The K–12 Tour was the third concert tour by American artist Melanie Martinez , in support of her second studio album K–12 . Comprising 48 shows, the tour began on October 13, 2019, in Washington, D.C. , and concluded prematurely on February 17, 2020, in Brixton , England , due to the COVID-19 pandemic .
102-584: The tour was officially announced on July 29, 2019. On the same day, the dates for the shows in Northern America were also announced. The dates for the shows in Europe were announced 2 months later, on September 20, 2019. More dates for Northern American shows were announced on February 11, 2020. Martinez wore "soft, pastel-colored" costumes while dancers were "clad in baby-like clothing and slicked back hair". During "Show & Tell", Martinez "sang inside
204-435: A rococo , heart-shaped box, arms shackled like a puppet". For "Nurse's Office", she was "strapped to an ornate hospital bed, being wheeled around by ominous school nurses". During "Drama Club", she danced and ironed clothes in a Venetian style drawing-room. During "Strawberry Shortcake", she performed "10ft in the air, atop a giant skirt, while the venue was gradually perfumed with the scent of strawberries". The show closed with
306-453: A character who contemplates suicide after being jilted, speaks about his attitude towards his home country: "To make this course of action clear to my French readers, I must explain that in Italy, a country very far away from us, people are still driven to despair by love." Stendhal identified with the nascent liberalism and his sojourn in Italy convinced him that Romanticism was essentially
408-597: A dome representing the heavens crowded with colourful Biblical figures. Other notable pilgrimage churches include the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers by Balthasar Neumann (1743 – 1772). Johann Michael Fischer was the architect of Ottobeuren Abbey (1748 – 1766), another Bavarian Rococo landmark. The church features, like much of the rococo architecture in Germany, a remarkable contrast between
510-460: A great figure. His ideas are often forceful and inspired, but they are erratic, arbitrarily advanced, and, despite all their show of boldness, lacking in inward certainty and continuity. There is something unsettled about his whole nature: his fluctuation between realistic candor in general and silly mystification in particulars, between cold self-control, rapturous abandonment to sensual pleasures, and insecure and sometimes sentimental vaingloriousness,
612-562: A letter to Pauline, he described her as the woman of his dreams and wrote that he would have discovered happiness if he became her husband. This fusion of, and tension between, clear-headed analysis and romantic feeling is typical of Stendhal's great novels; he could be considered a Romantic realist. Stendhal suffered miserable physical disabilities in his final years as he continued to produce some of his most famous work. He contracted syphilis in December 1808. As he noted in his journal, he
714-423: A letter without signing a false name." Stendhal's Journal and autobiographical writings include many comments on masks and the pleasures of "feeling alive in many versions." "Look upon life as a masked ball," is the advice that Stendhal gives himself in his diary for 1814. In Memoirs of an Egotist he writes: "Will I be believed if I say I'd wear a mask with pleasure and be delighted to change my name?...for me
816-413: A man. Even Stendhal's autobiographical works, such as The Life of Henry Brulard or Memoirs of an Egotist , are "far more closely, essentially, and concretely connected with the politics, sociology, and economics of the period than are, for example, the corresponding works of Rousseau or Goethe ; one feels that the great events of contemporary history affected Stendhal much more directly than they did
918-616: A most accurate and detailed knowledge of the political situation, the social stratification, and the economic circumstances of a perfectly definite historical moment, namely, that in which France found itself just before the July Revolution." In Auerbach's view, in Stendhal's novels "characters, attitudes, and relationships of the dramatis personæ , then, are very closely connected with contemporary historical circumstances; contemporary political and social conditions are woven into
1020-467: A performance of "Fire Drill" while the screen showed an image of a notebook with the words After School written on it. Gemma Samways of the Evening Standard rated the tour 3 out of 5 stars. She praised the "undeniably spectacular" visuals but criticized "lengthy breaks between songs for sets and props to be rearranged". She concluded that "not as slick as pure musical theatre, but lacking
1122-454: A reference to Canto 11 of Lord Byron 's Don Juan , which refers to "the thousand happy few" who enjoy high society, or to the "we few, we happy few, we band of brothers" line of William Shakespeare 's Henry V , but Stendhal's use more likely refers to The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith , parts of which he had memorized in the course of teaching himself English. In The Vicar of Wakefield , "the happy few" refers ironically to
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#17327915181551224-650: A sense of movement in every direction. It was most commonly found in the interiors of churches, usually closely integrated with painting and the architecture. Religious sculpture followed the Italian baroque style, as exemplified in the theatrical altarpiece of the Karlskirche in Vienna. Early Rococo or Rocaille sculpture in France sculpture was lighter and offered more movement than the classical style of Louis XIV. It
1326-516: A theatrical exuberance. On the walls of new Paris salons, the twisting and winding designs, usually made of gilded or painted stucco, wound around the doorways and mirrors like vines. One of the earliest examples was the Hôtel Soubise in Paris (1704 – 1705), with its famous oval salon decorated with paintings by Boucher, and Charles-Joseph Natoire . The best known French furniture designer of
