Zhang Hua (232–7 May 300), courtesy name Maoxian , was a Chinese poet and politician of the Western Jin dynasty and the preceding state of Cao Wei . An accomplished poet, Zhang also authored the Bowuzhi , a compendium of entries about natural wonders and supernatural phenomena. His political career reached its zenith from 291 to 300, when he served as a leading minister during the de facto regency of Empress Jia Nanfeng . Zhang was considered an effective minister and, in conjunction with his colleague Pei Wei , helped ensure a period of relative stability within the Jin court. As the court fell into factional disputes from 299 to 300, Zhang rebuffed the rebellious overtures of the imperial relative Sima Lun and was executed when the latter seized power from the empress.
45-548: Zhang Hua's father, Zhang Ping ( 張平 ), was a commandery administrator in the Cao Wei state during the Three Kingdoms period. He died when Zhang Hua was still young. Zhang Hua's family became impoverished, and he was a shepherd when he was young. The official Liu Fang ( 劉放 ) was so impressed with Zhang Hua that he arranged for Zhang Hua to marry his daughter. Zhang Hua became known for his literary talent, and he wrote
90-622: A coup d'état , she entrusted Zhang Hua with greater responsibilities as Right Household Counsellor ( 右光祿大夫 ), Palace Attendant ( 侍中 ) and Supervisor of the Palace Writers ( 中書監 ). In 296, Zhang Hua was promoted to Minister of Works ( 司空 ). Over the subsequent years, with Empress Jia Nanfeng in power (Emperor Hui was merely a puppet emperor), Zhang Hua used his political skills to keep the various competing factions in check, in conjunction with Empress Jia's cousin Pei Wei . In early 300,
135-416: A Regular Mounted Attendant ( 散騎常侍 ); Zhang Wei ( 張韙 ), who served as a Mounted Gentleman ( 散騎侍郎 ). Both of them died together with their father and the rest of their families in 300. Only one of Zhang Hua's grandsons, Zhang Yu ( 張輿 ), survived the purge. He inherited his grandfather's peerage in 301 after his grandfather was posthumously rehabilitated. Zhang Shangrou (张尚柔), mother of Emperor Wu of Liang ,
180-477: A collection of poems, ostensibly about birds – but in fact about people's tendencies. His poems received great renown, and the commandery administrator recommended him to the regent, Sima Zhao . Sima Zhao made him one of his secretaries, and he distinguished himself in that role. However, as an Academician in the Ministry of Ceremonies ( 太常博士 ), he suffered disgrace when he was dismissed for negligence after one of
225-662: A coup against her in May and arrested her, slaughtering her clan and her associates (including Zhang and Pei). He then forced her to commit suicide. Sima Lun then became regent for the developmentally disabled Emperor Hui, but was described as being not particularly more intelligent than Emperor Hui. Even though he carried the regent title, true power was in Sun Xiu's hands. Under Sun Xiu's persuasion, he deposed Emperor Hui and declared himself emperor in February 301, offering Emperor Hui
270-476: A number of minor titles during the Cao Wei regencies of his father and half-brothers Sima Shi and Sima Zhao . Around February or March 250, he was enfeoffed as Marquis of Anle Village, and when Sima Zhao established the Five Feudal Ranks of Zhou in 264, his fief was changed to Viscount of Dong'an, and he was designated Remonstrating and Consulting Grandee. After his nephew Sima Yan established
315-518: A rebellion to restore Emperor Hui. Prince Ying, Sima Ai the Prince of Changshan (Emperor Hui's half-brother), and Sima Xin (司馬歆) the Duke of Xinye (the son of a granduncle of Emperor Hui, Sima Jun ) all declared support for Prince Jiong. Prince Yong initially sent his general Zhang Fang (張方) with intent to support Sima Lun, but then heard that Princes Jiong and Ying had great forces, and so declared for
360-478: A rebellion, and replaced him with Cao Mao . In response, Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin staged a rebellion, but were crushed by Sima Shi in an event that nevertheless took a heavy toll on Sima Shi's health, having undergone eye surgery prior to the insurrection, causing him to die on 23 March 255, but not before handing his power and regency over to his younger brother, Sima Zhao . In 258, Sima Zhao quelled Zhuge Dan's rebellion , marking an end to what are known as
