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63-885: The term Zhengyi (Orthodox Unity) has been used since Taoism became an organized religion in 142 AD when Taishang Laojun bestowed the Covenant with the Powers of Orthodox Unity ( zhengyi mengwei ) on Zhang Daoling . Zhang's followers called his teachings the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice while during the Six Dynasties period, the Southern Taoists called it the Way of the Celestial Masters . The Covenant, Five Pecks of Rice, and Celestial Masters all refer to

126-547: A vegetarian meal. Ritual activity during feasts and other activities usually involved a series of bows and prostrations as well as the burning of incense. Banquets were also held when someone died. During these banquets, attendees would perform rituals aimed at remitting the sins of the deceased. While monasticism had existed in Chinese Buddhism, the Northern Celestial Masters were one of

189-612: A celestial entourage and announced by a celestial envoy. Laozi was also extremely closely linked with the Buddha, and in certain sources, even became the Buddha or announced Yinxi as the Buddha. The Northern Celestial Masters followed certain regular, communal rites. One of these communal rites involved formal banquets . These feasts could last as long as seven days. In order to purify themselves for feasts, members had to abstain from eating meat, garlic, green onions, ginger, leeks and onions. A banquet consisted of three courses – wine, rice and

252-604: A collaboration. Traditional accounts addend him as Li Er , born in the 6th century   BC state of Chu during China's Spring and Autumn period . Serving as the royal archivist for the Zhou court at Wangcheng (in modern Luoyang ), he met and impressed Confucius on one occasion, composing the Tao Te Ching in a single session before retiring into the western wilderness. A central figure in Chinese culture , Laozi

315-566: A formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi . A.C. Graham suggested that the Confucian version of the story presented in the Book of Rites was the original, which was borrowed and re-interpreted by the followers of Zhuang Zhou . His birthday

378-543: A great deal of prestige and importance among Taoists throughout China. This prestige, which arose from the belief that he was descended from Zhang Daoling , was evident when the Celestial Master traveled and attracted crowds of people wherever he went. Unlike prior incarnations of the Celestial Masters, like the school based at Louguan , the Zhengyi Taoists did not venerate Laozi as a god. Instead, he

441-549: A group of Celestial Masters established themselves in Northern China. Kou Qianzhi , from a family who followed the Celestial Master, brought a new version of Celestial Master Daoism to the Northern Wei . The Northern Wei government embraced his form of Daoism and established it as the state religion, thereby creating a new Daoist theocracy that lasted until 450 CE. The arrival of Buddhism had great influence on

504-567: A national history of Wei dynasty containing unflattering portraits of its rulers carved in stone. This so enraged the emperor, that he had Cui executed in 450. After Cui's execution, the Taoist community was forced to flee, with many of them settling at the Taoist center of Louguan . By the late 470s, Taoists fleeing from the Northern Wei court had transformed Louguan into an important religious center. According to legend, Louguan used to be

567-811: A new patriarchy at their base of Longhu Shan. The importance of the Zhengyi school grew during the Song dynasty , with the Celestial masters frequently receiving imperial appointments. In 1239, the Southern Song dynasty 's Emperor Lizong commanded the 35th Celestial Master Zhang Keda to unite the Lingbao School , the Shangqing School and Zhengyi Dao. The new school was to retain the Zhengyi name and remain based at Mount Longhu. Shortly after

630-714: A reference work known as the Zhengtong Daozang (Taoist Canon of the Zhengtong Reign ), which was an overview of current Taoists texts and practices. Zhang Guoxiang (?-1611), compiled a similar reference work in 1607 known as the Wanli Xu Daozang (Supplementary Taoist Canon of the Wanli Reign Period). Laozi Laozi ( / ˈ l aʊ d z ə / , Chinese : 老子 ), also romanized as Lao Tzu and various other ways ,

693-671: A scholar and Taoist who proposed that Buddhism be abolished in China. Naturally, the Buddhists were not happy with his suggestions and countered his arguments in several treatises. The second debate concerned Lu Zhongqing, a friend of Fu Yi, who wrote about Buddhism's inferiority to Taoism. The Tang emperors were in support of the Taoists, and in 637 issued an edict that secured the precedence of Taoism over Buddhism. This edict remained in place until 674, when Empress Wu Zetian came to power. At