1428-526: A way which no one had done before him. Vladimir Nabokov was dismissive of Stendhal, in Strong Opinions calling him "that pet of all those who like their French plain". In the notes to his translation of Eugene Onegin , he asserts that Le Rouge et le Noir is "much overrated", and that Stendhal has a "paltry style". In Pnin Nabokov wrote satirically, "Literary departments still labored under
1530-440: A woman as just a woman and simply a human being. Citing Stendhal's rebellious heroines, she maintained that he was a feminist writer. One of his early works is On Love , a rational analysis of romantic passion that was based on his unrequited love for Mathilde, Countess Dembowska, whom he met while living at Milan . Later, he would also suffer "restlessness in spirit" when one of his childhood friends, Victorine got married. In
1632-468: Is an exceptionally ornamental and dramatic style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpted moulding, and trompe-l'œil frescoes to create surprise and the illusion of motion and drama. It is often described as the final expression of the Baroque movement. The Rococo style began in France in the 1730s as a reaction against
1734-419: Is both so profoundly romantic and so decidedly feminist; feminists are usually rational minds that adopt a universal point of view in all things; but it is not only in the name of freedom in general but also in the name of individual happiness that Stendhal calls for women's emancipation." Yet, Beauvoir criticises Stendhal for, although wanting a woman to be his equal, her only destiny he envisions for her remains
1836-439: Is not always easy to put up with; his literary style is very impressive and unmistakably original, but it is short-winded, not uniformly successful, and only seldom wholly takes possession of and fixes the subject. But, such as he was, he offered himself to the moment; circumstances seized him, tossed him about, and laid upon him a unique and unexpected destiny; they formed him so that he was compelled to come to terms with reality in
1938-572: Is our imagination inclined to overrate their worth. In a word, in Bologna "crystallization" has not yet begun. When the journey begins, love departs. One leaves Bologna, climbs the Apennines , and takes the road to Rome. The departure, according to Stendhal, has nothing to do with one's will; it is an instinctive moment. This transformative process actuates in terms of four steps along a journey: This journey or crystallization process (shown above)
2040-476: Is said to have sought the best treatment in Paris, Vienna and Rome. Stendhal died on 23 March 1842, a few hours after collapsing with a seizure in the street in Paris. He is interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre . Before settling on the pen name Stendhal, he published under many pen names , including "Louis Alexandre Bombet" and "Anastasius Serpière". The only book that Stendhal published under his own name
2142-562: Is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil . Rococo remained popular in certain German provincial states and in Italy, until the second phase of neoclassicism, " Empire style ", arrived with Napoleonic governments and swept Rococo away. The ornamental style called rocaille emerged in France between 1710 and 1750, mostly during the regency and reign of Louis XV ; the style was also called Louis Quinze . Its principal characteristics were picturesque detail, curves and counter-curves, asymmetry, and
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#17327915181552244-508: The Sevres Porcelain manufactory and produced small-scale works, usually about love and gaiety, for production in series. A Rococo period existed in music history , although it is not as well known as the earlier Baroque and later Classical forms. The Rococo music style itself developed out of baroque music both in France, where the new style was referred to as style galant ("gallant" or "elegant" style), and in Germany, where it
2346-751: The commedia dell'arte , city street vendors, lovers and figures in fashionable clothes, and pairs of birds. Johann Joachim Kändler was the most important modeller of Meissen porcelain , the earliest European factory, which remained the most important until about 1760. The Swiss-born German sculptor Franz Anton Bustelli produced a wide variety of colourful figures for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Bavaria, which were sold throughout Europe. The French sculptor Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716 – 1791) followed this example. While also making large-scale works, he became director of
2448-498: The porcelain figure, or small group of figures, initially replacing sugar sculptures on grand dining room tables, but soon popular for placing on mantelpieces and furniture. The number of European factories grew steadily through the century, and some made porcelain that the expanding middle classes could afford. The amount of colourful overglaze decoration used on them also increased. They were usually modelled by artists who had trained in sculpture. Common subjects included figures from
2550-419: The "birth of love", in which the love object is 'crystallized' in the mind, as being a process similar or analogous to a trip to Rome. In the analogy, the city of Bologna represents indifference and Rome represents perfect love : When we are in Bologna, we are entirely indifferent; we are not concerned to admire in any particular way the person with whom we shall perhaps one day be madly in love; even less
2652-534: The 18th century, a reaction against the Rococo style occurred, primarily against its perceived overuse of ornamentation and decoration. Led by Christoph Willibald Gluck , this reaction ushered in the Classical era . By the early 19th century, Catholic opinion had turned against the suitability of the style for ecclesiastical contexts because it was "in no way conducive to sentiments of devotion". Russian composer of
