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139-500: One of Beauvoir's best-known and controversial books (banned by the Vatican ), The Second Sex is regarded as a groundbreaking work of feminist philosophy, and as the starting inspiration point of second-wave feminism . Beauvoir asks, "What is woman?" She argues that man is considered the default, while woman is considered the "Other": "Thus, humanity is male, and man defines woman not herself, but as relative to him." Beauvoir describes

278-436: A Good that is a living Harmony and in which she rests, just because they live. The concept of harmony is one of the keys to the female universe, it implies the perfection of immobility, the immediate justification of each element in the light of the whole, and her passive participation in the totality. In a harmonious way, women thus achieve what men seek in action, as illustrated by Virginia Woolf 's Mrs Dalloway and To

417-518: A median length of 28 days. Menarche (the onset of the first period) usually occurs around the age of 12 years; menstrual cycles continue for about 30–45 years. Although a normal and natural process, some women experience premenstrual syndrome with symptoms that may include acne , tender breasts , and tiredness . More severe symptoms that affect daily living are classed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder and are experienced by 3 to 8% of women. Dysmenorrhea (menstrual cramps or period pain)

556-491: A child's life beginning with birth, Beauvoir contrasts a girl's upbringing with a boy's, who at age 3 or 4 is told he is a "little man". A girl is taught to be a woman and her "feminine" destiny is imposed on her by society. She has no innate "maternal instinct". A girl comes to believe in and to worship a male god and to create imaginary adult lovers. The discovery of sex is a "phenomenon as painful as weaning" and she views it with disgust. When she discovers that men, not women, are

695-612: A decreased understanding of why menstruation occurs and the associated physiological changes that take place. This has been shown to cause the development of a negative attitude towards menstruation. In some cultures, women were isolated during menstruation due to menstrual taboos . This is because they are seen as unclean, dangerous, or bringing bad luck to those who encounter them. These practices are common in parts of South Asia including India. A 1983 report found women refraining from household chore during this period in India. Chhaupadi

834-409: A degree that interferes with normal life. Emotional symptoms must not be present during the initial part of the menstrual cycle . A daily list of symptoms over a few months may help in diagnosis. Other disorders that cause similar symptoms need to be excluded before a diagnosis is made. The cause of PMS is unknown, but the underlying mechanism is believed to involve changes in hormone levels during

973-517: A few rare women are committed to a cause and have an end in mind, Beauvoir concludes that "the highest form of freedom a woman-parasite can have is stoic defiance or skeptical irony". According to Beauvoir, while a woman knows how to be as active, effective and silent as a man, her situation keeps her being useful , preparing food, clothes, and lodging. She worries because she does not do anything, she complains, she cries, and she may threaten suicide. She protests but doesn't escape her lot. Women demand

1112-448: A future when women and men are equals, something the " Soviet revolution promised " but did not ever deliver. She concludes that, "to carry off this supreme victory, men and women must, among other things and beyond their natural differentiations, unequivocally affirm their brotherhood." The first French publication of The Second Sex sold around 22,000 copies in a week. It has since been translated into 40 languages. The Vatican placed

1251-767: A group. Butler writes that the book suggests that "gender" is an aspect of identity which is "gradually acquired". Butler sees The Second Sex as potentially providing a radical understanding of gender . Biographer Deirdre Bair , writing in her "Introduction to the Vintage Edition" in 1989, relates that "one of the most sustained criticisms" has been that Beauvoir is "guilty of unconscious misogyny", that she separated herself from women while writing about them. Bair writes that French writer Francis Jeanson and British poet Stevie Smith made similar criticisms: in Smith's words, "She has written an enormous book about women and it

1390-400: A low body weight. A pelvic exam and ultrasound in individuals who are sexually active may be useful for diagnosis. Conditions that should be ruled out include ectopic pregnancy , pelvic inflammatory disease , interstitial cystitis and chronic pelvic pain . Dysmenorrhea occurs less often in those who exercise regularly and those who have children early in life. Treatment may include

1529-466: A man". Through the nineteenth century, women's legal status remained unchanged, but individuals (like Marguerite de Navarre ) excelled by writing and acting. Some men helped women's status through their works. Beauvoir finds fault with the Napoleonic Code , criticizes Auguste Comte and Honoré de Balzac , and describes Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as an anti-feminist. The Industrial Revolution of

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1668-443: A monthly menstrual period is 35 millilitres (2.4 US tbsp) with 10–80 millilitres (0.68–5.41 US tbsp) considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker color than venous blood. About half of menstrual fluid is blood. This blood contains sodium, calcium, phosphate, iron, and chloride,

1807-524: A new life the woman loses her self, seeing herself as "no longer anything ... [but] a passive instrument". Beauvoir writes that, "maternal sadomasochism creates guilt feelings for the daughter that will express themselves in sadomasochistic behavior toward her own children, without end", and makes an appeal for socialist child rearing practices. Beauvoir describes a woman's clothes, her girl friends and her relationships with men. She writes that "marriage, by frustrating women's erotic satisfaction, denies them

1946-474: A normal discomfort of the menstrual cycle, these symptoms must interfere with daily living, during two menstrual cycles of prospective recording. PMS-related symptoms are often present for about six days. An individual's pattern of symptoms may change over time. PMS does not produce symptoms during pregnancy or following menopause . Diagnosis requires a consistent pattern of emotional and physical symptoms occurring after ovulation and before menstruation to

2085-687: A papal official in Rome, manages this portion of the Holy See's assets—consisting of British investments, other European holdings and a currency trading arm. The Guardian newspaper described Mennini and his role in the following manner: "... Paolo Mennini, who is in effect the Pope's merchant banker . Mennini heads a special unit inside the Vatican called the extraordinary division of APSA – Amministrazione del Patrimonio della Sede Apostolica – which handles