405-527: A regent for his son Sima Zhong (later Emperor Hui) , Zhang Hua recommended Emperor Wu's brother, Sima You (the Prince of Qi) . Although Sima You was clearly capable of fulfilling that role, Emperor Wu was angry with Zhang Hua because he feared that Sima You might usurp the throne from Sima Zhong in the future since he had much support from the masses. The officials who previously opposed the campaign against Eastern Wu seized this opportunity to speak ill of Zhang Hua in front of Emperor Wu and cause him to fall out of
450-430: A relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Wei" (魏) is also known as "Cao Wei" (曹魏) Cao Pi ruled for six years until his death on 29 June 226 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Rui , who ruled until his death on 22 January 239. Throughout the reigns of Cao Pi and Cao Rui, Wei had been fighting numerous wars with its two rival states – Shu and Wu. Between 228 and 234, Zhuge Liang ,
495-678: The Jin dynasty (it was Sima Yi himself who associated with the orthodox Confucianists, who despised these new intellectual groups, and therefore were more willing to offer their support to the Sima clan). According to the Book of Wei by Wang Chen , the Cao family descended from the Yellow Emperor through his grandson Zhuanxu . They were of the same lineage as Emperor Shun . Another account says that
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#1732802049339540-773: The Jin dynasty on 8 February 266. Cao Huan himself was spared, though, and continued to live until 302, before dying. The system of government in Wei inherited many aspects from that of the Eastern Han dynasty . During his reign, Cao Pi established two separate government bodies – the Central Inspectorate (中書監) and the Mobile Imperial Secretariat (行尚書臺) – to reduce the authority of the Imperial Secretariat (尚書臺) and consolidate
585-827: The Three Rebellions in Shouchun . In 260, Cao Mao attempted to seize back state power from Sima Zhao in a coup, but was killed by Cheng Ji, a military officer who was serving under Jia Chong , a subordinate to the Simas. After Cao Mao's death, Cao Huan was enthroned as the fifth ruler of Wei. However, Cao Huan was also a mere figurehead under Sima Zhao's control, much like his predecessor. In 263, Wei armies led by Zhong Hui and Deng Ai conquered Shu . Afterwards, Zhong Hui and former Shu general Jiang Wei grouped and plotted together in order to oust Sima Zhao from power, however, various Wei officials turned against them when it
630-557: The Cao family descended from Emperor Shun. This account was attacked by Jiang Ji , who claimed that those with the family name " Tian " descended from Shun, but not those surnamed " Cao ". He also claimed that "Gui" (媯) was Emperor Shun's family name. - - - - - = The dashed line denotes an adoption Sima Lun Sima Lun ( traditional Chinese : 司馬倫 ; simplified Chinese : 司马伦 ; pinyin : Sīmǎ Lún ; Wade–Giles : Ssu-ma Lun ) (born before 250 – poisoned June 5, 301), courtesy name Ziyi ( 子彛 ),
675-462: The Jin dynasty on 8 February 266, Sima Lun was named the Prince of Langye Commandery the next day. He served as a general and governor at times during his nephew's reign, but was undistinguished; several times he was accused of crimes, such as when sending Cavalier Commander Liu Ji to pay laborers wanting to rob imperial furs, but each time Emperor Wu pardoned him of them. On 5 October 277, his principality
720-436: The Prince of Qi (Emperor Hui's cousin and the son of Emperor Hui's uncle, Prince Xian of Qi Sima You ), Sima Ying the Prince of Chengdu (Emperor Hui's half-brother), and Sima Yong the Prince of Hejian (the grandson of Emperor Hui's great-granduncle Sima Fu , Prince Xian of Anping), each of whom had strong independent military commands—Sun sent his trusted subordinates to be their assistants. Prince Jiong refused and declared
765-465: The Shu chancellor and regent, led a series of five military campaigns to attack Wei's western borders (within present-day Gansu and Shaanxi ), with the aim of conquering Chang'an , a strategic city which lay on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang . The Shu invasions were repelled by the Wei armies led by the generals Cao Zhen , Sima Yi , Zhang He and others; Shu did not make any significant gains in