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756-523: A small to medium domain, and as a general mark of respect. The character 陽 is yang , the solar and masculine life force in Taoist belief. Lao Dan seems to have been used more generally, however, including by Sima Qian in his Records of the Grand Historian , in the Zhuangzi , and by some modern scholars. By the mid-twentieth century, consensus had emerged among Western scholars that

819-520: A temple, but can also involve religious processions through the city, musical performances and a mass offering in front of the temple. The Zhengyi Taoists were particularly notable for their work in gathering Taoist texts and assembling them into collections. Zhang Yuchu (1361–1410) received an imperial commission in 1406 to gather texts, in particular those produced during the reign of the Hongwu Emperor (1368–98). With these texts, Zhang compiled

882-625: A text known as the Laojun Yinsong Jiejing (New Code). This text contained precepts designed for a new religious community. In 423, a messenger of Laozi came and offered Kou a new text called the Lutu Zhenjing (Perfect Scripture of Registers and Charts), which is now lost, and appointed him as the new Celestial Master. In 424, Kou took these texts with him to the Wei court. There, he was welcomed by Emperor Taiwu and garnered

945-557: Is a semi-legendary ancient Chinese philosopher and author of the Tao Te Ching ( Laozi ), the foundational text of Taoism along with the Zhuangzi . A Chinese honorific typically translated as "the Old Master (zi)", the name and text were likely intended to portray an archaic anonymity that could converse with Confucianism . Modern scholarship generally regards his biographical details as later inventions, and his opus

1008-467: Is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made. In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th century   BC reign of the Duke Xian of Qin who grew weary of

1071-416: Is generally considered the founder of Taoism. He was claimed and revered as the ancestor of the 7th–10th century Tang dynasty and is similarly honored in modern China as the progenitor of the popular surname Li . In some sects of Taoism, Chinese Buddhism , Confucianism , and Chinese folk religion , it is held that he then became an immortal hermit . Certain Taoist devotees held that the Tao Te Ching

1134-551: Is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment". This concept is used to explain ziran , or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from

1197-574: Is popularly held to be the 15th day of the second month of the Chinese calendar . In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son who became a celebrated soldier of Wei during the Warring States period . The Tao Te Ching is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony . It is often called the Laozi , and has always been associated with that name. The identity of

1260-427: Is the Chinese word for 'ear'. Laozi is recorded bearing the courtesy name Boyang ( 伯 陽 , Bóyáng ), whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *pˤrak laŋ . The character 伯 was the title of the eldest son born to the primary wife, or an uncle of the father's family who was older than one's father, also used as a noble title indicating an aristocratic lineage head with rulership over

1323-624: The Daoist Way of the Celestial Master ( simplified Chinese : 天师道 ; traditional Chinese : 天師道 ; pinyin : Tiān Shī Dào ) in the north of China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties . The Northern Celestial Masters were a continuation of the Way as it had been practiced in Sichuan province by Zhang Lu and his followers. After the community was forced to relocate in 215 CE,

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1386-488: The Zhuangzi . Alan Chan provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei , free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores

1449-458: The Dao that is inherent in the world, outlines meditation techniques, and discusses the results of living a sagely life and what happens after death. The Northern Celestial Master variety of Daoism was both similar and different from Zhang Lu's earlier form. Unlike prior incarnations of the Celestial Masters, which supported sexual practices as a means of achieving immortality, Kou's text urged that

1512-455: The Tao Te Ching in a complete form by itself were discovered at a tomb in Mawangdui , and date to the early 2nd century BCE. Analysis of early commentary on passages that appear in the received Tao Te Ching supports an accretionary evolution for the text rather than a singular authorship event. The earliest biographical reference to Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BC Records of

