rapid and sustained weight reduction

10507-574: The characteristics of youth who both bully and are bullied found that these individuals exhibit the poorest psychosocial functioning overall. Globalization and transnational flows have had tangible effects on sexual relations, identities, and subjectivities. In the wake of an increasingly globalized world order under waning Western dominance, within ideologies of modernity, civilization, and programs for social improvement, discourses on population control , ' safe sex ', and ' sexual rights '. Sex education programmes grounded in evidence-based approaches are

10640-627: The continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima . They believe WHO must regain what they see as independence. Independent WHO held a weekly vigil from 2007 to 2017 in front of WHO headquarters. However, as pointed out by Foreman in clause 2 it states: In particular, and in accordance with the Constitution of the World Health Organization and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its agreement with

10773-413: The control of outside decision makers. They cited the partly successful attempts at industrialisation in Latin America around that time (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico) as evidence for this hypothesis. They were led to the position that dependency is not a relation between commodity exporters and industrialised countries, but between countries with different degrees of industrialisation. In their approach, there

10906-515: The country's reliance on their money, causing a decrease in the effectiveness and democratic-quality of the government. This results in the receiving country's government making policy that the donor agrees with and supports rather than what the people of the country desire. Government corruptibility increases as a result and inhibits reform of the government and political process in the country. These donors can include other countries or organizations with underlying intentions that may not be in favor of

11039-946: The current term ranged from a low of 15% to 20% in some countries to a high of 70% in others. Of particular concern is frequent bullying, typically defined as bullying that occurs once a week or more. The prevalence of frequent bullying reported internationally ranges from a low of 1.9% among one Irish sample to a high of 19% in a Malta study. Research examining characteristics of youth involved in bullying has consistently found that both bullies and those bullied demonstrate poorer psychosocial functioning than their non-involved peers. Youth who bully others tend to demonstrate higher levels of conduct problems and dislike of school, whereas youth who are bullied generally show higher levels of insecurity , anxiety , depression , loneliness , unhappiness , physical and mental symptoms, and low self-esteem . Males who are bullied also tend to be physically weaker than males in general. The few studies that have examined

11172-477: The curricula. The Sangguniang Kabataan ("Youth Council" in English ), commonly known as SK, was a youth council in each barangay (village or district) in the Philippines , before being put "on hold", but not quite abolished, prior to the 2013 barangay elections . The council represented teenagers from 15 to 17 years old who have resided in their barangay for at least six months and registered to vote. It

11305-456: The dependency relationship is not the difference in technological sophistication, as traditional dependency theorists believe, but rather the difference in financial strength between core and peripheral countries–particularly the inability of peripheral countries to borrow in their own currency. He believes that the hegemonic position of the United States is very strong because of the importance of its financial markets and because it controls

11438-475: The dependency theory is that during the years of 1650 to 1900 European nations such as Britain and France took over or colonialized other nations. They used their superior military technology and naval strength at the time to do this. This began an economic system in the Americas, Africa, and Asia to then export the natural materials from their land to Europe. After shipping the materials to Europe, Britain and

11571-598: The developed countries in exchange for a given quantity of their raw materials exports. This idea is known as the Prebisch–Singer thesis . Prebisch, an Argentine economist at the United Nations Commission for Latin America (UNCLA), went on to conclude that the underdeveloped nations must employ some degree of protectionism in trade if they were to enter a self-sustaining development path. He argued that import-substitution industrialisation (ISI), not

11704-586: The domestic economy. A higher dependency on aid imports results in a decline in the domestic demand for those products. In the long-run, the agricultural industry in LDC countries grows weaker due to long-term declines in demand as a result from food aid. In the future when aid is decreased, many LDC countries's agricultural markets are under-developed and therefore it is cheaper to import agricultural products. This occurred in Haiti , where 80% of their grain stocks come from

11837-658: The dominance of financial capital. Economic policies based on dependency theory have been criticized by free-market economists such as Peter Bauer and Martin Wolf and others: Market economists cite a number of examples in their arguments against dependency theory. The improvement of India's economy after it moved from state-controlled business to open trade is one of the most often cited. India's example seems to contradict dependency theorists' claims concerning comparative advantage and mobility, as much as its economic growth originated from movements such as outsourcing – one of

