Cao Cao ( pronunciation ; [tsʰǎʊ tsʰáʊ] ; Chinese : 曹操 ; c. 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde , was a Chinese statesman, warlord, and poet who rose to power during the end of the Han dynasty ( c. 184–220 ), ultimately taking effective control of the Han central government. He laid the foundation for the state of Cao Wei (220–265), established by his son and successor Cao Pi , who ended the Eastern Han dynasty and inaugurated the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). Beginning in his own lifetime, a corpus of legends developed around Cao Cao which built upon his talent, his cruelty, and his perceived eccentricities.
159-597: The Way of the Celestial Masters or the Heavenly Masters Sect is a Chinese Taoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic state in what is now Sichuan . In 142 CE, Zhang Daoling announced that Laozi had appeared to him, and commanded him to rid
318-548: A " liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters ( 法師 ) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism ) within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( 道教徒 ; 'follower of Dao'), with
477-474: A 'Chamber of Silence,' and reflecting on one's sins, or by beating one's breasts and kowtowing to heaven. Illness could also be cured in other ways as well, among them using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music. Eating very little was also of extreme importance, and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all, but only noncorporeal things such as air, which the person could absorb through meditation. Sexual practices (known as heqi , or 'The Union of
636-503: A Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction
795-481: A bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia . Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism
954-462: A campaign to retake Xu Province from Liu Bei, defeated him, and captured his family. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu , who was guarding Xu Province's capital, Xiapi ( 下邳 ; present-day Pizhou , Jiangsu), surrendered and temporarily served Cao Cao. Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao after his defeat. Some of Cao Cao's subordinates initially expressed worries that Yuan Shao might attack them while Cao Cao
1113-669: A ceremonial axe and appointed him Manager of the Affairs of the Imperial Secretariat ( 錄尚書事 ) and Colonel-Director of Retainers ( 司隷校尉 ). As Luoyang was in bad shape, Dong Zhao and others advised Cao Cao to move the imperial capital to Xu ( 許 ; present-day Xuchang , Henan). So, in October or early November 196, Cao Cao and his forces escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, which became the new imperial capital. Cao Cao had himself appointed General-in-Chief ( 大將軍 ) and promoted from
1272-515: A contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before
1431-591: A fief covering parts of present-day Hebei and Henan. In 216, he was elevated to the status of a vassal king under the title "King of Wei" and awarded numerous ceremonial privileges, of which some used to be reserved exclusively for emperors. Cao Cao died in Luoyang in March 220 and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi who accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian in November 220 and established the state of Cao Wei to replace
1590-614: A garrison in Henei Commandery ( 河內郡 ; around present-day Wuzhi County , Henan). Yuan Shao and Han Fu thought of installing Liu Yu , the Governor of You Province , on the throne to replace Emperor Xian. When they sought Cao Cao's opinion, Cao Cao refused to support them and reaffirmed his allegiance to Emperor Xian. Yuan Shao's plan turned out to be unsuccessful because Liu Yu himself did not want to be emperor. Yuan Shao once invited Cao Cao to sit beside him and showed him
1749-459: A jade seal, indicating his imperial ambition, and a tacit request for Cao Cao's support. Finding this despicable, Cao Cao laughed at him. Between 191 and 192, Yuan Shao appointed Cao Cao Administrator of Dong Commandery ( 東郡 in Yan Province ; near present-day Puyang , Henan. This position allowed him to exact taxes and conscript soldiers. His first territorial command in that respect marks
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#17327652291751908-815: A key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi ( Master Embracing Simplicity ). The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures. Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled
2067-468: A limited amount of qi. Qi could be lost from the body through things such as sweating and ejaculation. The Celestial Masters shared these foundational Daoist beliefs, but modified them slightly. One such change was that illness was caused by sin . This was because sin caused qi to leave the body. In order to cure any illness, repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched. Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in
2226-587: A new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day." This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones , which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today. The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty . This tradition
2385-415: A plot initiated by Dong Cheng and others to get rid of Cao Cao. After leaving Xuchang, Liu Bei headed to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou ( 車冑 ), and seized control of Xu Province. Cao Cao sent Liu Dai ( 劉岱 ) and Wang Zhong to attack Liu Bei but they were defeated. In February 200, Cao Cao got wind of Dong Cheng's plot and had all the conspirators arrested and executed. He then led
2544-435: A positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction
2703-657: A primary antagonist in the story, but also introduced, fictionalised, and exaggerated certain events to enhance Cao Cao's "villainous" image. The authoritative historical source on Cao Cao's life is his official biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms written by Chen Shou in the third century. His sources for his work on the Wei portion of his book ( 魏志 ; Wei Zhi ) included the Dongguan Ji ( 東觀記 ; now lost),
2862-537: A principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of daoshi , or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in Chinese folk religion . Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as
3021-635: A relative of Empress Song . In 178, when Emperor Ling deposed Empress Song in the aftermath of a political scandal, the empress's family and relatives got into trouble as well. Because of his relationship with Song Qi, Cao Cao was implicated in the scandal and dismissed from office. However, he was pardoned later and recalled to Luoyang to serve as a Consultant ( 議郎 ) under the Minister of the Household because of his expertise in history. The general Dou Wu and senior minister Chen Fan plotted to get rid of
3180-481: A separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin , who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of