810-491: The beams in the imperial ancestral temple broke. In 265, after Sima Zhao's son, Sima Yan (Emperor Wu) usurped the throne from the last Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan and established the Jin dynasty (266–420) , he appointed Zhang Hua as a Gentleman of the Yellow Gate ( 黃門侍郎 ) and awarded him the title of a Secondary Marquis ( 關內侯 ). He was promoted to the position of a Master of Writing ( 尚書 ) later. Around 279 or 280, when
855-604: The commandery by late September of the same year. Around that time, as the Korean kingdom Goguryeo consolidated its power, it proceeded to conquer the territories on the Korean peninsula which were under Chinese rule. Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei Wars in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, Wei responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. Hwando
900-741: The control of the central government. He reduced the role of a Governor to that of an Inspector (刺史), and permitted the Inspectors to administer only civil affairs in their respective provinces, while military affairs were handled by military personnel based in regional offices or in the capital. Cao Wei society was feudalized and vassalized. When China was divided in the Period of Disunion, south and north were economically and socially dominated by an aristocratic hereditary class enshrined in law, who were exempt from conscript labor, special kinds of taxes, had legal immunities and other privileges. This situation
945-626: The emperor's favour. Emperor Wu then sent Zhang Hua away to the northern frontier in You Province to serve as Colonel Who Protects the Wuhuan ( 護烏桓校尉 ) and General Who Stabilises the North ( 安北將軍 ). Zhang Hua performed well in office as he pacified the various non- Han Chinese peoples, such as the Wuhuan and Xianbei tribes, in the region. Although Emperor Wu considered summoning Zhang Hua back to
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#1732802049339990-553: The expeditions. On its southern and eastern borders, Wei engaged Wu in a series of armed conflicts throughout the 220s and 230s, including the battles of Dongkou (222–223), Jiangling (223) and Shiting (228). However, most of the battles resulted in stalemate and neither side managed to significantly expand its territory. After Guanqiu Jian failed to subjugate the Gongsun clan of the Liaodong Commandery , it
1035-629: The former was Zhong Yao , an official of Wei, of the latter; Cao Cao's son, Cao Zhi . Since the beginning of the Cao Wei dynasty, finding their roots in Cao Cao 's administrative influences, intellectual constraints were relaxed, leading to the formation of new groups of intellectuals, such as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove . These intellectual freedoms were overturned by the time of
1080-585: The general Yang Hu encouraged Emperor Wu to conquer the Jin dynasty's rival state Eastern Wu , most officials strongly objected but Zhang Hua agreed with Yang Hu and became heavily involved in the strategies and logistic arrangements behind the campaign against Eastern Wu . After the Jin dynasty conquered Eastern Wu in 280, Emperor Wu enfeoffed Zhang Hua as the Marquis of Guangwu ( 廣武侯 ) to honour him for his contributions. Zhang Hua soon fell out of favour with Emperor Wu. When Emperor Wu once asked him who could be
1125-424: The honorific title of retired emperor but putting him under house arrest. Emperor Hui's grandson, the crown prince Sima Zang (司馬臧), was executed. The act of usurpation brought widespread anger. In order to appease those who might be angry at his usurpation, Sima Lun rewarded many people with honors. Sun, in particular, was issuing edicts based on his own whims. Suspecting three autonomous key princes— Sima Jiong
1170-509: The imperial capital Luoyang to serve in ministerial positions, he changed his mind every time after listening to officials who disliked Zhang Hua. Following Emperor Wu's death in 290, Zhang Hua was summoned back to Luoyang to serve as an Official of Ceremonies ( 太常卿 ), a position without actual power. His role was mainly to teach Sima Yu , the heir apparent of the newly enthroned Sima Zhong (Emperor Hui) . After Empress Jia Nanfeng overthrew Empress Dowager Yang and her father Yang Jun in