2754-506: The Bavarian pilgrimage churches, the exterior is very simple, with pastel walls, and little ornament. Entering the church the visitor encounters an astonishing theatre of movement and light. It features an oval-shaped sanctuary, and a deambulatory in the same form, filling in the church with light from all sides. The white walls contrasted with columns of blue and pink stucco in the choir, and the domed ceiling surrounded by plaster angels below
2856-538: The Black , Stendhal refers to a novel as a mirror being carried in a basket. The metaphor of the realistic novel as a mirror of contemporary reality, accessible to the narrator, has certain limitations, which the artist is aware of. A valuable realistic work exceeds the Platonic meaning of art as a copy of reality. A mirror does not reflect reality in its entirety, nor is the artist's aim to document it fully. In The Red and
2958-478: The Black , the writer emphasizes the significance of selection when it comes to describing reality, with a view to realizing the cognitive function of a work of art, achieved through the categories of unity, coherence and typicality". Stendhal was an admirer of Napoleon and his novel Le Rouge et le Noir is considered his literary tribute to the emperor. Today, Stendhal's works attract attention for their irony and psychological and historical dimensions. Stendhal
3060-545: The French original. The German style was characterized by an explosion of forms that cascaded down the walls. It featured molding formed into curves and counter-curves, twisting and turning patterns, ceilings and walls with no right angles, and stucco foliage which seemed to be creeping up the walls and across the ceiling. The decoration was often gilded or silvered to give it contrast with the white or pale pastel walls. The Belgian-born architect and designer François de Cuvilliés
3162-761: The Great to create fountain sculpture for Sanssouci Park , Prussia (1740s). Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716 – 1791) was another leading French sculptor during the period. Falconet was most famous for his Bronze Horseman statue of Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, but he also created a series of smaller works for wealthy collectors, which could be reproduced in a series in terracotta or cast in bronze. The French sculptors, Jean-Louis Lemoyne , Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne , Louis-Simon Boizot , Michel Clodion , Lambert-Sigisbert Adam and Jean-Baptiste Pigalle all produced sculpture in series for collectors. In Italy, Antonio Corradini
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3264-609: The Marquis of Marigny, and was named director general of the King's Buildings . He turned official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the petit style of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting and architecture. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of
3366-509: The Novel as such was capable of being regarded as a means of profoundly serious and many-sided discussion and therefore as a medium of profoundly serious investigation into the human case." Erich Auerbach considers modern "serious realism" to have begun with Stendhal and Balzac . In Mimesis , he remarks of a scene in The Red and the Black that "it would be almost incomprehensible without
3468-540: The Renaissance. In the late 17th and early 18th century, rocaille became the term for a kind of decorative motif or ornament that appeared in the late Louis XIV style , in the form of a seashell interlaced with acanthus leaves. In 1736 the designer and jeweler Jean Mondon published the Premier Livre de forme rocquaille et cartel , a collection of designs for ornaments of furniture and interior decoration. It
3570-492: The Rococo had a spiritual aspect to it which led to its widespread use in church interiors, particularly in Central Europe, Portugal, and South America. The word rococo was first used as a humorous variation of the word rocaille by Pierre-Maurice Quays (1777-1803) Rocaille was originally a method of decoration , using pebbles, seashells, and cement, which was often used to decorate grottoes and fountains since
3672-571: The Romantic era Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote The Variations on a Rococo Theme , Op. 33, for cello and orchestra in 1877. Although the theme is not Rococo in origin, it is written in Rococo style. Stendhal Marie-Henri Beyle ( French: [maʁi ɑ̃ʁi bɛl] ; 23 January 1783 – 23 March 1842), better known by his pen name Stendhal ( UK : / ˈ s t ɒ̃ d ɑː l / , US : / s t ɛ n ˈ d ɑː l , s t æ n ˈ -/ , French: [stɛ̃dal, stɑ̃dal] ),
3774-496: The action in a manner more detailed and more real than had been exhibited in any earlier novel, and indeed in any works of literary art except those expressly purporting to be politico-satirical tracts." Simone de Beauvoir uses Stendhal as an example of a feminist author. In The Second Sex de Beauvoir writes "Stendhal never describes his heroines as a function of his heroes: he provides them with their own destinies." She furthermore points out that it "is remarkable that Stendhal
3876-555: The administration of the Kingdom of Westphalia , one of Napoleon's client states in Germany. From 1807 to 1808, Beyle lived in Braunschweig (Brunswick), where he fell in love with Wilhelmine von Griesheim, whom he called Minette, and for whose sake he remained in the city. "I have no inclination, now, except for Minette, for this blonde and charming Minette, this soul of the north, such as I have never seen in France or Italy." He
3978-789: The arrival of Chinoiserie , often in the form of lacquered and gilded commodes, called falcon de Chine of Vernis Martin , after the ebenist who introduced the technique to France. Ormolu , or gilded bronze, was used by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz . Latz made a particularly ornate clock mounted atop a cartonnier for Frederick the Great for his palace in Potsdam . Pieces of imported Chinese porcelain were often mounted in ormolu (gilded bronze) rococo settings for display on tables or consoles in salons. Other craftsmen imitated Japanese lacquered furniture, and produced commodes with Japanese motifs. British Rococo tended to be more restrained. Thomas Chippendale 's furniture designs kept