3339-461: A series of campaigns against Yuan Shao's sons and allies over the following seven years, defeated them, and unified much of northern China under his control. In 208, shortly after Emperor Xian appointed him as Imperial Chancellor , he embarked on an expedition to gain a foothold in southern China, but was defeated by the allied forces of the warlords Sun Quan , Liu Bei , and Liu Qi at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs . His subsequent attempts over
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#17327652291753498-573: A series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology , worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created
3657-505: A similar nature to all other life. Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching , some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an ancestor and a mother goddess . Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were
3816-646: A stalemate for months and Cao Cao's supplies were gradually running out and his men were growing weary. During this time, Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact a rebel chief, Liu Pi ( 劉辟 ), in Runan Commandery ( 汝南郡 ; near present-day Xinyang , Henan) and join Liu Pi in making a sneak attack on Cao Cao's base in Xuchang while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. However, Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated and driven back by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren . During this time, Sun Ce ,
3975-540: A theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty , attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy . Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau . It
4134-596: A vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras ." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu). During this period, Louguan , the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism ) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition
4293-468: A village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Wuping" ( 武平侯 ), later characterised as ten thousand households. Since Dong Zhuo moved the capital from Luoyang to Chang'an in 190, the imperial court had been in a state of disorder. However, after Cao Cao received Emperor Xian and established the new imperial capital in Xuchang, order was restored, although Cao Cao did have the emperor's confidante Zhao Yan ( 趙彥 ) killed for secretively keeping
4452-653: A work which Pei Songzhi denigrated in very strident terms. The official standard history of the Eastern Han dynasty , the Book of the Later Han by Fan Ye , was not available to Pei Songzhi. He and Fan Ye were contemporaries, but Fan Ye did not begin work on his history until a few years after Pei Songzhi completed his. The Book of the Later Han does not contain a full biography of Cao Cao, but records of him and his actions can be found scattered in disparate locations in
4611-474: Is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China , emphasizing harmony with the Tao 道 ( pinyin : dào ; Wade–Giles : tao ). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality . Taoist thought has informed
4770-453: Is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals. In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to
4929-562: Is considered a major religion in Taiwan , and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms , both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements . "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao"
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5088-489: Is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" ( sixiang ) and of daojiao with "religion" ( zongjiao )
5247-475: Is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another. Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology ,
5406-429: Is historically known as Emperor Shao. As Emperor Shao was still young, his mother Empress Dowager He and maternal uncle He Jin ruled as regents on his behalf. He Jin plotted with Yuan Shao and others to eliminate the eunuch faction , and shared their plan with his sister. When the empress dowager was reluctant to kill the eunuchs, He Jin thought of summoning generals stationed outside Luoyang to lead their troops into
5565-598: Is in the Wade-Giles romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao"
5724-404: Is negative. Cao Man zhuan has been characterised as "hostile propaganda", and certain contents as "slanderous". Such a work cannot be considered a reliable source, but informs an exaggerated perspective contraposed to the glowing portrait painted by his own dynasty's official history. For much of his career, Cao Cao hosted and controlled the final Han emperor, whose doings and correspondence it
5883-475: Is stereotypically portrayed as a sly, power-hungry, and treacherous tyrant who serves as a nemesis to Liu Bei, often depicted in contraposition as a hero trying to revive the declining Han dynasty. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), when Luo Guanzhong wrote the epic novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms which dramatises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. He not only cast Cao Cao as
6042-470: Is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan . Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c. 100 BCE , referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou . Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or
6201-486: Is the same; that is, /daʊ/ , much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers. The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms. The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as
6360-478: Is traditionally used to translate daoshi /taoshih ( 道士 ; 'master of the Tao';), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as
6519-599: The Daozang . The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school. In the 12th century ,
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6678-522: The Zhuangzi , and the Tao Te Ching . The Tao Te Ching , attributed to Laozi , is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that
6837-649: The Book of Wei , and possibly other records. Chen Shou worked in the history bureau and had access to a variety of sources, but followed the traditional method of incorporating information into a single synthesis without citing his sources, so it is not clear how broad a pool of documentation he drew upon. In the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary, as well as commentary from other historians. One of
6996-579: The Chang'an area, and another being sent to Luoyang . Zhang relocated to the Han court until the Han dynasty changed to the Wei . He then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the Wei, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Tao church, as well as from Confucian laws. The collapse of the Wei Kingdom in 260 CE, along with the fall of Northern China to
7155-630: The Han dynasty is known as the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. After the success of the rebellion in 194, they founded the theocratic state of Zhang Han in the Hanzhong Valley of Sichuan, enjoying full independence. 正一 Zhengyi included in their religious liturgy, the Daoist writings of the Han, Laozi, the 3 caves and 7 parts. 方士 Fangshi originated in southern China. Sin was punished by ailments in