1575-580: The Zhengyi branch of Taoism but in different periods. Celestial Master communities suffered from numerous migrations in the late Three Kingdoms and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Cao Cao resettled them in the north and then they joined mass migrations to the south after the loss of Northern China in 317 to the Uprising of the Five Barbarians . In the 5th century Abridged Codes for

1638-413: The historicity of a person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching is "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands", with an author being invented afterwards. While multiple authorship over time is typical for early Chinese texts, the book's conspicuous absence of a central Master figure place it in marked contrast with nearly all other early Chinese philosophical works. As of 2024 ,

1701-419: The jiao ritual. In performing a ritual, an adherent must first recite a litany of repentance, then notify the deities of the merits gained through repentance by submitting a document to heaven. Upon completion of the zhai ritual, the jiao ritual begins in which deities are given offerings and thanked. The jiao ritual is usually performed over a three-day period. Much of the ritual is performed by priests in

1764-511: The Grand Historian by Sima Qian . Multiple accounts of Laozi's biography are presented, with Sima Qian expressing various levels of doubt in his sources. In one account, Sima Qian reports that Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century   BC. His personal name was Er or Dan. He was born in the village of Quren ( 曲仁里 , Qūrén lǐ ) in the southern state of Chu , within present-day Luyi in Henan . He

1827-448: The Northern Celestial Masters, bringing monasticism and influencing the diet of practitioners. Art produced in areas dominated by the Northern Celestial Masters also began to show Buddhist influence. When the theocracy collapsed, many Daoists fled to Louguan, which quickly became an important religious center. The Northern Celestial Masters survived as a distinct school at Louguan until the late 7th century CE, when they became integrated into

1890-555: The Northern Wei period of the Northern Celestial Masters is the Laojun Yinsong Jiejing (New Code). This text was revealed to Kou Qianzhi in 415, and is now mostly lost apart from a few fragments. The surviving text contains thirty-six precepts that outline rules which a Daoist had to abide by. The behavioral rules outlined proper public conduct and what to do in case of sickness. There were also guidelines describing how banquets were to be set up, as well ritual instructions concerning funeral rites, immortality practice and petitions. One of

1953-521: The Taoist Community , Lu Xiujing laments that Taoist Assemblies no longer observed the proper rules and the position of libationer had become hereditary. By the Tang dynasty , the title of Celestial Master had been debased to the point where any prominent Taoist could claim the title. Celestial Master priests no longer figured prominently in Taoist texts. Emperor Xuanzong (712-756) canonized

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2016-658: The Taoist schools, with the exception of the Quanzhen School , were united under the banner of the Zhengyi School, with the 38th Celestial Master, Zhang Yucai, as spiritual leader. The founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368 marked the beginning of a long decline in the power of the Zhengyi Taoism. The first Ming ruler, the Hongwu Emperor (1368–98), suppressed the use of the title of 'Celestial Master' among

2079-547: The Thunder Rites during the last two decades of the Northern Song dynasty. The Five Thunders variety appeared earlier and was linked with the Celestial Masters. There are two main types of rituals performed by the Zhengyi Taoists the jiao (Offering) and zhai (Retreat) rituals. The zhai ritual is performed as a way to gain benefits through purification and abstinence, and usually takes place immediately before

2142-545: The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars , and wrote a book in 15 parts. The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it

2205-613: The Zhengyi School, and the 50th Celestial Master Zhang Guoxiang had his title stripped by the Longqing Emperor (1567–72). By the Daoguang period (1821–50) of the Qing dynasty , relations between the court and the Celestial Masters came to an end. The school's activities became localized to regions in which the school was particularly important. Despite ending association with the court, the Celestial Master himself still retained

2268-446: The book conspicuously lacks a central "master" character and seldom references historical people or events, giving it an air of timelessness. The Tao Te Ching describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting

2331-536: The first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling during his reign. This brought no benefit to the original base of the Celestial Masters in Sichuan , but rather benefited a temple in the Jiangnan area of Jiangxi province. This temple was located at Mount Longhu , claimed to be the spot where Zhang Daoling had obtained the Tao, and where his descendants still lived. Recognized by the emperor as the legitimate descendants of Zhang Daoling, these new Celestial Masters established