2224-847: A person's performance at work, school, and in everyday activities in a small percentage of women. When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, this could be due to ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion . This is checked by using a pregnancy test, ideally as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening. The most common treatment for menstrual cramps are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs can be used to reduce moderate to severe pain, and all appear similar. About 1 in 5 women do not respond to NSAIDs and require alternative therapy, such as simple analgesics or heat pads. Other medications for pain management include aspirin or paracetamol and combined oral contraceptives. Although combined oral contraceptives may be used, there

2363-712: A real being...". She also mentions women with careers who are able to escape sadism and masochism. A few women have successfully reached a state of equality, and Beauvoir, in a footnote, singles out the example of Clara and Robert Schumann. Beauvoir says that the goals of wives can be overwhelming: as a wife tries to be elegant, a good housekeeper and a good mother. Singled out are " actresses , dancers and singers " who may achieve independence. Among writers, Beauvoir chooses only Emily Brontë , Woolf and ("sometimes") Mary Webb (and she mentions Colette and Mansfield) as among those who have tried to approach nature "in its inhuman freedom". Beauvoir then says that women don't "challenge

2502-427: A relatively increased interest in sexual activity, and relatively lower interest directly prior to and during menstruation. Unlike other mammals, women may show interest in sexual activity across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility. There is no reliable scientific evidence that would advise against sexual intercourse during menstruation based on medical grounds. Peak fertility (the time with

2641-595: A sixteen-year-old, she was "stunned by de Beauvoir's imperious, authoritative tone and ambitious sweep through space and time", which helped inspire her to write her work of literary criticism Sexual Personae (1990). The Spanish-language translation of The Second Sex (printed in Argentina) was banned in Francoist Spain in 1955. Spanish feminists smuggled in copies of the book and circulated it in secret. A full Castilian Spanish translation of The Second Sex

2780-457: A sovereign juridical entity . According to Catholic tradition and historical records, it was founded in the first century by Saints Peter and Paul , and by virtue of the doctrines of Petrine and papal primacy, it is the focal point of full communion for Catholic Christians around the world. The Holy See is headquartered in, operates from, and exercises "exclusive dominion" over the independent Vatican City State enclave in Rome, of which

2919-451: A wife and husband who find themselves in a threesome and finds they pass the time not in love but in "conjugal love". She thinks that marriage "almost always destroys woman". She quotes Sophia Tolstoy who wrote in her diary: "you are stuck there forever and there you must sit". Beauvoir thinks marriage is a perverted institution oppressing both men and women. In Beauvoir's view, abortions performed legally by doctors would have little risk to

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3058-419: A woman's reproductive years. The term for painful periods is dysmenorrhea . There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation. There are several ways that someone's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm: Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping. More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) which

3197-469: Is "holding away death but also refusing life". She thinks, "what makes the lot of the wife-servant ungratifying is the division of labor that dooms her wholly to the general and inessential". Beauvoir writes that a woman finds her dignity only in accepting her vassalage which is bed "service" and housework "service". A woman is weaned away from her family and finds only "disappointment" on the day after her wedding. Beauvoir points out various inequalities between

3336-416: Is a member-state in various intergovernmental international organizations , and that it is: "respected by the international community of sovereign States and treated as a subject of international law having the capacity to engage in diplomatic relations and to enter into binding agreements with one, several, or many states under international law that are largely geared to establish and preserving peace in

3475-426: Is a depressive disorder. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory ). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of

3614-538: Is a disruptive set of emotional and physical symptoms that regularly occur in the one to two weeks before the start of each menstrual period. Symptoms resolve around the time menstrual bleeding begins. Symptoms vary, though commonly include one or more physical, emotional, or behavioral symptoms, that resolve with menses. The range of symptoms is wide, and most commonly are breast tenderness , bloating , headache , mood swings , depression , anxiety , anger , and irritability . To be diagnosed as PMS, rather than

3753-710: Is a social practice that occurs in the western part of Nepal for Hindu women, which prohibits a woman from participating in everyday activities during menstruation. Women are considered impure during this time and are kept out of the house and have to live in a shed. Although chhaupadi was outlawed by the Supreme Court of Nepal in 2005, the tradition is slow to change. Women and girls in cultures which practice such seclusion are often confined to menstruation huts , which are places of isolation used by cultures with strong menstrual taboos . The practice has recently come under fire due to related fatalities. Nepal criminalized

3892-620: Is also used. Many religions have menstruation-related traditions, for example: Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran . Some scholars argue that menstruating women are in a state in which they are unable to maintain wudhu , and are therefore prohibited from touching the Arabic version of the Qur'an. Other biological and involuntary functions such as vomiting, bleeding, sexual intercourse, and going to

4031-511: Is called hypomenorrhea . Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea ; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia . Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia . Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia . The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea . Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses (while not being pregnant) during

4170-523: Is etymologically related to moon . The terms menstruation and menses are derived from the Latin mensis ' month ' , which in turn relates to the ancient Greek mene ' moon ' and to the roots of the English words month and moon . Some organizations have begun to use the term "menstruator" instead of "menstruating women", a term that has been in use since at least 2010. Menstruator

4309-407: Is felt as painful cramps in the abdomen that can spread to the back and upper thighs during the first few days of menstruation. Debilitating period pain is not normal and can be a sign of something severe such as endometriosis . These issues can significantly affect a woman's health and quality of life and timely interventions can improve the lives of these women. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

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4448-486: Is insufficient evidence for the efficacy of intrauterine progestogens. One review found tentative evidence that acupuncture may be useful, at least in the short term. Another review found insufficient evidence to determine an effect. Known interactions between the menstrual cycle and certain health conditions include: Sexual feelings and behaviors change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having