7314-497: The Jian'an style of Chinese poetry . Opinions of him have remained divided from as early as the Jin dynasty (265–420) that came immediately after the Three Kingdoms period. There were some who praised him for his achievements in poetry and his career, but there were also others who condemned him for his cruelty, cunning, and allegedly traitorous ways. In traditional Chinese culture, Cao Cao
7473-591: The Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped " ghosts and gods " and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience , monasticism , and asceticism . Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty . The Quanzhen school
7632-747: The School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases ), and the Chinese classics , especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu . Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ( xian ), and practices for exorcism . Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from
7791-819: The Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong , the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains ) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ( Wudang quan ). Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn , "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced
7950-685: The Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary. The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters , which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for
8109-624: The Ten Attendants , a eunuch faction— their plan failed and they lost their lives. Cao Cao wrote a memorial to Emperor Ling to defend Dou Wu and Chen Fan, and point out that the imperial court was full of corrupt officials and that advice from loyal officials had been ignored. Emperor Ling did not listen to him. Emperor Ling later issued a decree, ordering the Three Ducal Ministers to report and dismiss commandery and county officials who performed badly in office. However,
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#17327652291758268-614: The Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among
8427-777: The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out, the Han central government commissioned Cao Cao as a Cavalry Commandant ( 騎都尉 ) and ordered him to lead imperial forces to attack the rebels in Yingchuan Commandery ( 潁川郡 ; around present-day Xuchang , Henan). He was later appointed as the Chancellor of Jinan State [ zh ] ( 濟南郡 ; around present-day Jinan , Shandong), a principality in Qing Province which had over 10 counties under its jurisdiction. Many senior officials in Jinan State had connections with
8586-422: The three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period ( c. 450 – c. 300 BCE ), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over
8745-608: The " three vehicles " of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns ; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which
8904-577: The Breaths') were not part of Celestial Master Daoism. While the School of the Naturalists (and offshoot schools) advocated Huanjing bunao ("returning the semen/essence to replenish the brain"), which the Celestial Masters frowned upon, and simply advocated celibacy as a way to avoid losing qi. In addition, the Celestial Masters thought that the macrobiotic method of stealing a woman's qi to replenish
9063-685: The Celestial Master coalesced to form a distinct form of Celestial Master Daoism known as the Southern Celestial Masters. The Southern Celestial Masters lasted as a distinct movement into the fifth century. Kou Qianzhi , who was raised in a Celestial Master family, received two visions of Laozi in 415 and in 423. In 424, he brought the work that resulted from these visions to the court of the Northern Wei dynasty. The rulers put his works into practice, and Kou became
9222-401: The Celestial Master of the Daoist theocracy of the Northern Wei. After Kou died in 448, the prime minister, Cui Hao , became power hungry and began to insult the Wei rulers. Unhappy with his insubordination, the rulers had Cui executed in 450, and ended the Daoist theocracy. During the Yuan dynasty, the Zhengyi Dao School of Daoism claimed lineage to the Celestial Masters. They became one of
9381-493: The Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked, and as anti-stability and anti-family. Anti-Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the non-fulfillment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign. 太上老君 Taishang Laojun
9540-411: The Celestial Masters, and Quanzhen Daoism in the modern era since Wang Changyue launched a renaissance of the Quanzhen. The Celestial Masters have survived into the 20th century. In 1949, after the communists dominated mainland China, the 63rd Celestial Master, Zhang Enpu (張恩溥), migrated to Taiwan with the Kuomintang government. After his death, a succession dispute arose between different branches of
9699-451: The Eastern Han dynasty— an event commonly seen as a usurpation. This marked the transition from the Eastern Han dynasty to the Six Dynasties period. After taking the throne, Cao Pi granted his father the posthumous title " Emperor Wu " ("Martial Emperor") and the temple name " Taizu " ("Grand Ancestor"). Apart from being lauded as a brilliant political and military leader, Cao Cao is celebrated for his poems which were characteristic of
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#17327652291759858-407: The Golden Flower . The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class. Cao Cao Cao Cao began his career as an official under the Han government and held various appointments including that of a district security chief in the capital and
10017-729: The Governor of Yan Province. Cao Cao defeated the rebels in battle and received the surrender of over 300,000 rebels and hundreds of thousands of civilians (the rebels' family members). From among them, he recruited the more battle-hardened ones to form a new military unit known as the Qingzhou Corps ( 青州兵 ). Yuan Shu had disagreements with Yuan Shao so he contacted Gongsun Zan , Yuan Shao's rival in northern China, for help in dealing with Yuan Shao. Gongsun Zan instructed Liu Bei , Shan Jing ( 單經 ) and Tao Qian to garrison at Gaotang , Pingyuan and Fagan ( 發干 ; east of present-day Guan County, Shandong ) counties respectively to put pressure on Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao allied with Cao Cao and defeated all
10176-434: The Grand Commandant during the reign of Emperor Ling ( r. 168–189 ), buying his way into high government office for an exorbitant sum, and serving less than half a year. Cao Song was a foster son of Cao Teng , a eunuch who served as a Central Regular Attendant and the Empress's Chamberlain under Emperor Huan ( r. 146–168 ), and held the peerage of Marquis of Fei Village ( 費亭侯 ). In his youth, Cao Cao
10335-405: The Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing , yin-yang thought , as well as Mohist , " Legalist ", and " Confucian " ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism". Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye ,
10494-464: The Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Another important early Taoist movement