2394-768: The first Daoist groups to practice it. Kou lived a monastic lifestyle on Songshan , known today for being the location of the Shaolin Monastery . Monasticism developed further during the Louguan phase of the Northern Celestial Masters due to this influence of Buddhism. During this period, a clear distinction developed between lay and monastic followers in Daoism. The ordination, precepts and way in which monks sought salvation were all influenced by Buddhism. Many art objects were produced in Northern China during

2457-465: The first Daoists to practice a form of monasticism, another idea that came from Buddhism. Kou also condemned messianic movements and called for texts such as the Daodejing to be copied and recited. Those people who were good in life would gain immortality in a new age, whereas those who were bad would be reborn as insects or animals. Some similarities between earlier Celestial Master Daoism include

2520-595: The home of Yin Xi , the first recipient of the Dao de jing . At this time, the center's buildings were greatly expanded, and many Taoist scriptures were collected, including materials from the Lingbao and Shangqing schools. During the 7th century, the school had a prominent role in a series of debates that examined whether Buddhism or Taoism would be better suited to bring stability to the realm. The first debate surrounded Fu Yi ,

2583-478: The moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi . The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching , although

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2646-520: The most important text's from the school's Louguan period is called the Xishengjing (The Scripture of Western Ascension). This text describes Laozi's emigration to India and the transmission of the Daode Jing to Yin Xi. However, the text is not really a narrative, but uses the stories as a framework to describe how an adept should live his life. The text describes how an adept can make use of

2709-415: The natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. Wu wei , literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching . The concept of wu wei

2772-529: The oldest manuscript containing text from the Tao Te Ching dates to the late 4th century BC, written on bamboo slips excavated as part of the Guodian Chu Slips . These passages correspond with roughly one third of the received text, and some are placed in the same order. These are mixed in with passages not carried by the transmitted Tao Te Ching , indicating that its makeup was still undergoing revisions and modifications. The oldest manuscripts of

2835-410: The person or people who wrote or compiled the text has been the source of considerable speculation and debate throughout history. As with many works of ancient Chinese philosophy , ideas are often explained by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. The Tao Te Ching stands as an exemplar of this literary form. Unlike most works of its genre,

2898-532: The personal name Li Er ( 李 耳 , Lǐ Ěr ), whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *C.rəʔ C.nəʔ . Li is a common Chinese surname which also has the meaning meaning ' plum ' or plum tree when used as a common noun; there is a legend tying Laozi's birth to a plum tree. Laozi has long been identified with the persona Lao Dan ( 老 聃 , Lǎo Dān ). Dan similarly means "Long-Ear" or "the Long-Eared One". The character 耳

2961-430: The present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In some later interpretations, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha . Others say he was the Buddha himself. The stories assert that Laozi never opened

3024-470: The realm, and a large altar was built near the capital where 120 Taoist practitioners performed rites and prayers daily. Cui gained a great deal of power in the court, and in 444 began to purge the Buddhist clergy . This led to a major persecution against Buddhists in 446. In 448, Kou Qianzhi was ' released ' from his body, and Cui lost his greatest supporter at the court. Shortly after Kou's death, Cui had

3087-477: The received text of the Tao Te Ching was not composed until the 4th century   BC Warring States period , and was the product of multiple authors. Laozi / ˈ l aʊ d z ə / is the modern pinyin romanization of 老子 . It is not a personal name, but rather an honorific title , meaning 'old' or 'venerable'. Its structure matches that of other ancient Chinese philosophers, such as Kongzi , Mengzi , and Zhuangzi . Traditional accounts give Laozi

3150-416: The religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" ( 谷神 , gǔshén ) and 'soul' ( 魄 , pò ), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of

3213-474: The role of Laozi . Laozi was viewed as the personification of the Dao, who existed for eternity and created the world. He was believed to be the creator of the universe and came to earth intermittently to bring forth sacred scriptures, including the Daode Jing and Xisheng Jing . Moreover, Laozi continued to appear periodically and bring forth new scriptures to both Kou Qianzhi and adherents at Louguan, surrounded by