4587-595: Is listed in the Annuario Pontificio under "Holy See", not under "State of Vatican City". At the end of 2005, the Guard had 134 members. Recruitment is arranged by a special agreement between the Holy See and Switzerland. All recruits must be Catholic, unmarried males with Swiss citizenship who have completed basic training with the Swiss Armed Forces with certificates of good conduct, be between

4726-429: Is maintained in homosexuality . Examining the work of Henry de Montherlant , D. H. Lawrence , Paul Claudel , André Breton , and Stendhal , Beauvoir writes that these "examples show that the great collective myths are reflected in each singular writer". "Feminine devotion is demanded as a duty by Montherlant and Lawrence; less arrogant, Claudel, Breton, and Stendhal admire it as a generous choice..." For each of them,

4865-548: Is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum. The word menstruation

5004-421: Is not born, but rather becomes, a woman" distinguishes the terms "sex" and "gender". Borde and Malovany-Chevallier, in their complete English version, translated this formulation as "One is not born, but rather becomes, woman" because in this context (one of many different usages of "woman" in the book), the word is used by Beauvoir to mean woman as a construct or an idea, rather than woman as an individual or one of

5143-472: Is not women's inferiority that has determined their historical insignificance: It is their historical insignificance that has doomed them to inferiority". Beauvoir provides a presentation about the "everlasting disappointment" of women, for the most part from a male heterosexual's point of view. She covers female menstruation , virginity , and female sexuality, including copulation , marriage , motherhood , and prostitution . To illustrate man's experience of

5282-417: Is poor. A reviewer from The New York Times described the zoologist hired to do the translation as having "a college undergraduate's knowledge of French." The delicate vocabulary of philosophical concepts is frequently mistranslated, and great swaths of the text have been excised. The English publication rights to the book are owned by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc and although the publishers had been made aware of

5421-428: Is prominent among men's myths about women. She also writes that mystery is not confined by sex to women, but, instead, by situation, and that it pertains to any slave. She thinks it disappeared during the eighteenth century when men, however briefly, considered women to be peers. She quotes Arthur Rimbaud , who writes that, hopefully, one day, women can become fully human beings when man gives her her freedom. Presenting

5560-430: Is relatively small for most women. In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies . 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating. Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia . The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes in hormone production and

5699-939: Is soon clear that she does not like them, nor does she like being a woman." Bair also quotes British scholar C. B. Radford's view that Beauvoir was "guilty of painting women in her own colors" because The Second Sex is "primarily a middle-class document, so distorted by autobiographical influences that the individual problems of the writer herself may assume an exaggerated importance in her discussion of femininity. American theorist David M. Halperin criticizes Beauvoir's idealizing portrayal of sexual relations between women in The Second Sex . Critic Camille Paglia praised The Second Sex , calling it "brilliant" and "the supreme work of modern feminism." Paglia writes that most modern feminists are merely "repeating, amplifying or qualifying" The Second Sex without realising their debt to it. In Free Women, Free Men (2017) Paglia writes that as

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5838-774: Is the See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop Paul Gallagher , Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy See's minister of foreign affairs . Parolin was named in his role by Pope Francis on 31 August 2013. The Secretariat of State is the only body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have extraterritorial rights similar to those of embassies. Among

5977-426: Is used by activists and scholars in order to "express solidarity with women who do not menstruate, transgender men who do, and intersexual and genderqueer individuals". The term can be contentious between different schools of feminist thought; however, the majority of feminist scholars consider the term to correctly reflect the reality that people of different genders menstruate. The term "people who menstruate"

6116-731: The Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church , who administers the temporalities ( i.e. , properties and finances) of the See of St. Peter during this period. The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, then falls to the College of Cardinals . Canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the church during this period. In 2001,

6255-702: The Cardinal Secretary of State ), through the Section for Relations with States. There are 12 internationally recognized states with which the Holy See does not have relations. The Holy See is the only European subject of international law that has diplomatic relations with the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) as representing China, rather than the government of the People's Republic of China (see Holy See–Taiwan relations ). The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office speaks of Vatican City as

6394-720: The Kingdom of Italy and the Holy Roman Empire were at times strained, reaching from the Diploma Ottonianum and Libellus de imperatoria potestate in urbe Roma regarding the " Patrimony of Saint Peter " in the 10th century, to the Investiture Controversy in 1076–1122, and settled again by the Concordat of Worms in 1122. The exiled Avignon Papacy during 1309–1376 also put a strain on

6533-665: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of American States , International Organization for Migration and in the United Nations and its agencies FAO , ILO , UNCTAD , UNEP , UNESCO , UN-HABITAT , UNHCR , UNIDO , UNWTO , WFP , WHO , WIPO . and as a full member in IAEA , OPCW , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Although the Holy See is closely associated with Vatican City,

6672-490: The One chooses to posit himself", and writes that, "But the only earthly destiny reserved to the woman equal, child-woman, soul sister, woman-sex, and female animal is always man." Beauvoir writes that, "The absence or insignificance of the female element in a body of work is symptomatic... It loses importance in a period like ours in which each individual's particular problems are of secondary import." Beauvoir writes that "mystery"

6811-576: The Palestine Liberation Organization ; 69 of the diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome. The Holy See maintains 180 permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 74 are non-residential, so that many of its 106 concrete missions are accredited to two or more countries or international organizations. The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the Secretariat of State (headed by

6950-645: The Pontifical Palace at Castel Gandolfo . The same authority is extended under international law over the Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See in a foreign country. Though, like various European powers, earlier popes recruited Swiss mercenaries as part of an army, the Pontifical Swiss Guard was founded by Pope Julius II on 22 January 1506 as the personal bodyguards of the Pope and continues to fulfill that function. It