10653-435: The Huns in 317, further scattered adherents to the Celestial Masterhood. The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters. Celestial Masters had prophecy rituals banned since what happens in the future it was supposed to be just known already by the member without rituals. For the water, earth, and heaven officials, Celestial Masters wrote
10812-471: The Imperial Guards. His request was rejected and he was appointed as a Consultant ( 議郎 ) instead. He then claimed that he was ill and resigned and went home. He built a house outside the city and lived there, spending his time reading in spring and summer, and going on hunting excursions in autumn and winter. Wang Fen ( 王芬 ), the Inspector of Ji Province , along with Xu You , Zhou Jing ( 周旌 ) and others, plotted to overthrow Emperor Ling and replace him with
10971-541: The Inspector of Yang Province, and Zhou Xin , the Administrator of Danyang Commandery ( 丹楊郡 ), gave him over 4,000 troops. On the way back, when they passed by Longkang County ( 龍亢縣 ; in present-day Huaiyuan County , Anhui), many soldiers started a mutiny and set fire to Cao Cao's tent at night, but he was able to escape. When Cao Cao reached Zhi ( 銍 ; west of present-day Suzhou, Anhui ) and Jianping ( 建平 ; southwest of present-day Xiayi County , Henan) counties later, he managed to regroup over 1,000 soldiers and lead them to
11130-435: The Marquis of Hefei ( 合肥侯 ). They contacted Cao Cao and asked him to join them but he refused. Wang Fen's plan ultimately failed. Cao Cao was appointed as Colonel Who Arranges the Army ( 典軍校尉 ) and summoned back to Luoyang to serve in the Army of the Western Garden when Bian Zhang , Han Sui and others started a rebellion in Liang Province . Emperor Ling died in 189 and was succeeded by his son, Liu Bian , who
11289-414: The Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin ) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which
11448-466: The Ministers protected the under-performing officials and accepted bribes, resulting in a situation where evildoers were not punished while the poor and weak were oppressed. Cao Cao felt frustrated when he saw this. When natural disasters occurred, Cao Cao was summoned to the imperial court to discuss the problems in the administration. During this time, he wrote another memorial to Emperor Ling, accusing
11607-519: The Nine Provinces ( 九州春秋 ), also from the 3rd century. Later sources included works by the moralistic historian Sun Sheng , most saliently his Chronicles of the Clans of Wei ( 魏氏春秋 ), but also his more critical Yitong Ping ( 異同評 ; Commentary on Similarities and Differences ) and Yitong Zayu ( 異同雜語 ; Miscellaneous Words on Similarities and Differences ), which may have been parts of
11766-675: The Prince of Chengyang State ( 城陽國 ; around present-day Ju County , Shandong), felt that he had made great contributions to the Han Empire so he built temples in his principality for the people to worship him. Many other commanderies in Qing Province also followed this practice. In Jinan State alone, there were over 600 such temples. Wealthy merchants could even borrow the servants and personal carriages of officials for their own leisure activities. This resulted in greater inequality between
11925-580: The Three Ducal Ministers of siding with the nobles and elites, and helping them to cover up their misdeeds. Emperor Ling was stunned after reading the memorial. He admonished the Ministers for their conduct, reinstated the officials who had been wrongly dismissed, and appointed them as Consultants. However, corruption worsened over time and became rampant throughout all levels of the government. Cao Cao stopped speaking up when he realised that his efforts to restore order were futile. In 184, when
12084-619: The Warring States era phenomena of the wu ( Chinese shamans ) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity"). Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in
12243-612: The Yellow Turbans who were enemies of the Celestial Masters. A ritual master of the Celestial Masters may have been a 齋官 fast officer. Daoist Lingbao and Celestial Masters may have overlapped in customs with the Daoist Louguan ceremonies. Building temples, effigies and fasting was practiced by Daoists to gain blessings. 寇謙之 Kou Qianzhi was the leader of the Celestial Masters north branch. Celestial Masters north branch under Kou Qianzhi worshipped divinities described in
12402-611: The age of 19. He was later appointed as the Commandant of the North District ( 北部尉 ) of the imperial capital Luoyang and put in charge of maintaining security in that area. Later that year, he was transferred to the position of Prefect of Dunqiu County ( 頓丘縣 ; near present-day Qingfeng County , Henan). This represented a horizontal career move to a position of greater authority in a smaller jurisdiction with less political importance. Cao Cao's cousin married Song Qi ( 宋奇 ),
12561-586: The amount of defensive assets tasked to defend farms and granaries, and increase the area and productivity of lands held directly by the state. In early 197, Cao Cao led his forces to Wancheng ( 宛城 ; present-day Wancheng District in Nanyang, Henan) to attack a rival warlord, Zhang Xiu . Zhang Xiu initially surrendered without a fight, but due to ill treatment changed his mind and attacked Cao Cao and caught him off guard. Cao Cao lost his eldest son Cao Ang , nephew Cao Anmin ( 曹安民 ) and close bodyguard Dian Wei in
12720-425: The appointment on the grounds of poor health, and resigned and went home. The Book of Wei recorded that around the time, corruption had deteriorated to the point where influential officials dominated the imperial court and blatantly abused their powers. Cao Cao was unable to stop them and feared that he might bring trouble to his family because he had been interfering with their activities, so he requested to serve in
12879-661: The autumn of 197, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu in battle, captured several of his officers, and had them executed. By 199, some months after Lü Bu's defeat at the Battle of Xiapi , Yuan Shu, who was already in dire straits, wanted to abandon his lands in the Huainan region and head north to join Yuan Shao. Cao Cao sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to lead forces to intercept and block Yuan Shu in Xu Province . Yuan Shu died of illness while under siege by Liu Bei and Zhu Ling. While Cao Cao
13038-1006: The battle. He returned to Xuchang after his defeat, but attacked Zhang Xiu again later that year and pacified Huyang ( 湖陽 ; southwest of present-day Tanghe County , Henan) and Wuyin ( 舞陰 ; southeast of present-day Sheqi County , Henan) counties. In early 198, he led another campaign against Zhang Xiu and besieged him in Rangcheng ( 穰城 ; present-day Dengzhou , Henan) but withdrew his forces about two months later. Before retreating back to Xuchang, he set up an ambush and defeated Zhang Xiu's pursuing forces. In late 199, acting on Jia Xu 's advice, Zhang Xiu voluntarily surrendered to Cao Cao, who accepted his surrender. In early 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor in Shouchun ( 壽春 ; present-day Shou County , Anhui) – an act regarded as treason against Emperor Xian . He soon came under attack by Cao Cao and various forces, including his former ally Lü Bu . In