11970-518: The economic crisis in the 1980s and the 1990s, a great deal of Sub-Saharan countries in Africa saw an influx of aid money which in turn resulted in dependency over the next few decades. These countries became so dependent that the President of Tanzania , Benjamin W. Mkapa , stated that “Development aid has taken deep root to the psyche of the people, especially in the poorer countries of the South. It

12103-428: The economic disparities between the centre and periphery. Cardoso summarized his version of dependency theory as follows: The analysis of development patterns in the 1990s and beyond is complicated by the fact that capitalism develops not smoothly, but with very strong and self-repeating ups and downs, called cycles. Relevant results are given in studies by Joshua Goldstein, Volker Bornschier, and Luigi Scandella. With

12236-660: The economic growth of India and some East Asian economies, dependency theory has lost some of its former influence. It still influences some NGO campaigns, such as Make Poverty History and the fair trade movement. Two other early writers relevant to dependency theory were François Perroux and Kurt Rothschild . Other leading dependency theorists include Herb Addo, Walden Bello , Ruy Mauro Marini , Enzo Faletto, Armando Cordova, Ernest Feder, Pablo González Casanova, Keith Griffin , Kunibert Raffer , Paul Israel Singer , Walter Rodney and Osvaldo Sunkel. Many of these authors focused their attention on Latin America; dependency theory in

12369-614: The establishment of international standards for biological products. The WHO was established on April 7, 1948, and formally began its work on September 1, 1948. It incorporated the assets, personnel, and duties of the League of Nations ' Health Organization and the Paris-based Office International d'Hygiène Publique , including the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The agency's work began in earnest in 1951 after

12502-553: The fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. 2000: The Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals . 2001: The measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. 2002: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria

12635-662: The foreign shareholders as profit ; the other part is spent on conspicuous consumption in a similar fashion to that of the plantation aristocracy. Again, little is used for development. Baran thought that political revolution was necessary to break this pattern. In the 1960s, members of the Latin American Structuralist school argued that there is more latitude in the system than the Marxists believed. They argued that it allows for partial development or "dependent development"–development, but still under

12768-410: The gender constructions of youth in Latin America and Southeast Asia differ from those of sub-Saharan Africa. In Vietnam, widespread notions of youth are sociopolitical constructions for both sexes between the ages of 15 and 35. In Brazil , the term youth refers to people of both sexes from 15 to 29 years old. This age bracket reflects the influence on Brazilian law of international organizations like

12901-449: The global smallpox eradication campaign by contributing $ 2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method, at a time when 2 million people were dying from smallpox per year. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain

13034-595: The idea of the "rich get richer and the poor get poorer". Wallerstein states that the poor and peripheral nations continue to get more poor as the developed core nations use their resources to become richer. Wallerstein developed the World Systems Theory utilizing the Dependence theory along with the ideas of Marx and the Annales School . This theory postulates a third category of countries,

13167-562: The international reserve currency – the US dollar . He believes that the end of the Bretton Woods international financial agreements in the early 1970s considerably strengthened the United States' position because it removed some constraints on their financial actions. "Standard" dependency theory differs from Marxism, in arguing against internationalism and any hope of progress in less developed nations towards industrialization and

13300-461: The largest cause overall. Violence accounted for 12% of male deaths. Suicide was the cause of 6% of all deaths. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed its Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) in 2003 to help assess risk behavior. YRBSS monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults. These are behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence ; YRBSS includes

13433-536: The last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972 . After over two decades of fighting smallpox, a Global Commission declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. 1974: The Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

13566-453: The late 20th century, the rise of new actors engaged in global health—such as the World Bank , the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief ( PEPFAR ) and dozens of public-private partnerships for global health—have weakened the WHO's role as a coordinator and policy leader in the field; subsequently, there are various proposals to reform or reorient

13699-474: The likelihood for the incompletion of high school. These factors also increase the likelihood for the youth to not go to a college or university. In the United States, 12.3 percent of young people ages 16 to 24 are disconnected, meaning they are neither in school nor working. The leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults are due to certain health-risk behaviors. These behaviors are often established during youth and extend into adulthood. Since

13832-550: The long-run when directed towards the appropriate sector and managed accordingly. Specific pairing between organizations and donors with similar goals has produced more success in decreasing dependency than the tradition form of international aid which involves government to government communication. Botswana is a successful example of this. Botswana first began receiving aid in 1966. In this case, Botswana decided which areas needed aid and found donors accordingly rather than simply accepting aid from other countries whose governments had