7089-473: The Savoyard era (which made the Pope a " prisoner in the Vatican " from 1870 to 1929), its international legal subject was "constituted by the ongoing reciprocity of diplomatic relationships" that not only were maintained but multiplied. The Lateran Treaty on 11 February 1929 between the Holy See and Italy recognised Vatican City as an independent city-state , along with extraterritorial properties around

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7228-646: The See of Rome , Petrine See or Apostolic See , is the central governing body of the Catholic Church and the Vatican City State . It encompasses the office of the pope as the bishop of the Apostolic episcopal see of Rome and serves as the spiritual and administrative authority of the worldwide Catholic Church and the city-state. Under international law , the Holy See holds the status of

7367-793: The United Nations and its agencies, the Council of Europe , the European Communities , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , and the Organization of American States . The word "see" comes from the Latin word sedes , meaning 'seat', which refers to the episcopal throne ( cathedra ). The term " Apostolic See " can refer to any see founded by one of the Twelve Apostles, but, when used with

7506-782: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Holy See is also a permanent observer in various international organizations, including the United Nations General Assembly , the Council of Europe , UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The Holy See participates as an observer to African Union , Arab League , Council of Europe ,

7645-664: The apostolic see of Diocese of Rome was established in the 1st century by Saint Peter and Saint Paul . The legal status of the Catholic Church and its property was recognised by the Edict of Milan in 313 by Roman emperor Constantine the Great , and it became the state church of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 by Emperor Theodosius I . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476,

7784-427: The combined birth control pill , it is also possible for a woman to delay or eliminate menstrual periods, a practice called menstrual suppression . Some women do this simply for convenience in the short-term, while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible. This can be done either by skipping the placebo pills, or using an extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pill , which were first marketed in

7923-469: The developed world . The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s. Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of

8062-524: The diuretic spironolactone may be useful. Over 90% of women report having some premenstrual symptoms, such as bloating, headaches, and moodiness. Premenstrual symptoms generally do not cause substantial disruption, and qualify as PMS in approximately 20% of pre-menopausal women. Antidepressants of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) class may be used to treat the emotional symptoms of PMS. In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during

8201-453: The lunar cycle , in modern humans there is no relation between the two. The relationship is believed to be a coincidence. Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans. A meta-analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle, nor did data analyzed by period-tracking app Clue, submitted by 1.5   million women, of 7.5   million menstrual cycles; however,

8340-570: The "capital" of the Holy See, although it compares the legal personality of the Holy See to that of the Crown in Christian monarchies and declares that the Holy See and the state of Vatican City are two international identities. It also distinguishes between the employees of the Holy See (2,750 working in the Roman Curia with another 333 working in the Holy See's diplomatic missions abroad) and

8479-666: The "horror of feminine fertility", Beauvoir quotes the British Medical Journal of 1878 in which a member of the British Medical Association writes, "It is an indisputable fact that meat goes bad when touched by menstruating women." She quotes poetry by André Breton , Léopold Sédar Senghor , Michel Leiris , Paul Verlaine , Edgar Allan Poe , Paul Valéry , Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , and William Shakespeare , along with other novels, philosophers, and films. Beauvoir writes that sexual division

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8618-445: The 'patrimony of the Holy See'." The orders, decorations, and medals of the Holy See are conferred by the Pope as temporal sovereign and fons honorum of the Holy See, similar to the orders awarded by other heads of state . The Holy See has been recognized, both in state practice and in the writing of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public international law , with rights and duties analogous to those of States . Although

8757-569: The 1,909 employees of the Vatican City State. The British Ambassador to the Holy See uses more precise language, saying that the Holy See "is not the same as the Vatican City State. ... (It) is the universal government of the Catholic Church and operates from the Vatican City State." This agrees exactly with the expression used by the website of the United States Department of State, in giving information on both

8896-425: The Catholic Church through the Roman Curia . The Curia consists of a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level, including the Secretariat of State , nine Congregations , three Tribunals , eleven Pontifical Councils, and seven Pontifical Commissions. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State , directs and coordinates the Curia. The incumbent, Cardinal Pietro Parolin,

9035-752: The Economic Affairs of the Holy See coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of all offices, whatever be their degree of autonomy, that manage these finances. The most important of these is the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See . The Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies (apart from

9174-684: The Family, Private Property and the State (1884), maintained that "the great historical defeat of the female sex" is the result of the invention of bronze and the emergence of private property , his claims are unsupported. According to Beauvoir, two factors explain the evolution of women's condition: participation in production, and freedom from reproductive slavery. Beauvoir writes that motherhood left woman "riveted to her body", like an animal, and made it possible for men to dominate her and Nature. She describes man's gradual domination of women, starting with

9313-704: The Holy See and the Vatican City State: it too says that the Holy See "operates from the Vatican City State". The Holy See is a member of various international organizations and groups including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Telecommunication Union , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and

9452-549: The Holy See had a revenue of 422.098 billion Italian lire (about US$ 202 million at the time), and a net income of 17.720 billion Italian lire (about US$ 8 million). According to an article by David Leigh in the Guardian newspaper, a 2012 report from the Council of Europe identified the value of a section of the Vatican's property assets as an amount in excess of €680m (£570m); as of January 2013, Paolo Mennini,

9591-479: The Holy See is often metonymically referred to as the " Vatican ", the Vatican City State was distinctively established with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, between the Holy See and Italy, to ensure the temporal , diplomatic, and spiritual independence of the papacy. As such, papal nuncios , who are papal diplomats to states and international organizations, are recognized as representing the Holy See and not