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3276-407: The same source. Tao Te Ching used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in

3339-602: The same time, Louguan also served as a refuge for Taoists fleeing the persecution of Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty to the south. The final Northern Celestial Master, Yin Wencao arrived at Louguan in 636 and later achieved the favor of the Gaozong Emperor . After Yin's death in 688, Louguan remained an important place of Taoist learning, but ceased to be considered part of a distinct school. The most important text from

3402-692: The schools were united, the Mongols under Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Song dynasty and established the Yuan dynasty in China. He accepted the claim that the Celestial Master of Mount Longhu was descended from Zhang Daoling and granted the school the right to control affairs relating to Taoism in the Jiangnan area. In 1304, as a result of Zhengyi Dao's increased importance under the Mongols, all of

3465-564: The sexual arts be purged from the religion. In addition, he also states that religion must be purged of the imposition of religious taxes on the faithful and the inheritance of religious titles. In the Northern Celestial Masters, Laozi became closely linked with the Buddha , who was claimed to be a student of Laozi. There were also very specific dietary requirements that had to be followed, as well as other rules, many of which were influenced by Buddhism . The Northern Celestial Masters were also

3528-400: The support of Cui Hao , the prime minister. Even though Cui Hao was a Confucianist , he greatly admired Kou and was immediately drawn to him. Cui also appreciated Kou's mathematical skills and hoped that he might help him improve his own longevity techniques. They also shared a dream of a 'purified society,' a land where peace and justice prevailed. Kou's 'New Code' was promulgated throughout

3591-400: The time of the Northern Celestial Masters. These objects were closely modeled on Buddhist designs. The image of the god (usually Laozi), would be carved on the front side of a stone stele, with inscriptions on the back or side of the carving. The inscriptions were usually prayers to the dead, a wish for the happiness of family members or wishes for political peace. The iconography and contents of

3654-531: The wider Daoist movement. Kou Qianzhi was a member of Celestial Master family that came from an area near Chang'an . Inspired by the burgeoning Taoist movement in Southern China, Kou retreated to Mount Song in Henan to receive inspiration. On the mountain, as described by the text The History of the Wei Dynasty , he was visited twice by Laozi . In his first visit in 415, Laozi revealed to Kou

3717-697: The work. Confucianism Persons Topics Neo Confucianism New Confucianism Daoism Persons Topics Legalism Mohism Military and Strategy Han Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism Maoism General topics Vedic philosophy Mimamsa Vedanta Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Navya-Nyāya Vaisheshika Nāstika (heterodox) Tamil Other General topics Jainism Buddhism Traditions Topics Japanese Buddhism The Northern Celestial Masters The Northern Celestial Masters are an evolution of

3780-502: Was a way to allow that the Taoist tradition passed on to future generations by ensuring those who received them had an adequate knowledge of the school's teachings. Registers also had the names of deities written on them who could be called upon by the bearer to assist in times of need. Once one received a register, they were considered to be part of the priesthood. There were different grades of registers for laypeople with differing levels of religious knowledge. The Celestial Masters adopted

3843-705: Was said to be the son of the Censor-in-Chief of the Zhou dynasty and Lady Yishou ( 益壽氏 ), and was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal Zhou court. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius called Lao Laizi  [ zh ] ( 老莱子 ), one of

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3906-474: Was the avatar – embodied as a book – of the god Laojun , one of the Three Pure Ones of the Taoist pantheon, though few philosophers believe this. The Tao Te Ching had a profound influence on Chinese religious movements and on subsequent Chinese philosophers, who annotated, commended, and criticized the texts extensively. In the 20th century, textual criticism by modern historians led to theories questioning Laozi's timing or even existence, positing that

3969-406: Was viewed as the ancestor of the school's teaching. During the Tang dynasty, the primary activity of Zhengyi Taoists was to sell protective talismans . Local cults developed around the sale of these talismans, and around guilds and associations patronized by members of the church. One of the fundamental practices of the school was conferring registers ( lu ) upon people entering Taoism. A register

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