13197-667: The beginning of his career as a warlord. During this time, he defeated the Heishan bandits , who were causing trouble in the region, and some Southern Xiongnu forces led by Yufuluo in Neihuang County . Around the time, remnants from the Yellow Turban Rebellion swarmed into Yan Province from Qing Province. Liu Dai , the Governor of Yan Province, was killed in a battle against the rebels. Bao Xin , Chen Gong and others invited Cao Cao to replace Liu Dai as
13356-567: The book. Some of Cao Cao's own writing – both literary and in the form of government edicts – has been preserved in later collectanea. His commentary on The Art of War is extant, but offers little insight into his life. Cao Cao's ancestral home was in Qiao County ( 譙縣 ), Pei State , which is present-day Bozhou, Anhui . He was purportedly a descendant of Cao Shen , a statesman of the early Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 9 CE). His father, Cao Song , served as
13515-635: The capital to Chang'an. In Luoyang, Emperor Xian came under the protection of Dong Cheng , former bandit Yang Feng , and other petty strongmen who have been characterised as "ragtag gangsters". The emperor sought refuge under Yuan Shao, but was rebuffed. In February or March 196, acting on the advice of Xun Yu and Cheng Yu , Cao Cao sent Cao Hong west to fetch Emperor Xian but was blocked by Dong Cheng and Yuan Shu's subordinate Chang Nu ( 萇奴 ). Between March and April 196, Cao Cao defeated Yellow Turban remnants in Runan ( 汝南 ) and Yingchuan ( 潁川 ) commanderies and
13674-559: The central government. Later that year, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with Liu Xie, who is historically known as Emperor Xian. The deposed Emperor Shao became the Prince of Hongnong. Dong Zhuo wanted to appoint Cao Cao as a Colonel of Valiant Cavalry ( 驍騎校尉 ) and recruit him as an adviser. However, Cao Cao adopted a fake identity, escaped from Luoyang, and returned to his home in Chenliu Commandery ( 陳留郡 ; near present-day Kaifeng ). He had two encounters along
13833-408: The chancellor of a principality . He rose to prominence in the 190s during which he recruited his own followers, formed his own army, and set up a base in Yan Province (covering parts of present-day Henan and Shandong ). In 196, he received Emperor Xian , the figurehead Han sovereign who was previously held hostage by other warlords such as Dong Zhuo , Li Jue , and Guo Si . After he established
13992-527: The coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the " Way of Great Peace ", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion , and after years of bloody war, they were crushed. The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace
14151-451: The county when his supplies ran out due to natural disasters such as locust plagues and droughts. Grain supplies were so limited that Cao Cao strongly considered an offer to serve under Yuan Shao, but was persuaded against it and ceased recruitment instead. He sent his army to collect food, but his numerically inferior forces were able to turn back an attack by Lü Bu that summer using deceptive tactics. From 194 to late 195, Cao Cao attacked
14310-410: The development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation , astrology , qigong , feng shui , and internal alchemy . A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation , a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action , naturalness , simplicity , and
14469-446: The different groups of Daoists. 天師治儀 Tianshi zhiyi. In 215, Zhang Lu submitted to Cao Cao , the ruler of the Wei Kingdom, surrendering his state in exchange for gaining state religion status for Tianshi Daoism. Zhang was given a title and land, as were several other family members and generals. His daughter was married to Cao Cao's son, Cao Yu . His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China, with one group being sent to
14628-516: The difficulties Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu had faced in supplying their armies, as well as his own struggles with food supply in recent years, Cao Cao followed Zao Zhi and Han Hao 's suggestion to implement the tuntian system of agriculture to produce a sustainable supply of grain for his growing army. The tuntian agricultural colonies gave Cao Cao an advantage over his adversaries, allowing him to resettle internally displaced refugees, redevelop abandoned arable lands, shorten his supply lines, reduce
14787-542: The divinities of the most sublime station by the Celestial Masters. 道門定制 Daomen dingzhi was a religious texts composed in the Song dynasty. Buddhism, Celestial Masters and fangshi all contributed to the religious canon of Lingbao. Celestial Master petitions to divinities were copied by the canon of the Lingbao and fangshi rites were also copied by them. Sichuan was the origin of the Celestial Masters. Different beliefs were held by
14946-436: The early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu . Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements. During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE)
15105-588: The early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from
15264-586: The emperor updated on the great affairs of state. Cao Cao sent an imperial decree to Yuan Shao in Emperor Xian's name to appoint him as Grand Commandant ( 太尉 ). Yuan Shao was unhappy because Grand Commandant ranked below Cao Cao's position, General-in-Chief, so he rejected the appointment. When Cao Cao heard about it, he gave up his position as General-in-Chief and offered it to Yuan Shao. Emperor Xian reappointed Cao Cao as Minister of Works ( 司空 ) and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry ( 車騎將軍 ). Struck by
15423-434: The eunuchs got wind of He Jin's plot and assassinated him before the generals and their troops arrived. Yuan Shao and He Jin's followers led their forces to storm the imperial palace and slaughter the eunuchs in revenge. Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, Liu Xie , escaped during the chaos. They were eventually found and brought back to the palace by Dong Zhuo , who took advantage of the power vacuum to seize control of
15582-619: The family in Taiwan and mainland China. The Celestial Masters Order in mainland China suffered badly during the Cultural Revolution but managed to survive. They were finally allowed to ordain priests into Zhengyi Order at the Celestial Master's Mansion in 1982. Each of the three different eras of the Celestial Masters had distinct beliefs. However, because the Southern and Northern Celestial Masters both descended directly from
15741-406: The famous commentator and character evaluator Xu Shao , Cao Cao was assessed as being "a treacherous villain in times of peace, and a hero in times of chaos". Another source recorded that Xu Shao told Cao Cao, "You will be a capable minister in times of peace, and a jianxiong in times of chaos." Cao Cao started his career as a civil service cadet after he was nominated as a xiaolian around