9730-422: The Holy See, as distinct from the Vatican City State, does not fulfill the long-established criteria in international law of statehood —having a permanent population, a defined territory, a stable government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states —its possession of full legal personality in international law is shown by the fact that it maintains diplomatic relations with 180 states, that it

9869-544: The Lighthouse , and Katherine Mansfield 's magnum opus. Beauvoir thinks it is pointless to try to decide whether a woman is superior or inferior, and that it is obvious that the man's situation is "infinitely preferable". She writes, "for woman there is no other way out than to work for her liberation ". Beauvoir describes narcissistic women, who might find themselves in a mirror and in the theater , and women in and outside marriage: "The day when it will be possible for

10008-413: The Pope is sovereign . The Holy See is administered by the Roman Curia (Latin for "Roman Court"), which is the central government of the Catholic Church. The Roman Curia includes various dicasteries , comparable to ministries and executive departments, with the Cardinal Secretary of State as its chief administrator. Papal elections are carried out by part of the College of Cardinals . Although

10147-419: The Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons , a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons. A difference between the two coats of arms is that the arms of the Holy See have the gold key in bend and the silver key in bend sinister (as in the sede vacante coat of arms and in the external ornaments of the papal coats of arms of individual popes), while the reversed arrangement of

10286-560: The U.S. in the early 2000s. This continuous administration of active pills without the placebo can lead to the achievement of amenorrhea in 80% of users within 1 year of use. Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume. Suppression of ovulation

10425-484: The UK research has shown that for women allotment growers, access to sanitation for menstrual hygiene management is limited. Menstruation can be delayed by the use of progesterone or progestins . For this purpose, oral administration of progesterone or progestin during cycle day 20 has been found to effectively delay menstruation for at least 20 days, with menstruation starting after 2–3 days have passed since discontinuing

10564-557: The Vatican City State, as prescribed in the Canon law of the Catholic Church . The Holy See is thus viewed as the central government of the Catholic Church and Vatican City. The Catholic Church, in turn, is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. The Holy See maintains bilateral diplomatic relations with 183 sovereign states, signs concordats and treaties, and performs multilateral diplomacy with multiple intergovernmental organizations , including

10703-401: The Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to "ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it indisputable sovereignty in international affairs." Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran , the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that Vatican City is a "minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with

10842-561: The ages of 19 and 30, and be at least 175 centimetres (5 feet 9 inches) in height. Members are armed with small arms and the traditional halberd (also called the Swiss voulge ), and trained in bodyguarding tactics. The police force within Vatican City, known as the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City , belongs to the city state, not to the Holy See. The Holy See signed the UN treaty on

10981-617: The bathroom also invalidate one's wudhu. In Judaism , a woman during menstruation is called Niddah and may be banned from certain actions. For example, the Jewish Torah prohibits sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman. In Hinduism , menstruating women are traditionally considered ritually impure and given rules to follow. Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education at school in Western countries , although girls may prefer their mothers to be

11120-431: The book on its List of Prohibited Books . The sex researcher Alfred Kinsey was critical of The Second Sex , holding that while it was interesting as a work of literature, it was of no value to science. In 1960, Beauvoir wrote that The Second Sex was an attempt to explain "why a woman's situation, still, even today, prevents her from exploring the world's basic problems." In a 1974 interview, she remembered that " Camus

11259-417: The course of the whole menstrual cycle. Reducing salt, alcohol, caffeine, and stress , along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended for the management of mild symptoms. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or naproxen may help with physical symptoms. In those with more significant symptoms, birth control pills or

11398-593: The definite article, it is used in the Catholic Church to refer specifically to the see of the Bishop of Rome, whom that Church sees as the successor of Saint Peter. While St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City is perhaps the church most associated with the papacy, the actual cathedral of the Holy See is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran in the city of Rome. In the Roman Catholic Church, only

11537-520: The dicasteries and in giving them input. The Holy See does not dissolve upon a pope's death or resignation. It instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante . During this interregnum , the heads of the dicasteries of the Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease immediately to hold office, the only exceptions being the Major Penitentiary , who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and

11676-456: The evaluation of abnormal bleeding. Women who had undergone female genital mutilation (particularly type III- infibulation ) a practice common in parts of Africa , may experience menstrual problems, such as slow and painful menstruation, that is caused by the near-complete sealing off of the vagina. Dysmenorrhea , also known as period pain, painful periods or menstrual cramps, is pain during menstruation. Its usual onset occurs around

11815-530: The exception of the German tradition, it and its clergy have served to subordinate women. She also describes prostitution and the changes in dynamics brought about by courtly love that occurred about the twelfth century. Beauvoir describes, from the early fifteenth century, "great Italian ladies and courtesans", and singles out the Spaniard Teresa of Ávila as successfully raising "herself as high as

11954-413: The extent of which depends on the woman. As well as blood, the fluid consists of cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue . Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water, common electrolytes, organ moieties, and at least 14 proteins, including glycoproteins. Many women and girls notice blood clots during menstruation. These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue. If there

12093-440: The family and keep patrimony intact. She compares women's situation in ancient Greece with Rome. In Greece, with exceptions like Sparta where there were no restraints on women's freedom, women were treated almost like slaves. In Rome, because men were still the masters, women enjoyed more rights, but, still discriminated against on the basis of their sex, had only empty freedom. Discussing Christianity , Beauvoir argues that, with

12232-418: The first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in the developed world . The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women. In adults, the range is between 21 and 35 days with the average being 28 days. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Periods stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during