4080-724: The arts. Kent travelled to Italy with Lord Burlington between 1712 and 1720, and brought back many models and ideas from Palladio. He designed the furniture for Hampton Court Palace (1732), Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1729), London, Thomas Coke's Holkham Hall , Norfolk, Robert Walpole's Houghton Hall , for Devonshire House in London, and at Rousham House . Mahogany made its appearance in England in about 1720, and immediately became popular for furniture, along with walnut wood. The Rococo began to make an appearance in England between 1740 and 1750. The furniture of Thomas Chippendale
4182-703: The ballroom ceiling of the Ca' Rezzonico in the quadraturo manner, giving the illusion of three dimensions. Tiepolo travelled to Germany with his son during 1752 – 1754, decorating the ceilings of the Würzburg Residence , one of the major landmarks of the Bavarian Rococo. An earlier celebrated Venetian painter was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta , who painted several notable church ceilings. The Venetian Rococo also featured exceptional glassware, particularly Murano glass , often engraved and coloured, which
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4284-593: The best known examples of the style. Boucher participated in all of the genres of the time, designing tapestries, models for porcelain sculpture, set decorations for the Paris Opera and Opéra-Comique , and decor for the Fair of Saint-Laurent . Other important painters of the Fête Galante style included Nicolas Lancret and Jean-Baptiste Pater . The style particularly influenced François Lemoyne , who painted
4386-459: The boundaries between the art genres, and are characterised by a light-filled weightlessness, festive cheerfulness and movement. The Rococo decorative style reached its summit in southern Germany and Austria from the 1730s until the 1770s. There it dominates the church landscape to this day and is deeply anchored there in popular culture. It was first introduced from France through the publications and works of French architects and decorators, including
4488-433: The complex frames made for mirrors and paintings, which were sculpted in plaster and often gilded; and the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs. The furniture also featured sinuous curves and vegetal designs. The leading furniture designers and craftsmen in the style included Juste-Aurele Meissonier , Charles Cressent , and Nicolas Pineau . The Rocaille style lasted in France until
4590-552: The cultural richness of Florence he encountered when he first visited the Tuscan city. As he described in his book Naples and Florence: A Journey from Milan to Reggio : As I emerged from the porch of Santa Croce, I was seized with a fierce palpitation of the heart (that same symptom which, in Berlin, is referred to as an attack of the nerves); the well-spring of life was dried up within me, and I walked in constant fear of falling to
4692-475: The curves and feel, but stopped short of the French heights of whimsy. The most successful exponent of British Rococo was probably Thomas Johnson , a gifted carver and furniture designer working in London in the mid-18th century. Elements of the Rocaille style appeared in the work of some French painters, including a taste for the picturesque in details; curves and counter-curves; and dissymmetry which replaced
4794-642: The curving lines and carved ornament of the French Rocaille, but with a particular Venetian variation; the pieces were painted, often with landscapes or flowers or scenes from Guardi or other painters, or Chinoiserie , against a blue or green background, matching the colours of the Venetian school of painters whose work decorated the salons. Notable decorative painters included Giovanni Battista Tiepolo , who painted ceilings and murals of both churches and palazzos, and Giovanni Battista Crosato who painted
4896-773: The decoration of palaces and churches. The sculpture was closely integrated with the architecture; it was impossible to know where one stopped and the other began. In the Belvedere Palace in Vienna, (1721 – 1722), the vaulted ceiling of the Hall of the Atlantes is held up on the shoulders of muscular figures designed by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt . The portal of the Palace of the Marqués de Dos Aguas in Valencia (1715 – 1776)
4998-404: The decoration. The main ornaments of Rococo are: asymmetrical shells, acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruit, musical instruments, angels and Chinoiserie ( pagodas , dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers and Chinese people). The style often integrated painting, moulded stucco, and wood carving, and quadratura , or illusionist ceiling paintings, which were designed to give
5100-458: The early German Rococo is Würzburg Residence (1737 – 1744) constructed for Prince-Bishop Johann Philipp Franz von Schönborn of Würzburg by Balthasar Neumann . Neumann had travelled to Paris and consulted with the French rocaille decorative artists Germain Boffrand and Robert de Cotte . While the exterior was in more sober Baroque style, the interior, particularly the stairways and ceilings,
5202-559: The euphoric energy of a pop concert, it was a performance destined to disappoint fans of either discipline." Melanie Smith of Louder Than War called it a "unique and inventive musical spectacle". She added that Martinez "successfully brought her film to life on the stage". Rococo Rococo , less commonly Roccoco ( / r ə ˈ k oʊ k oʊ / rə- KOH -koh , US also / ˌ r oʊ k ə ˈ k oʊ / ROH -kə- KOH ; French: [ʁɔkɔko] or [ʁokoko] ), also known as Late Baroque ,