13965-448: The medium and long run. What seemed like spectacular long-run growth may in the end turn out to be just a short run cyclical spurt after a long recession. Cycle time plays an important role. Giovanni Arrighi believed that the logic of accumulation on a world scale shifts over time, and that the 1980s and beyond once more showed a deregulated phase of world capitalism with a logic, characterized - in contrast to earlier regulatory cycles - by

14098-598: The modern underdevelopment of most of the continent. The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack. It was used to explain the causes of overurbanization , a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries. The Latin American Structuralist and

14231-477: The monitoring of public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting health and well-being generally. The WHO is governed by the World Health Assembly (WHA), which is composed of its 194 member states. The WHA elects and advises an executive board made up of 34 health specialists; selects the WHO's chief administrator, the director-general (currently Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus of Ethiopia ); sets goals and priorities; and approves

14364-443: The most mobile forms of capital transfer. In Africa, states that have emphasized import-substitution development, such as Zimbabwe , have typically been among the worst performers, while the continent's most successful non-oil based economies, such as Egypt , South Africa , and Tunisia , have pursued trade-based development. According to economic historian Robert C. Allen, dependency theory's claims are "debatable" due to fact that

14497-449: The neo-Marxists propose a planned economy . The premises of dependency theory are that: Dependency theory originates with two papers published in 1949, one by Hans Singer and one by Raúl Prebisch , in which the authors observe that the terms of trade for underdeveloped countries relative to the developed countries had deteriorated over time: the underdeveloped countries were able to purchase fewer and fewer manufactured goods from

14630-468: The other European countries made products with these materials and then sent them back to colonized parts of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. This resulted in the transfer of wealth from these regions’ products to Europe for taking control of the products. Some scholars and politicians claim that with the decline of colonialism, dependency has been erased. Other scholars counter this approach, and state that our society still has national powerhouses such as

14763-421: The other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement. The nature of this statement has led some groups and activists including Women in Europe for a Common Future to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and

14896-643: The people. Political dependency is an even stronger negative effect of aid dependency in countries where many of the problems stem from already corrupt politics and a lack of civil rights. For example, Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of the Congo both have extremely high aid dependency ratios and have experienced political turmoil. The politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo have involved civil war and changing of regimes in

15029-564: The perceived failure of the response to the West Africa Ebola outbreak , the World Health Emergencies programme was formed, changing the WHO from just being a "normative" agency to one that responds operationally to health emergencies. 2020: the World Health Organization announced that it had classified the novel coronavirus outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern. The novel coronavirus

15162-403: The periphery – when discussing key features of dependency. Baran placed surplus extraction and capital accumulation at the center of his analysis. Development depends on a population's producing more than it needs for bare subsistence (a surplus). Further, some of that surplus must be used for capital accumulation – the purchase of new means of production – if development is to occur; spending

15295-428: The protectionism that was implemented in Latin America as a solution ended up failing. The countries incurred too much debt and Latin America went into a recession. One of the problems was that the Latin American countries simply had too small national markets to be able to efficiently produce complex industrialized goods, such as automobiles. Many nations have been affected by both the positive and negative effects of

15428-588: The receiving country became accustomed to and developed a dependency syndrome. Aid dependency is most common today in Africa . The top donors as of 2013 were the United States , the United Kingdom , and Germany while the top receivers were Afghanistan , Vietnam , and Ethiopia . International development aid became widely popularized post World-War Two due to first-world countries trying to create

15561-430: The relevant time, they had not reached an age of criminal responsibility. This implies that children lack the judgment that comes with age and experience to be held criminally responsible. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed. The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can consume or purchase alcoholic beverages . These laws cover

15694-637: The right to free speech and association, to due process, equality, autonomy , safety and privacy, and accountability in contracts and advertising, which regulate the treatment of students by teachers and administrators. The smoking age is the minimum age a person can buy tobacco and/or smoke in public. Most countries regulate this law at the national level while at some point it is done by the state or province. Young people spend much of their lives in educational settings, and their experiences in schools, colleges and universities can shape much of their subsequent lives. Research shows that poverty and income affect

15827-553: The risk behaviors in adulthood and youth are interrelated, problems in adulthood are preventable by influencing youth behavior. A 2004 mortality study of youth (defined in this study as ages 10–24) mortality worldwide found that 97% of deaths occurred in low to middle-income countries, with the majority in southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Maternal conditions accounted for 15% of female deaths, while HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis were responsible for 11% of deaths; 14% of male and 5% of female deaths were attributed to traffic accidents,