1215-408: The last Wei emperors largely being puppets of the Sima family. In 266, Sima Yi's grandson Sima Yan forced Emperor Yuan to abdicate, proclaiming himself to be Emperor Wu of the newly established Jin dynasty . Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty , northern China came under the control of Cao Cao , the chancellor to the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian . In 213, Emperor Xian granted Cao Cao
1260-493: The magnate families even after war ended. They did not contribute any labor service or taxes to the central government while their magnate lord received 50% or more of their grain harvest. They effectively were bondservants to their lords. The kaishu style of Chinese calligraphy was developed at some time between the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Cao Wei dynasty, as well as the Jian'an poetry style. The first known master of
1305-414: The political firestorm became too big for Zhang Hua to handle after Empress Jia Nanfeng framed Sima Yu for treason in February and had him deposed. In April, fearing that Sima Yu would make a comeback, Empress Jia had him murdered. Sima Lun (the Prince of Zhao), a granduncle of Emperor Hui, plotted a coup d'état to remove Empress Jia from power. He tried to persuade Zhang Hua to join him, but Zhang Hua
1350-556: The power of the central government. During this time, the minister Chen Qun developed the nine-rank system for civil service nomination, which was adopted by later dynasties until it was superseded by the imperial examination system in the Sui dynasty . Cao Pi felt that the Han dynasty collapsed because the Governors (州牧) of the various provinces wielded too much power and fell outside
1395-609: The reign of Cao Rui's successor, Cao Fang , the regent Sima Yi seized state power from his co-regent, Cao Shuang, in a coup. This event marked the collapse of imperial authority in Wei, as Cao Fang's role had been reduced to that of a puppet ruler while Sima Yi wielded state power firmly in his hands. Wang Ling , a Wei general, tried to rebel against Sima Yi, but was swiftly dealt with , and took his own life. Sima Yi died on 7 September 251, passing on his authority to his eldest son, Sima Shi , who continued ruling as regent. Sima Shi deposed Cao Fang in 254, on grounds of planning to stage
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1440-417: The throne, establishing the state of Wei. However, Liu Bei immediately contested Cao Pi's claim to the Han throne and declared himself "Emperor of Han " a year later. Sun Quan was nominally a vassal king under Wei, but he declared independence in 222 and eventually proclaimed himself "Emperor of Wu " in 229. To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added
1485-512: The title of " Duke of Wei" (魏公) and gave him ten cities as his dukedom. The area was named "Wei". At that time, the southern part of China was divided into two areas controlled by two other warlords, Liu Bei and Sun Quan . In 216, Emperor Xian promoted Cao Cao to the status of a vassal king – "King of Wei (魏王)". Cao Cao died on 15 March 220 and his vassal king title was inherited by his son Cao Pi . Later that year, on 11 December, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and took over
1530-595: Was Sima Yi who, in June 238, as the Grand Commandant (太尉), launched an invasion with 40,000 troops at the behest of Emperor Cao Rui against Liaodong, which at this point had been firmly rooted under Gongsun control for 4 decades. After a three-month long siege, involving some assistance from the Goguryeo Kingdom, Sima Yi managed to capture the capital city of Xiangping , resulting in the conquest of
1575-462: Was a conspiracy to overthrow her and restore the crown prince. Sima Lun was persuaded to join the conspiracy, but Sun Xiu had another plan for him: he should encourage Empress Jia to assassinate the crown prince in exile, and then use the assassination as the excuse to overthrow her. Sima Lun accepted this plan and persuaded her to assassinate the crown prince, which she did in April 300. He then declared
1620-521: Was a descendant (5x-great-granddaughter) of Zhang Hua. Cao Wei Wei ( Chinese : 魏 ) was one of the major dynastic states in China during the Three Kingdoms period. The state was established in 220 by Cao Pi based upon the foundations laid by his father Cao Cao during the end of the Han dynasty . Its capital was initially located at Xuchang , and was later moved to Luoyang . The name Wei first became associated with Cao Cao when he