12371-837: The freedom and individuality of their feelings, drives them to adultery". Beauvoir describes prostitutes and their relationships with pimps and with other women, as well as hetaeras . In contrast to prostitutes, hetaeras can gain recognition as an individual and if successful can aim higher and be publicly distinguished. Beauvoir writes that women's path to menopause might arouse woman's homosexual feelings (which Beauvoir thinks are latent in most women). When she agrees to grow old she becomes elderly with half of her adult life left to live. A woman might choose to live through her children (often her son) or her grandchildren but she faces "solitude, regret, and ennui". To pass her time she might engage in useless "women's handiwork", watercolors, music or reading, or she might join charitable organizations. While

12510-473: The highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) occurs during just a few days of the cycle: usually two days before and two days after the ovulation date. This corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week in a 28-day cycle. This fertile window varies from woman to woman, just as the ovulation date often varies from cycle to cycle for the same woman. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate

12649-423: The human condition" and that in comparison to the few "greats", a woman comes out as "mediocre" and will continue at that level for quite some time. A woman could not have been Vincent van Gogh or Franz Kafka . Beauvoir thinks that perhaps, of all women, only Saint Teresa lived her life for herself. She says it is "high time" a woman "be left to take her own chances". In her conclusion, Beauvoir looks forward to

12788-450: The ideal woman is the one who more exactly embodies the Other capable of revealing it to himself. Montherlant seeks pure animality in women; Lawrence demands that she summarizes the female gender in her femininity; Claudel calls her soul-sister; Breton trusts the woman-child; Stendhal is looking for an equal. She finds that woman is "the privileged Other ", that Other is defined in the "way

12927-613: The independent territory over which the Holy See is sovereign , the two entities are separate and distinct. After the Italian seizure of the Papal States in 1870, the Holy See had no territorial sovereignty. In spite of some uncertainty among jurists as to whether it could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters, the Holy See continued in fact to exercise the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives, maintaining relations with states that included

13066-842: The initial months of breastfeeding . Lochia occurs after childbirth. Menstruation, and with it the possibility of pregnancy, ceases after menopause , which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Up to 80% of women do not experience problems sufficient to disrupt daily functioning either during menstruation or in the days leading up to menstruation. Symptoms in advance of menstruation that do interfere with normal life are called premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Some 20 to 30% of women experience PMS, with 3 to 8% experiencing severe symptoms. These include acne , tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. Other symptoms some women experience include painful periods (estimates are between 50 and 90%) and heavy bleeding during menstruation and abnormal bleeding at any time during

13205-462: The keys was chosen for the arms of the newly founded Vatican City State in 1929. The coat of arms of the Holy See also has no background shield, as can be seen on its official website and on the Holy See passports . Menstruation Menstruation (also known as a period , among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of

13344-612: The major powers Russia, Prussia , and Austria-Hungary . Where, in accordance with the decision of the 1815 Congress of Vienna , the Nuncio was not only a member of the Diplomatic Corps but its dean, this arrangement continued to be accepted by the other ambassadors. In the course of the 59 years during which the Holy See held no territorial sovereignty, the number of states that had diplomatic relations with it, which had been reduced to 16, actually increased to 29. The State of

13483-439: The masters of the world this "imperiously modifies her consciousness of herself". Beauvoir describes puberty , the beginning of menstruation , and the way girls imagine sex with a man. She relates several ways that girls in their late teens accept their "femininity", which may include running away from home, fascination with the disgusting, following nature, or stealing. Beauvoir describes sexual relations with men, maintaining that

13622-755: The menstrual blood. The main disposable products (commercially manufactured) include: The main reusable products include: Due to poverty, some women cannot afford commercial feminine hygiene products. Instead, they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials. " Period poverty " is a global issue affecting women and girls who do not have access to safe, hygienic sanitary products. In addition, solid waste disposal systems in developing countries are often lacking, which means women have no proper place to dispose used products, such as pads. Inappropriate disposal of used materials also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products can create blockages of toilets, pipes and sewers. In

13761-425: The menstrual cycle. A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea , is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not re-occurred in 90 days. The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche . The average age of menarche is 12 to 15 years. However, it may occur as early as eight. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in

13900-475: The menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation. Many women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea , during menstruation. Among adult women, that pain is severe enough to affect daily activity in only 2%–28%. Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder . These symptoms can be severe enough to affect

14039-574: The minimum territory". The Holy See, not Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of Vatican City. Under the terms of the Lateran Treaty, the Holy See has extraterritorial authority over various sites in Rome and two Italian sites outside of Rome , including

14178-834: The most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , which oversees the Catholic Church's doctrine; the Congregation for Bishops , which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples , which oversees all missionary activities; and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace , which deals with international peace and social issues. Three tribunals exercise judicial power. The Roman Rota handles normal judicial appeals,

14317-766: The most numerous being those that concern alleged nullity of marriage. The Apostolic Signatura is the supreme appellate and administrative court concerning decisions even of the Roman Rota and administrative decisions of ecclesiastical superiors (bishops and superiors of religious institutes ), such as closing a parish or removing someone from office. It also oversees the work of other ecclesiastical tribunals at all levels. The Apostolic Penitentiary deals not with external judgments or decrees, but with matters of conscience, granting absolutions from censures , dispensations, commutations, validations, condonations, and other favors; it also grants indulgences . The Prefecture for

14456-436: The mother. She argues that the Catholic Church cannot make the claim that the souls of the unborn would not end up in heaven because of their lack of baptism because that would be contradictory to other Church teachings. She writes that the issue of abortion is not an issue of morality but of "masculine sadism" toward woman. Beauvoir describes pregnancy , which is viewed as both a gift and a curse to woman. In this new creation of