15960-402: The same thing, but they are occasionally differentiated. Youth can be referred to as the time of life, when one is young. The meaning may in some instances also include childhood. Youth also identifies a particular mindset of attitude, as in "He is very youth ful". For certain uses, such as employment statistics, the term also sometimes refers to individuals from the ages of up to 21. However,

16093-506: The semi-periphery is industrialized, but with less sophistication of technology than in the core; and it does not control finances. The rise of one group of semi-peripheries tends to be at the cost of another group, but the unequal structure of the world economy based on unequal exchange tends to remain stable. Tausch traces the beginnings of world-systems theory to the writings of the Austro-Hungarian socialist Karl Polanyi after

16226-473: The surplus on things like luxury consumption does not produce development. Baran noted two predominant kinds of economic activity in poor countries. In the older of the two, plantation agriculture, which originated in colonial times , most of the surplus goes to the landowners, who use it to emulate the consumption patterns of wealthy people in the developed world; much of it thus goes to purchase foreign-produced luxury items –automobiles, clothes, etc. – and little

16359-504: The term adolescence refers to a specific age range during a specific developmental period in a person's life, unlike youth, which is a socially constructed category. The United Nations defines youth as persons between the ages of roughly 12 and 24, with all UN statistics based on this range, the UN states education as a source for these statistics. The UN also recognizes that this varies without prejudice to other age groups listed by member states such as 18–30. A useful distinction within

16492-476: The work and teaching of Ruy Mauro Marini who developed wider recognition for a specifically Marxist Dependency Theory, after close reading of Marx, that super-exploitation and unequal exchange characteristicly arose out of the specific forms in the capital reproduction of dependency, and the specific class relations particular to that dependency in the periphery . The importance of multinational corporations and state promotion of technology were emphasised by

16625-427: The working age, if they have not reached the age of majority. Activities that are dangerous, harmful to the health or that may affect the morals of minors fall into this category. Student rights are those rights , such as civil, constitutional, contractual and consumer rights, which regulate student rights and freedoms and allow students to make use of their educational investment. These include such things as

16758-488: The world without prejudice to the right of the World Health Organization to concern itself with promoting, developing, assisting and co-ordinating international health work, including research, in all its aspects. The key text is highlighted in bold, the agreement in clause 2 states that the WHO is free to perform any health-related work. 1947: The WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex . 1949: The Soviet Union and its constituent republics quit

16891-407: The world's people, defining health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The main functions of the World Health Organization include: to promote the control of epidemic and endemic diseases; to provide and improve the teaching and training in public health, the medical treatment of disease and related matters; and to promote

17024-513: Was a new strain of coronavirus that had never been detected in humans before. The WHO named this new coronavirus " COVID-19 " or "2019-nCov". 2022: The WHO suggests formation of a Global Health Emergency Council, with a new global health emergency workforce, and recommends revision of the International Health Regulations. 2024: WHO has declared the spread of mpox (formerly monkeypox) in several African countries

17157-543: Was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which says: whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which

17290-475: Was difficult to reach. Seven of these international conferences, spanning 41 years, were convened before any resulted in a multi-state international agreement. The seventh conference, in Venice in 1892, finally resulted in a convention. It was concerned only with the sanitary control of shipping traversing the Suez Canal , and was an effort to guard against importation of cholera. Five years later, in 1897,

17423-416: Was drawn up to improve the resources available. 2005: The WHO revises International Health Regulations (IHR) in light of emerging health threats and the experience of the 2002/3 SARS epidemic , authorizing WHO, among other things, to declare a health threat a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . 2006: The WHO endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed

17556-705: Was formed. 1988: The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. 1995: The WHO established an independent International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication (Guinea worm disease eradication; ICCDE). The ICCDE recommends to the WHO which countries fulfil requirements for certification. It also has role in advising on progress made towards elimination of transmission and processes for verification. 1998: The WHO's director-general highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality , increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on

17689-661: Was the local youth legislature in the village and therefore led the local youth program and projects of the government. The Sangguniang Kabataan was an offshoot of the KB or the Kabataang Barangay (Village Youth) which was abolished when the Local Government Code of 1991 was enacted. The vast majority of young people live in developing countries : according to the United Nations , globally around 85 per cent of 15- to 25-year-olds live in developing countries,

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