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#17327915181555304-653: The following characteristics, which Baroque does not: The Rocaille style, or French Rococo, appeared in Paris during the reign of Louis XV , and flourished between about 1723 and 1759. The style was used particularly in salons, a new style of room designed to impress and entertain guests. The most prominent example was the salon of the Princess in Hôtel de Soubise in Paris, designed by Germain Boffrand and Charles-Joseph Natoire (1735 – 1740). The characteristics of French Rococo included exceptional artistry, especially in
5406-420: The impression that Stendhal, Galsworthy , Dreiser , and Mann were great writers." Michael Dirda considers Stendhal "the greatest all round French writer – author of two of the top 20 French novels, author of a highly original autobiography ( Vie de Henry Brulard ), a superb travel writer, and as inimitable a presence on the page as any writer you'll ever meet." In 1817 Stendhal was reportedly overcome by
5508-531: The impression that those entering the room were looking up at the sky, where cherubs and other figures were gazing down at them. Materials used included stucco, either painted or left white; combinations of different coloured woods (usually oak, beech or walnut); lacquered wood in the Japanese style, ornament of gilded bronze, and marble tops of commodes or tables. The intent was to create an impression of surprise, awe and wonder on first view. Rococo tends to have
5610-404: The interiors, and soft pastel colours framed with large hooded windows and cornices on the exteriors featuring rocaille motifs, such as asymmetrical shells and rocks. Plafonds often featured rococo scrollwork surrounding allegorical paintings of ancient Greek and Roman gods and goddesses. Flooring was often inlaid with parquetry designs formed from different woods to create elaborate designs in
5712-481: The largest effect on the Rococo style. The Venetian painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo , assisted by his son, Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo , was invited to paint frescoes for the Würzburg Residence (1720 – 1744). The most prominent painter of Bavarian rococo churches was Johann Baptist Zimmermann , who painted the ceiling of the Wieskirche (1745 – 1754). Rococo sculpture was theatrical, sensual and dynamic, giving
5814-765: The lavish decoration of the ceiling of the Salon of Hercules at the Palace of Versailles , completed in 1735. Paintings with fétes gallant and mythological themes by Boucher, Pierre-Charles Trémolières and Charles-Joseph Natoire decorated the famous salon of the Hôtel Soubise in Paris (1735 – 1740). Other Rococo painters include: Jean François de Troy (1679 – 1752), Jean-Baptiste van Loo (1685 – 1745), his two sons Louis-Michel van Loo (1707 – 1771) and Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo (1719 – 1795), his younger brother Charles-André van Loo (1705 – 1765), Nicolas Lancret (1690 – 1743), and Jean Honoré Fragonard (1732 – 1806). In Austria and Southern Germany, Italian painting had
5916-578: The literary counterpart of liberalism in politics. When Stendhal was appointed to a consular post in Trieste in 1830, Metternich refused his exequatur on account of Stendhal's liberalism and anti-clericalism. Stendhal was a dandy and wit about town in Paris, as well as an obsessive womaniser. His genuine empathy towards women is evident in his books; Simone de Beauvoir spoke highly of him in The Second Sex . She credited him for perceiving
6018-484: The mid-18th century, and while it became more curving and vegetal, it never achieved the extravagant exuberance of the Rococo in Bavaria, Austria and Italy. The discoveries of Roman antiquities beginning in 1738 at Herculaneum and especially at Pompeii in 1748 turned French architecture in the direction of the more symmetrical and less flamboyant neo-classicism . Artists in Italy, particularly Venice , also produced an exuberant Rococo style. Venetian commodes imitated
6120-414: The mistress of Louis XV contributed to the decline of the Rococo style. In 1750 she sent her brother, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières , on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver Charles-Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot . They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art. Vandières became
6222-464: The more formal and geometric Louis XIV style . It was known as the "style Rocaille ", or "Rocaille style". It soon spread to other parts of Europe, particularly northern Italy, Austria, southern Germany, Central Europe and Russia. It also came to influence other arts, particularly sculpture, furniture, silverware, glassware, painting, music, theatre, and literature. Although originally a secular style primarily used for interiors of private residences,
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#17327915181556324-579: The movement of the baroque with exuberance, though the French rocaille never reached the extravagance of the Germanic rococo. The leading proponent was Antoine Watteau , particularly in The Embarkation for Cythera (1717), Louvre , in a genre called Fête galante depicting scenes of young nobles gathered together to celebrate in a pastoral setting. Watteau died in 1721 at the age of thirty-seven, but his work continued to have influence through
6426-878: The name in honour of Winckelmann or simply knew the place as a centre of communications between Berlin and Hanover. Stendhal added an additional "H" to make the Germanic pronunciation more clear. Stendhal used many aliases in his autobiographical writings and correspondence, and often assigned pseudonyms to friends, some of whom adopted the names for themselves. Stendhal used more than a hundred pseudonyms, which were astonishingly diverse. Some he used no more than once, while others he returned to throughout his life. "Dominique" and "Salviati" served as intimate pet names. He coins comic names "that make him even more bourgeois than he really is: Cotonnet, Bombet, Chamier." He uses many ridiculous names: "Don phlegm", " Giorgio Vasari ", "William Crocodile", "Poverino", "Baron de Cutendre". One of his correspondents, Prosper Mérimée , said: "He never wrote