15900-429: The first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan ). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ( 2nd century BCE ) Huang–Lao movement, which
16059-625: The following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism , Mohism , Confucianism , various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals . Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon
16218-486: The following years to annex the lands south of the Yangtze River never proved successful. In 211, he defeated a coalition of northwestern warlords led by Ma Chao and Han Sui at the Battle of Tong Pass . Five years later, he seized Hanzhong from the warlord Zhang Lu , but lost it to Liu Bei by 219. In the meantime, he also received many honours from Emperor Xian. In 213, he was created Duke of Wei and granted
16377-509: The founding figure of the dynasty under which the initial compilation was performed. As a counterpoint, another significant source for Cao Cao's life as cited by Pei Songzhi was the Cao Man zhuan ( 曹瞞傳 ), an anonymous collection of anecdotes said to have been compiled by a person from Eastern Wu , a rival kingdom to Cao Cao's own. This work is overall very hostile to Cao Cao, depicting him as cruel and untrustworthy, although not every anecdote
16536-424: The imperial capital to put pressure on the empress dowager. Cao Cao strongly objected to He Jin's idea as he believed that the best way to deal with the eunuchs was to eliminate their leaders. He also argued that summoning external forces into Luoyang would only increase the risk of their plan being leaked out. He Jin – the highest-ranking officer in the government – understandably ignored him. As Cao Cao predicted,
16695-409: The inhabitants". Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside". Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in
16854-565: The initial movement founded by Zhang Daoling, there are many beliefs that are shared. A number of texts exist that give insight into early Celestial Master practice, in particular the Taiping Jing and the Xiang'er commentary to the Laozi. The foundation of Daoist belief is that there is an energy source known as qi that pervades all things. The human body also contains qi, but it only has
17013-482: The latter declared himself emperor in early 197. Throughout 197, Lü Bu joined Cao Cao and others in a campaign against Yuan Shu , who had become a public enemy because of his treasonous actions. However, in 198, Lü Bu sided with Yuan Shu again and attacked Liu Bei, who lost and fled to join Cao Cao. In the winter of 198, Cao Cao and Liu Bei combined forces to attack Lü Bu and defeated him at the Battle of Xiapi . Lü Bu
17172-608: The latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during the Tang dynasty (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities , often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing
17331-418: The major sources for information on Cao Cao's life employed by Pei Songzhi was the official history of the Wei dynasty, the Book of Wei , largely composed during the Wei dynasty itself by Wang Chen , Xun Yi , and Ruan Ji . It was completed by Wang Chen and presented to the court during the opening years of the succeeding Western Jin dynasty. This work is understandably typically very favourable to Cao Cao as
17490-505: The man's own qi was completely wrong, and should not be practiced. The Celestial Masters were the first group of organized Daoists. Before their foundation, Daoism did not exist as an organized religion. Being the first organized religious Daoists, the Celestial Masters are the ancestors of subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and Lingbao movements. Taoism Taoism or Daoism ( / ˈ t aʊ . ɪ z əm / , / ˈ d aʊ . ɪ z əm / )
17649-476: The meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing
17808-535: The mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism . Thus, during this period,
17967-496: The most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss. During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that
18126-511: The murder of Cao Cao's father, Cao Song , in Xu Province, which occurred when Cao Song was en route to Qiao County ( 譙縣 ; present-day Bozhou , Anhui) after his retirement. Although Tao Qian's culpability in the murder was questionable, Cao Cao nonetheless held him responsible for his father's death. During the invasions, Cao Cao conquered several territories in Xu Province and massacred thousands of civilians. Cao Cao's assault on Xu Province
18285-478: The new imperial capital in Xuchang , Emperor Xian and the central government came under his direct control, but he still paid nominal allegiance to the emperor. Throughout the 190s, Cao Cao actively waged wars in central China against rival warlords such as Lü Bu , Yuan Shu , and Zhang Xiu , eliminating all of them. Following his triumph over the warlord Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Cao Cao launched
18444-470: The nobles and engaged in corrupt practices, so Cao Cao proposed to the imperial court to dismiss about 80 percent of them. As Cao Cao had a reputation for being a strict law enforcer, when news of his arrival reached these corrupt officials, they were so fearful that they fled to nearby commanderies. Cao Cao governed Jinan State well and maintained peace in the area. In the early days of the Western Han, nearly four hundred years previously, Liu Zhang ( 劉章 ),
18603-507: The opposing forces. In the spring of 193, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shu at the Battle of Fengqiu and returned to Dingtao County by summer. Between 193 and 194, Cao Cao came into conflict with Tao Qian , the Governor of Xu Province , and attacked Xu Province three times. The first attack took place in the autumn of 193, when Cao Cao attacked Tao Qian after the latter supported Que Xuan ( 闕宣 ), who had committed treason by declaring himself emperor. The second and third invasions were triggered by
18762-457: The other coalition members were making merry instead of thinking how to make progress. He presented his plan on how to continue the war against Dong Zhuo and chided them for their lacklustre attitudes towards their initial goals. They ignored him. As Cao Cao had few troops left with him after the Battle of Xingyang, he travelled to Yang Province with Xiahou Dun to recruit soldiers. Chen Wen ,
18921-401: The properties of plants and geology , diviners , early environmentalists , tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities. Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in
19080-624: The religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , such as their use of divination , ancestor worship , and the idea of Heaven ( Tian ) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and Livia Kohn , Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism , Confucianism , Legalist theorists (like Shen Buhai and Han Fei , which speak of wu wei ),
19239-509: The rich and poor. The senior officials did not dare to interfere. When Cao Cao assumed office in Jinan State, he destroyed all the temples and banned such idolatrous practices. He upheld the laws sternly and eliminated unorthodox customs and cult-like activities. After serving as chancellor for a brief time, Cao Cao was reassigned to be the Administrator of Dong Commandery ( 東郡 ; around present-day Puyang County , Henan), but he declined