14595-421: The new edition where Parshley's version was smoother, saying, "Should we rejoice that this first unabridged edition of 'The Second Sex' appears in a new translation? I, for one, do not." Holy See The Holy See ( Latin : Sancta Sedes , lit.   'Holy Chair ', Ecclesiastical Latin : [ˈsaŋkta ˈsedes] ; Italian : Santa Sede [ˈsanta ˈsɛːde] ), also called

14734-456: The next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 35 days in adults. The average length is 28 days; one study estimated it at 29.3 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 25 to 39 years. The variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44 years. Perimenopause is when a woman's fertility declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in

14873-405: The nineteenth century gave women an escape from their homes, but they were paid little for their work. Beauvoir traces the growth of trade unions and participation by women. She examines the spread of birth control methods and the history of abortion . Beauvoir relates the history of women's suffrage , and writes that women like Rosa Luxemburg and Marie Curie "brilliantly demonstrate that it

15012-435: The overall interests of society". As a result of this push for public programs, European women became more involved in politics and by the 1990s held six to seven times more legislative seats than the United States, enabling them to influence the process in support of programs for women and children. Many commentators have pointed out that the 1953 English translation of The Second Sex by H. M. Parshley , frequently reissued,

15151-651: The papacy, which however finally returned to Rome. Pope Innocent X was critical of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 as it weakened the authority of the Holy See throughout much of Europe. Following the French Revolution , the Papal States were briefly occupied as the " Roman Republic " from 1798 to 1799 as a sister republic of the First French Empire under Napoleon , before their territory

15290-453: The practice in 2017 after deaths were reported after the elongated isolation periods, but "the practice of isolating menstruating women and girls continues." Not all cultures villainize menstruation, the Beng people of West Africa consider menstrual blood as sacred and recognize its significance in reproduction. Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of

15429-868: The primary source of information about menstruation and puberty. Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers, which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty. The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people's understanding of the process. In many Western countries where menstruation is a taboo subject, girls tend to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating and struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation. Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation. Schools can be an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place. Programs led by peers or third-party agencies are another option. Low-income girls are less likely to receive proper sex education on puberty, leading to

15568-688: The problems with the English text, they long stated that there was really no need for a new translation, even though Beauvoir herself explicitly requested one in a 1985 interview: "I would like very much for another translation of The Second Sex to be done, one that is much more faithful; more complete and more faithful." The publishers gave in to those requests, and commissioned a new translation to Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevallier. The result, published in November 2009, has met with generally positive reviews from literary critics, who credit Borde and Malovany-Chevallier with having diligently restored

15707-799: The regimen. Hormonal contraception affects the frequency, duration, severity, volume, and regularity of menstruation and menstrual symptoms. The most common form of hormonal contraception is the combined birth control pill , which contains both estrogen and progestogen . Although the primary function of the pill is to prevent pregnancy, it may be used to improve some menstrual symptoms and syndromes which affect menstruation , such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis , adenomyosis , amenorrhea , menstrual cramps , menstrual migraines , menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), menstruation-related or fibroid-related anemia and dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) by creating regularity in menstrual cycles and reducing overall menstrual flow. Using

15846-433: The region. Since then, Vatican City is distinct from yet under "full ownership, exclusive dominion , and sovereign authority and jurisdiction " of the Holy See ( Latin : Sancta Sedes ). God Schools Relations with: The Holy See is one of the last remaining seven absolute monarchies in the world, along with Saudi Arabia , Eswatini , United Arab Emirates , Qatar , Brunei and Oman . The Pope governs

15985-567: The relationship of ovum to sperm in various creatures (fish, insects, mammals), leading up to the human being. She describes women's subordination to the species in terms of reproduction, compares the physiology of men and women, concluding that values cannot be based on physiology and that the facts of biology must be viewed in light of the ontological, economic, social, and physiological context. Authors whose views Beauvoir rejects include Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler , and Friedrich Engels . Beauvoir argues that while Engels, in his The Origin of

16124-449: The relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle; these systems are called fertility awareness . Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation . The absence of ovulation is called anovulation . Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle . In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will be formed and stimulate

16263-466: The repercussions of the first of these experiences informs a woman's whole life. Beauvoir describes women's sexual relations with women. She writes that "homosexuality is no more a deliberate perversion than a fatal curse". Beauvoir writes that "to ask two spouses bound by practical, social and moral ties to satisfy each other sexually for their whole lives is pure absurdity". She describes the work of married women, including housecleaning , writing that it

16402-483: The right of choice to stay home and raise a family, if they so desired, by issue of a financial allowance, advocated by the Catholic church, or to go into the workforce and have assistance with childcare through government mandated programs, such as nationally funded daycare facilities and parental leave. The historical context of the times was a belief that "a society cut to the measure of men ill served women and harmed

16541-458: The sections of the text missing from the Parshley edition, as well as correcting many of its mistakes. Other reviewers, however, including Toril Moi , one of the most vociferous critics of the original 1953 translation, are critical of the new edition, voicing concerns with its style, syntax and philosophical and syntactic integrity. The New York Times reviewer cites some confused English in

16680-545: The see of the Pope bears the right to be addressed symbolically as "holy". However, there was one exception to this rule, represented by the Bishopric of Mainz . During the Holy Roman Empire , the former Archbishopric of Mainz (which was also of electoral and primatial rank) had the privilege to bear the title of "the Holy See of Mainz" (Latin: Sancta Sedes Moguntina ). According to Catholic tradition,

16819-512: The sexes". The attack on psychoanalysis in The Second Sex helped to inspire subsequent feminist arguments against psychoanalysis, including those of Betty Friedan 's The Feminine Mystique (1963), Kate Millett 's Sexual Politics (1969), and Germaine Greer 's The Female Eunuch (1970). Millett commented in 1989 that she did not realize the extent to which she was influenced by Beauvoir when she wrote Sexual Politics . Philosopher Judith Butler argues that Beauvoir's formulation that "One