6528-463: The other two; Rousseau did not live to see them, and Goethe had managed to keep aloof from them." Auerbach goes on to say: We may ask ourselves how it came about that modern consciousness of reality began to find literary form for the first time precisely in Henri Beyle of Grenoble. Beyle-Stendhal was a man of keen intelligence, quick and alive, mentally independent and courageous, but not quite
6630-478: The period was Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695 – 1750), who was also a sculptor, painter. and goldsmith for the royal household. He held the title of official designer to the Chamber and Cabinet of Louis XV. His work is well known today because of the enormous number of engravings made of his work which popularized the style throughout Europe. He designed works for the royal families of Saxony and Portugal . Italy
6732-531: The period, with its emphasis on decorative mythology and gallantry, soon inspired a reaction, and a demand for more "noble" themes. While the Rococo continued in Germany and Austria, the French Academy in Rome began to teach the classic style. This was confirmed by the nomination of Jean François de Troy as director of the academy in 1738, and then in 1751 by Charles-Joseph Natoire . Madame de Pompadour ,
6834-472: The regularity of the facade and the overabundance of decoration in the interior. In Great Britain, rococo was called the "French taste" and had less influence on design and the decorative arts than in continental Europe, although its influence was felt in such areas as silverwork, porcelain, and silks. William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not mentioning rococo by name, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that
6936-692: The reign of Frederick the Great and combined influences from France, Germany (especially Saxony ) and the Netherlands . Its most famous adherent was the architect Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff . Furthermore, the painter Antoine Pesne and even King Frederick himself influenced Knobelsdorff's designs. Famous buildings in the Frederician style include Sanssouci Palace , the Potsdam City Palace , and parts of Charlottenburg Palace . The art of François Boucher and other painters of
7038-504: The rest of the century. A version of Watteau's painting titled Pilgrimage to Cythera was purchased by Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1752 or 1765 to decorate his palace of Charlottenburg in Berlin. The successor of Watteau and the Féte Galante in decorative painting was François Boucher (1703 – 1770), the favorite painter of Madame de Pompadour . His work included the sensual Toilette de Venus (1746), which became one of
7140-539: The retreat from Moscow. After the 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau , he left for Italy, where he settled in Milan . In 1830, he was appointed as French consul at Trieste and Civitavecchia. He formed a particular attachment to Italy, where he spent much of the remainder of his career. His novel The Charterhouse of Parma , written in 52 days, is set in Italy, which he considered a more sincere and passionate country than Restoration France. An aside in that novel, referring to
7242-597: The returning army. He crossed the Berezina River by finding a usable ford rather than the overwhelmed pontoon bridge, which probably saved his life and those of his companions. He arrived in Paris in 1813, largely unaware of the general fiasco that the retreat had become. Stendhal became known, during the Russian campaign, for keeping his wits about him, and maintaining his "sang-froid and clear-headedness." He also maintained his daily routine, shaving each day during
7344-505: The sculptor Claude III Audran , the interior designer Gilles-Marie Oppenordt , the architect Germain Boffrand , the sculptor Jean Mondon, and the draftsman and engraver Pierre Lepautre . Their work had an important influence on the German Rococo style, but does not reach the level of buildings in southern Germany. German architects adapted the Rococo style but made it far more asymmetric and loaded with more ornate decoration than
7446-509: The small number of people who read the title character's obscure and pedantic treatise on monogamy. As a literary critic, such as in Racine and Shakespeare , Stendhal championed the Romantic aesthetic by unfavorably comparing the rules and strictures of Jean Racine 's classicism to the freer verse and settings of Shakespeare, and supporting the writing of plays in prose. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas: "In his novel The Red and
7548-483: The stairway led the visitors up through a stucco fantasy of paintings, sculpture, ironwork and decoration, with surprising views at every turn. In the 1740s and 1750s, a number of notable pilgrimage churches were constructed in Bavaria , with interiors decorated in a distinctive variant of the rococo style. One of the most notable examples is the Wieskirche (1745 – 1754) designed by Dominikus Zimmermann . Like most of
7650-419: The style of the 18th century, overloaded with twisting ornaments". In 1829, the author Stendhal described rococo as "the rocaille style of the 18th century". In the 19th century, the term was used to describe architecture or music which was excessively ornamental. Since the mid-19th century, the term has been accepted by art historians . While there is still some debate about the historical significance of
7752-583: The style, Rococo is now often considered as a distinct period in the development of European art . Rococo features exuberant decoration, with an abundance of curves, counter-curves, undulations and elements modeled on nature. The exteriors of Rococo buildings are often simple, while the interiors are entirely dominated by their ornament. The style was highly theatrical, designed to impress and awe at first sight. Floor plans of churches were often complex, featuring interlocking ovals; In palaces, grand stairways became centrepieces, and offered different points of view of