1665-582: Was admired by such people as Ruan Ji and Chen Liu ( 陳留 ). He was profoundly learned, and when he changed houses it took thirty carts to carry his library. Zhang Hua was the author of the Bowuzhi , a collection of articles on various topics of interest. It appears to have perished during the Song dynasty , and the modern work which passes under that name was probably compiled from extracts found in other books. Zhang Hua had two sons: Zhang Yi ( 張禕 ), who served as
1710-687: Was created by Cao Wei with rigid social stratification backed by law between shu (庶) (commoner) households and shi (士) (noble) households in the Nine ranks system which was created by Cao Wei and enabled hereditary officeholding by the aristocratic magnate families. Magnates took in farming families and war refugees into their fortress villages as ke (客) (private clients) and as buqu (military retainers) who made up their private militias. These magnates were rich landowners and local warlords and their economic and social power only grew at this time. The military retainers stayed own as private agricultural laborers bonded to
1755-495: Was destroyed in a reprisal raid by Wei forces in 244. The invasions sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts. In 249, during
1800-494: Was found out that Jiang Wei had urged Zhong Hui to get rid of these officials before the planned coup. Sima Zhao himself received and finally accepted the nine bestowals and the title Duke of Jin in 263, and was further bestowed with the title King of Jin by Cao Huan in 264, but he died on 6 September 265, leaving the final step of usurpation up to his eldest son, Sima Yan . On 4 February 266, Sima Zhao's son, Sima Yan, forced Cao Huan to abdicate in his favor, replacing Wei with
1845-558: Was moved to Zhao. During the early reign of Emperor Hui , Sima Lun was in charge of the military command of Qin (秦州, modern eastern Gansu ) and Yong (雍州, modern central and northern Shaanxi ) Provinces, but his misgovernance contributed to conditions where the Di and the Qiang rebelled under the Di chief Qi Wannian . His chief strategist Sun Xiu was arrested and initially set to be executed, but
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1890-588: Was named the Duke of Wei by the Eastern Han government in 213, and became the name of the state when Cao Pi proclaimed himself emperor in 220. Historians often add the prefix "Cao" to distinguish it from other Chinese states known as Wei . The authority of the ruling Cao family dramatically weakened following the deposition and execution of Cao Shuang , a regent for the dynasty's third emperor Cao Fang . Beginning in 249, another regent in Sima Yi gradually consolidated state authority for himself and his relatives, with
1935-481: Was reluctant to do so. In May, after Sima Lun successfully overthrew Empress Jia, he had her several of her supporters and associates (including Zhang Hua) executed along with their families. Sima Lun then usurped the throne and briefly ruled as emperor before he was overthrown. In 301, Sima You's son and successor, Sima Jiong (the Prince of Qi), then the regent, had Zhang Hua posthumously rehabilitated and restored to his former titles and positions. Zhang Hua's poetry
1980-425: Was spared. Sima Lun and Sun were recalled to the capital Luoyang , where he flattered Empress Hui's empress Jia Nanfeng and became trusted by her. Lun then requested a high level office, but was rebuffed by Empress Jia's advisors Zhang Hua and Pei Wei . Empress Jia, in jealousy, deposed the crown prince Sima Yu (born not of her, but of her husband's concubine Consort Xie Jiu) in February 300. Later, there
2025-634: Was titled the Prince of Zhao ( 趙王 ; 赵王 ; Zhào Wáng ) and the usurper of the Jin Dynasty from February 3 to May 31, 301. He is usually not counted in the list of Jin emperors due to his brief reign, and was often mentioned by historians as an usurper. He was the third of the eight princes commonly associated with the War of the Eight Princes . As Sima Yi 's ninth and youngest son, Sima Lun held
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