16958-452: The statue of a female Great Goddess found in Susa , and eventually the opinion of ancient Greeks like Pythagoras , who wrote, "There is a good principle that created order, light, and man and a bad principle that created chaos, darkness, and woman." Men succeed in the world by transcendence , but immanence is the lot of women. Beauvoir writes that men oppress women when they seek to perpetuate

17097-413: The strictly liturgical part). One of Pope Francis's goals is to reorganize the Curia to prioritize its role in the church's mission to evangelize. This reform insists that the Curia is not meant to be a centralized bureaucracy, but rather a service for the Pope and diocesan bishops that is in communication with local bishops' conferences. Likewise more lay people are to be involved in the workings of

17236-439: The structures of the uterus and ovaries of the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The ovarian cycle controls the production and release of eggs and the cyclic release of estrogen and progesterone . The uterine cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the lining of the uterus (womb) to receive an embryo . These cycles are concurrent and coordinated, normally last between 21 and 35 days, with

17375-755: The temporal legal jurisdisction of the papal primacy was further recognised as promulgated in Canon law . The Holy See was granted territory in Duchy of Rome by the Donation of Sutri in 728 of King Liutprand of the Lombards , and sovereignty by the Donation of Pepin in 756 by King Pepin of the Franks . The Papal States thus held extensive territory and armed forces in 756–1870. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor by translatio imperii in 800. The Pope's temporal power peaked around

17514-528: The time of the papal coronations of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire from 858, and the Dictatus papae in 1075, which conversely also described Papal deposing power . Several modern states still trace their own sovereignty to recognition in medieval papal bulls. The sovereignty of the Holy See was retained despite multiple sacks of Rome during the Early Middle Ages. Yet, relations with

17653-527: The time that menstruation begins. Symptoms typically last less than three days. The pain is usually in the pelvis or lower abdomen. Other symptoms may include back pain , diarrhea or nausea. Dysmenorrhea can occur without an underlying problem. Underlying issues that can cause dysmenorrhea include uterine fibroids , adenomyosis , and most commonly, endometriosis . It is more common among those with heavy periods , irregular periods, those whose periods started before twelve years of age and those who have

17792-865: The use of a heating pad. Medications that may help include NSAIDs such as ibuprofen , hormonal birth control and the IUD with progestogen . Taking vitamin B1 or magnesium may help. Evidence for yoga , acupuncture and massage is insufficient. Surgery may be useful if certain underlying problems are present. Menstrual products (also called " feminine hygiene " products) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood. A number of different products are available – some are disposable, some are reusable. Where women can afford it, items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products. Menstruating women manage menstruation primarily by wearing menstrual products such as tampons, napkins or menstrual cups to catch

17931-427: The uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding . Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding . Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome . Very little flow (less than 10 ml)

18070-444: The uterus through the vagina . The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones . Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels, and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred. The first period, a point in time known as menarche , usually begins between the ages of 10 and 14, with an average age of 12. Menstruation starting as young as 8 years would still be considered normal. The average age of

18209-446: The woman to love in her strength and not in her weakness, not to escape from herself but to find herself, not out of resignation but to affirm herself, love will become for her as for man the source of life and not a mortal danger." Beauvoir discusses the lives of several women, some of whom developed stigmata . Beauvoir writes that these women may develop a relation "with an unreal: her double or god; or she creates an unreal relation with

18348-560: The world." Since medieval times the episcopal see of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign entity. The Holy See (not the State of Vatican City) maintains formal diplomatic relations with and for the most recent establishment of diplomatic relations with 183 sovereign states, and also with the European Union , and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , as well as having relations of a special character with

18487-559: The years leading up to the final menstrual period, when a woman stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 years in Western countries. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialized countries. Illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise. The average volume of menstrual fluid during

18626-453: Was a miscarriage or a stillbirth , examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue ( products of conception ) that was shed. Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin – contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting . The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid

18765-519: Was extremely difficult to access. Many were afraid that legalization would "take from men 'the proud consciousness of their virility' and make women 'no more than objects of sterile voluptuousness'". The French Parliament in 1967 decided to legalize contraception but only under strict qualifications. Social feminists then went further to claim that women “were fundamentally different from men in psychology and in physiology…” and stressed gender differences rather than simply equality, demanding that women have

18904-471: Was furious; he reacted with typical Mediterranean machismo, saying I had ridiculed the French male. Professors hurled the book across the room. People sniggered at me in restaurants. The fact [that] I had spoken about female sexuality was absolutely scandalous at the time. Men kept drawing attention to the vulgarity of the book, essentially because they were furious at what the book was suggesting—equality between

19043-409: Was inspired by Simone de Beauvoir’s, The Second Sex, took significantly longer to reach and impact the lives of European women. Even though The Second Sex was published in 1949 and Feminine Mystique was published in 1963, the French were concerned that expanding equality to include matters of the family was detrimental to French morals. In 1966, abortion in Europe was still illegal and contraception

19182-403: Was published in 1998. The Catholic Church's Vatican-based leadership condemned The Second Sex and added the book in its list of prohibited books, known as Index Librorum Prohibitorum . The book remained banned until the policy of prohibition itself was abolished in 1966. The rise of second wave feminism in the United States spawned by Betty Friedan ’s book, The Feminine Mystique , which

19321-639: Was reestablished. Notwithstanding, the Holy See was represented in and identified as a "permanent subject of general customary international law vis-à-vis all states" in the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815). The Papal States were recognised under the rule of the Papacy and largely restored to their former extent. Despite the Capture of Rome in 1870 by the Kingdom of Italy and the Roman Question during

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