7854-420: The superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David . In Germany, late 18th-century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke ("pigtail and periwig"), and this phase
7956-569: The supreme happiness would be to change into a lanky, blonde German and to walk about like that in Paris." Contemporary readers did not fully appreciate Stendhal's realistic style during the Romantic period in which he lived . He was not fully appreciated until the beginning of the 20th century. He dedicated his writing to "the Happy Few" (in English in the original). This can be interpreted as
8058-465: The undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism ). Rococo was slow in arriving in England. Before entering the Rococo, British furniture for a time followed the neoclassical Palladian model under designer William Kent , who designed for Lord Burlington and other important patrons of
8160-884: The various implausibilities of the novels and Stendhal's clear authorial intervention. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche refers to Stendhal as "France's last great psychologist" in Beyond Good and Evil (1886). He also mentions Stendhal in the Twilight of the Idols (1889) during a discussion of Dostoevsky as a psychologist, saying that encountering Dostoevsky was "the most beautiful accident of my life, more so than even my discovery of Stendhal". Ford Madox Ford , in The English Novel , asserts that to Diderot and Stendhal "the Novel owes its next great step forward...At that point it became suddenly evident that
8262-467: The woodwork. Russian orthodox church architecture was also heavily influenced by rococo designs during the eighteenth century, often featuring a square Greek cross design with four equidistant wings. Exteriors were painted in light pastel colours such as blues and pinks, and bell towers were often topped with gilded onion domes. Frederician Rococo is a form of Rococo which developed in Prussia during
8364-400: Was The History of Painting (1817). From the publication of Rome, Naples, Florence (September 1817) onwards, he published his works under the pseudonym "M. de Stendhal, officier de cavalerie ". He borrowed this pen name from the German city of Stendal , birthplace of Johann Joachim Winckelmann , an art historian and archaeologist famous at the time. However, it is not clear whether he chose
8466-528: Was Thomas Johnson , who in 1761, very late in the period, published a catalogue of Rococo furniture designs. These include furnishings based on rather fantastic Chinese and Indian motifs, including a canopy bed crowned by a Chinese pagoda (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum ). Other notable figures in the British Rococo included the silversmith Charles Friedrich Kandler. The Russian rococo style
8568-430: Was a French writer. Best known for the novels Le Rouge et le Noir ( The Red and the Black , 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme ( The Charterhouse of Parma , 1839), he is highly regarded for the acute analysis of his characters' psychology and considered one of the early and foremost practitioners of realism . A self-proclaimed egotist, he coined the same characteristic in his characters' "Beylism". Marie-Henri Beyle
8670-582: Was among the leading sculptors of the Rococo style. A Venetian, he travelled around Europe, working for Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, for the courts in Austria and Naples . He preferred sentimental themes and made several skilled works of women with faces covered by veils, one of which is now in the Louvre . The most elaborate examples of rococo sculpture were found in Spain, Austria and southern Germany, in
8772-625: Was an avid fan of music, particularly the works of the composers Domenico Cimarosa , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Gioacchino Rossini . He wrote a biography of Rossini, Vie de Rossini (1824), now more valued for its wide-ranging musical criticism than for its historical content. He also idealized aristocracy, noting its antiegalitarianism but appreciating how it is liberal in its love of liberty. In his works, Stendhal reprised excerpts appropriated from Giuseppe Carpani , Théophile Frédéric Winckler , Sismondi and others. Stendhal's brief memoir, Souvenirs d'Égotisme ( Memoirs of an Egotist ),
8874-746: Was another place where the Rococo flourished, both in its early and later phases. Craftsmen in Rome, Milan and Venice all produced lavishly decorated furniture and decorative items. The sculpted decoration included fleurettes, palmettes, seashells, and foliage, carved in wood. The most extravagant rocaille forms were found in the consoles , tables designed to stand against walls. The Commodes , or chests, which had first appeared under Louis XIV, were richly decorated with rocaille ornament made of gilded bronze. They were made by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz and also featured marquetry of different-coloured woods, sometimes placed in draughtsboard cubic patterns, made with light and dark woods. The period also saw
8976-585: Was born in Grenoble, Isère, on 23 January 1783, into the family of the advocate and landowner Chérubin Beyle and his wife Henriette Gagnon. He was an unhappy child, disliking his "unimaginative" father and mourning his mother, whom he loved fervently, and who died in childbirth in 1790, when he was seven. He spent "the happiest years of his life" at the Beyle country house in Claix near Grenoble. His closest friend
9078-458: Was completely drenched in sculpture carved in marble, from designs by Hipolito Rovira Brocandel. The El Transparente altar, in the major chapel of Toledo Cathedral is a towering sculpture of polychrome marble and gilded stucco, combined with paintings, statues and symbols. It was made by Narciso Tomé (1721 – 1732), Its design allows light to pass through, and in changing light it seems to move. A new form of small-scale sculpture appeared,