19398-454: The rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong , who wrote
19557-492: The rival warlord Lü Bu . Many commanderies and counties in Yan Province responded to Lü Bu's call and defected to his side except for a few. Cao Cao aborted his campaign in Xu Province and returned to attack Lü Bu. In one battle at Puyang County , he fell into an ambush and suffered some burns but managed to survive and escape. Cao Cao and Lü Bu were locked in a stalemate at Puyang County for over 100 days until Lü Bu left
19716-589: The same work. Although Pei Songzhi sometimes pointed out flaws in Sun Sheng's methods, he often cites him as an authority. Other Jin dynasty historians he gave less credence to, while still including parallel passages from their work, such as Jiangbiao zhuan ( 江表傳 ), by Yu Pu [ zh ] ( 虞溥 ), and Wei Jin Shiyu ( 魏晉世語 ; Tales of the Worlds of Wei and Jin ) by Guo Ban [ zh ] ( 郭頒 ),
19875-647: The siege was lifted after about two months when Cao Cao personally led an army to relief Liu Yan. Guan Yu slew Yan Liang in the midst of battle. While Cao Cao and his troops were evacuating Boma's residents, Yuan Shao's forces led by Wen Chou and Liu Bei caught up with them at Yan Ford, but were defeated and Wen Chou was killed in battle. Cao Cao returned to his main camp at Guandu while Yuan Shao moved to Yangwu County ( 陽武縣 ; southwest of present-day Yuanyang County, Henan ). Around this time, Guan Yu left Cao Cao and returned to Liu Bei. In late 200, Yuan Shao led his forces to attack Cao Cao at Guandu. Both sides were locked in
20034-490: The southern bank of the Yellow River . In winter, he mobilised his forces and deployed them at Guandu ( 官渡 ; present-day Guandu Town, Zhongmu County , Henan). Around this time, Cheng Yu and Guo Jia had warned Cao Cao against allowing Liu Bei to leave Xuchang but it was too late because Cao Cao had already sent Liu Bei to intercept and block Yuan Shu. Earlier, when he was still in Xuchang, Liu Bei had secretly joined
20193-505: The spread of Celestial Masters in the Six Dynasties. At the start of their existence a large amount of religious text canon was already written by the Celestial Masters. Celestial Masters used an 精室 "essential chamber" for ceremonies. Specific attire was worn by Daoists. Celestial Master collectives had secretaries assigned to them on the basis of their population. Clerics of the Celestial Masters were referred to as 黃赤祭酒 "libationers of
20352-730: The status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books. The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門 ) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple . Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of
20511-669: The territories in Yan Province and managed to retake them from Lü Bu. Lü Bu fled east to Xu Province and took refuge under Liu Bei , who had succeeded Tao Qian as the Governor of Xu Province earlier in 194. In the winter of 195, the central government officially designated Cao Cao as the Governor of Yan Province. In 196, Lü Bu turned against his host and seized control of Xu Province from Liu Bei, but still allowed Liu Bei to remain in Xiaopei ( 小沛 ; present-day Pei County , Jiangsu). Although he agreed to an alliance with Yuan Shu earlier, he broke his promise and severed ties with Yuan Shu when
20670-518: The two leading schools of Daoism in China, along with Quanzhen Dao . Zhengyi Daoists became common in the Jiangxi , Jiangsu , and Fujian provinces of China, as well as in Taiwan . Zhang Yucai, the Celestial Master (38th) drew a handscroll of a dragon. Zhang Sicheng was the 39th and succeeded him. Celestial Master teachings and Daoxue were mixed together by Yu Ji, whose teacher was 吳澄 Wu Cheng. Daoism's biggest known conceptions are folk religion,
20829-480: The view of the Heavenly Masters. The Shangqing syncretized the Heavenly Masters with fangshi. Buddhism, Fangshi, and Heavenly Masters were synchronized in Lingbao. The 180 precepts of the Celestial Masters were rules on morality. Stocking up riches was banned by Daoism. A 173 AD Sichuan stele provides physical proof for the Celestial Masters existence at its oldest. China's southeastern area may have seen
20988-526: The way. The first was with the family of Lü Boshe , an old acquaintance. The second incident occurred when he passed by Zhongmu County , where a village chief suspected that he was a fugitive and arrested him. However, another official recognised Cao Cao and believed he could act as a positive influence, so he released Cao Cao. Dong Zhuo murdered the Prince of Hongnong and Empress Dowager He later. When Cao Cao returned to Chenliu Commandery, he spent his family fortune on raising an army to eliminate Dong Zhuo. In
21147-523: The western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and Tibetan Buddhism . Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui . During
21306-501: The winter of 189, Cao Cao assembled his forces in Jiwu County ( 己吾縣 ; southwest of present-day Ningling County , Henan) and declared war on Dong Zhuo. In early 190, several regional officials and warlords formed a coalition army numbering some tens of thousands, and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. They declared that their mission was to free Emperor Xian and the central government from Dong Zhuo's control. Yuan Shao
21465-504: The world of decadence and establish a new state consisting only of the "chosen people". Zhang became the first Celestial Master, and began to spread his newly founded movement throughout the province of Sichuan. The movement was initially called the "Way of the Five Pecks of Rice", because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice. The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng [ zh ] and grandson Zhang Lu . Their rebellion against
21624-569: The yellow and red" in the era of the Six dynasties. There were stationery clerics and roving clerics. Distinctions between different social groups in civilization were recognized and utilized accordingly by the Celestial Masters. The Celestial Masters did not find monastic lifestyle attractive and rather passed down their teachings to their biological heirs. Children and widows were part of the Celestial Master groups. Tablets were clutched and prostrations were conducted by clerics. The Dadaojia Lingjie denounced
21783-498: The 三官手書 sanguan shoushu. After the fall of Luoyang to non-Chinese invaders in 311, the remnants of the court fled to Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing ) and established a new state known as the Eastern Jin dynasty. Among the court members who fled were members of the Celestial Masters. There is also evidence that after Zhang Lu's submission to Cao Cao, numerous adherents fled south from Sichuan. These various followers of The Way of
21942-568: The 魏書 Book of Wei. Yin Xi and the Elder Lord are absent from the Celestial Masters of Kou Qianzhi. Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi were where the Celestial Masters northern branch operated, while Louguan and Guanzhong Daoism developed around Henan, Shanxi and Shaanxi. Celestial Masters are not believed to be connected with stele founded in Shaanxi. An anti-Buddhist plan was concocted by
22101-443: Was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar , lead , mercury , and realgar , as well as ritual and purificatory practices. After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian - Legalist tradition. The Three Kingdoms period saw
22260-792: Was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian , a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day. In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in Northern China took inspiration from Tibetan cultural practices, Chinese folk religion (often from
22419-502: Was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism
22578-457: Was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on
22737-520: Was appointed General Who Establishes Virtue ( 建德將軍 ). In July or August 196, Cao Cao was promoted to General Who Garrisons the East ( 鎮東將軍 ) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Fei Village ( 費亭侯 ) – the peerage previously held by his adoptive grandfather Cao Teng . Sometime between August and September 196, Cao Cao led his forces to the ruins of Luoyang and received Emperor Xian. The emperor granted Cao Cao
22896-602: Was away in Xu Province, but, as Cao Cao accurately predicted, Yuan Shao did not make any advances throughout this period of time, possibly due to Cao Cao's general Yu Jin 's raiding in the south of Yuan Shao's territory. From early to mid 200, the forces of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed in two separate engagements at Boma ( 白馬 ; present-day Hua County , Henan) and Yan Ford ( 延津 ; near present-day Yanjin County , Henan). At Boma, Yuan Shao sent Guo Tu , Chunyu Qiong and Yan Liang to besiege Cao Cao's general Liu Yan ( 劉延 ), but
23055-536: Was called the Northern Celestial masters , and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing ( Scripture of Western Ascension ). During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on
23214-486: Was captured and executed after his defeat. Cao Cao also pacified the eastern parts of Xu and Qing provinces along the coast. Emperor Xian had been held hostage in Chang'an by Li Jue , Guo Si and other former followers of Dong Zhuo. Around 195, when internal conflict broke out between Li Jue and Guo Si, Emperor Xian escaped from Chang'an and after a harrowing journey returned to the ruins of Luoyang, which Dong Zhuo had ordered to be destroyed by fire in 190 when moving
23373-424: Was elected as the coalition chief while Cao Cao served as acting General of Uplifting Martial Might ( 奮武將軍 ). The coalition scored some initial victories against Dong Zhuo's forces and reached Luoyang within months. Dong Zhuo, alarmed by his losses, ordered his troops to forcefully relocate Luoyang's residents to Chang'an and burn down the imperial capital, leaving behind nothing for the coalition. While Dong Zhuo
23532-505: Was known to be perceptive and manipulative. He liked to hunt, idle, roam about freely, and play vigilante so he was not as highly regarded compared to his more studious peers. From the time Cao Cao was fifteen until he turned thirty, widespread epidemic diseases ravaged China on average one out of every three years. Despite Cao Cao's loafing ways and unimpressive behaviour, there were two persons – Qiao Xuan and He Yong – who recognised his potential and extraordinary talents. Upon visiting
23691-512: Was not found among the religious texts in the Lingbao caves. The ceremonies of the Celestial Masters, Sanhuang, Lingbao, and Shangqing were categorized and grouped by Lu Xiujing. In the Eastern Han the Celestial Masters spread to the northwest. Celestial Masters believed in communication with spirits. Religious canon was divided into 七部 7 sections during the Southern dynasties by the Celestial Masters. Non specific designations were used for
23850-416: Was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor . Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated
24009-540: Was retreating to Chang'an, Cao Cao led his own army to pursue the enemy, but was defeated by Xu Rong , a general under Dong Zhuo, at the Battle of Xingyang . This was the first military action Cao Cao commanded, and he barely escaped alive, with help from his cousin Cao Hong . He returned to the coalition base in Suanzao County ( 酸棗縣 ; southwest of present-day Yanjin County, Henan ) and was disgusted to see that
24168-442: Was so brutal that after one massacre the corpses of his victims stoppered up the nearby Si river ( 泗水 ). His army tore down villages in its wake, ensuring refugees could not return, and ate all the chickens and dogs. Cao Cao only turned back when he received news that his base in Yan Province had fallen to Lü Bu . In 194, Cao Cao's subordinates Zhang Miao , Chen Gong and others rebelled against him in Yan Province and defected to
24327-720: Was standard to record. Especially useful for noting things like official appointments, three titles of this type were used by Pei Songzhi to add detail to Chen Shou's account: Xiandi Ji ( 獻帝記 ; Records of Emperor Xian ) compiled by Liu Ai ( 劉艾 ), Xiandi Qiju zhu ( 獻帝起居注 ; Notes on Emperor Xian's Daily Life ), and Shanyang Gong zaiji ( 山陽公載記 ; Records of the Duke of Shanyang [Emperor Xian's post-usurpation title]) by Yue Zi ( 樂資 ). Other early sources for Pei Songzhi included Yu Huan 's privately composed histories Dianlüe ( 典略 ; Authoritative Account ) and Weilüe , written prior to Chen Shou's own work; and Sima Biao 's Annals of
24486-496: Was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the " three teachings " (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure
24645-508: Was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism. Perhaps
24804-598: Was the Celestial Masters' main deity. In the Southern dynasties 正一經 Zhengyi Jing was part of the religious canon of the Celestial Masters. In the Tang and Sui Daoists reconciled the Zhengyi jing with the religious texts of the Lingbao. Celestial Masters and the nobility of northern China subdued the nobility of southern China during the Eastern Jin and Western Jin in Jiangnan in particular. The Celestial Master canon
24963-522: Was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming. The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety ". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ( bigu ), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to
25122-425: Was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism . Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding
25281-558: Was waging wars throughout central China in the 190s, Yuan Shao defeated his rival Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Yijing in 199, after which he controlled four provinces in northern China ( Ji , Bing , Qing and You ) and gained command of thousands of troops. A power struggle between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao became inevitable by early 199. In the autumn of 199, Cao Cao dispatched troops to Liyang County ( 黎陽縣 ; present-day Xun County , Henan) and sent Zang Ba and others to capture some territories in Qing Province while leaving Yu Jin to guard
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