9180-578: Was detailed by Stendhal on the back of a playing card while speaking to Madame Gherardi, during his trip to the Salzburg salt mine. Hippolyte Taine considered the psychological portraits of Stendhal's characters to be "real, because they are complex, many-sided, particular and original, like living human beings." Émile Zola concurred with Taine's assessment of Stendhal's skills as a "psychologist", and although emphatic in his praise of Stendhal's psychological accuracy and rejection of convention, he deplored
9282-550: Was encouraged in particular by Madame de Pompadour , mistress of Louis XV, who commissioned many works for her chateaux and gardens. The sculptor Edmé Bouchardon represented Cupid engaged in carving his darts of love from the club of Hercules . Rococo figures also crowded the later fountains at Versailles , such as the Fountain of Neptune by Lambert-Sigisbert Adam and Nicolas-Sebastien Adam (1740). Based on their success at Versailles, they were invited to Prussia by Frederick
9384-406: Was exported across Europe. Works included multicolour chandeliers and mirrors with extremely ornate frames. In church construction, especially in the southern German-Austrian region, gigantic spatial creations are sometimes created for practical reasons alone, which, however, do not appear monumental, but are characterized by a unique fusion of architecture, painting, stucco, etc., often eliminating
9486-657: Was his younger sister, Pauline, with whom he maintained a steady correspondence throughout the first decade of the 19th century. His family was part of the bourgeois class of the Ancien Regime , which explains his ambiguous attitude toward Napoleon , the Bourbon Restoration , and the monarchy later on. The military and theatrical worlds of the First French Empire were a revelation to Beyle. As an assistant war commissioner, he served in
9588-713: Was introduced largely by Empress Elisabeth and Catherine the Great , during the eighteenth century by court architects such as Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli . Rastrelli's work at palaces such as the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg and the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo incorporated many features of western European rococo architecture, including grand rooms ornamented with gold leaf, mirrors, and large windows for natural light on
9690-603: Was much lighter and decorative. The Prince-Bishop imported the Italian Rococo painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo in 1750 – 1753 to create a mural over the top of the three-level ceremonial stairway. Neumann described the interior of the residence as "a theatre of light". The stairway was also the central element in a residence Neumann built at the Augustusburg Palace in Brühl (1743 – 1748). In that building
9792-591: Was named an auditor with the Conseil d'État on 3 August 1810, and thereafter took part in the French administration and in the Napoleonic wars in Italy. He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon 's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia. Upon arriving, Stendhal witnessed the burning of Moscow from just outside the city as well as the army's winter retreat. He was appointed Commissioner of War Supplies and sent to Smolensk to prepare provisions for
9894-557: Was one of the first to create a Rococo building in Germany, with the pavilion of Amalienburg in Munich, (1734 – 1739), inspired by the pavilions of the Trianon and Marly in France. It was built as a hunting lodge, with a platform on the roof for shooting pheasants. The Hall of Mirrors in the interior, by the painter and stucco sculptor Johann Baptist Zimmermann , was far more exuberant than any French Rococo. Another notable example of
9996-524: Was published posthumously in 1892. Also published was a more extended autobiographical work, thinly disguised as the Life of Henry Brulard . His other works include short stories, journalism, travel books ( A Roman Journal ), a famous collection of essays on Italian painting, and biographies of several prominent figures of his time, including Napoleon , Haydn , Mozart , Rossini and Metastasio . In Stendhal's 1822 classic On Love he describes or compares
10098-409: Was referred to as empfindsamer Stil ("sensitive style"). It can be characterized as light, intimate music with extremely elaborate and refined forms of ornamentation . Exemplars include Jean Philippe Rameau , Louis-Claude Daquin and François Couperin in France; in Germany, the style's main proponents were C. P. E. Bach and Johann Christian Bach , two sons of J.S. Bach . In the second half of
10200-402: Was taking iodide of potassium and quicksilver to treat his sexual disease, resulting in swollen armpits, difficulty swallowing, pains in his shrunken testicles, sleeplessness, giddiness, roaring in the ears, racing pulse and "tremors so bad he could scarcely hold a fork or a pen". Modern medicine has shown that his health problems were more attributable to his treatment than to his syphilis. He
10302-537: Was the closest to the Rococo style, In 1754 he published "Gentleman's and Cabinet-makers' directory", a catalogue of designs for rococo, chinoiserie and even Gothic furniture, which achieved wide popularity, going through three editions. Unlike French designers, Chippendale did not employ marquetry or inlays in his furniture. The predominant designer of inlaid furniture were Vile and Cob, the cabinet-makers for King George III . Another important figure in British furniture
10404-419: Was the first appearance in print of the term rocaille to designate the style. The carved or moulded seashell motif was combined with palm leaves or twisting vines to decorate doorways, furniture, wall panels and other architectural elements. The term rococo was first used in print in 1825 to describe decoration which was "out of style and old-fashioned". It was used in 1828 for decoration "which belonged to
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