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57-726: The name Niepołomice derives from the Old Polish language word niepołomny which meant "impassable", or "impossible to destroy" or conquer. The forest consists of six nature reserves with the total area of 94.43 hectares . The biggest reserve, called Gibiel (29.79 ha ), covers the area with the most diverse flora and fauna, featuring 175 species of birds as well as European bison , deer , wild boar , wolves , lynx , and wild cats . The next reserve, called Lipówka (25.73 ha), features 200-year-old nature monuments , mainly lime trees, oaks and hornbeams . The slightly smaller Długosz Królewski Reserve, with an area of 24.14 ha (not far from

114-433: A /f/ phoneme. In the 12th and 13th century in the dialects of Lesser Poland and Masovia the initial clusters /xv/ and /xvʲ/ were simplified to /f/ and /fʲ/ (e.g. chwatać > fatać , chwała > fała , chwila > fila ). This enlarged their consonantal inventory by two. This change did not make it to the literary language , and was ultimately reversed also in those dialects. But before that, in

171-503: A few weeks, before his German successor from the NSDAP took over by the order of SS-Obergruppenführer , Hans Frank . Klimecki saved the city from being shelled by the invading Wehrmacht troops on his own initiative. Klimecki was arrested and then released numerous times during the occupation of Kraków, before his death at the hands of the Nazis. The first time, he was taken hostage by

228-583: A law firm in Podgórze in sovereign Poland . In 1926, he was elected as member of the Kraków City Council ; and on July 9, 1931, became vice-president of the city. He was involved in social services , health care , public parks , as well as the distribution of the city's gas. Following the resignation of President Mieczysław Kaplicki in February 1939, Klimecki served as interim president until

285-539: A professor of Jagiellonian University , was the first person to attempt a codification of Polish spelling. He wrote a tract on Polish orthographic rules (in Latin ) and a short rhyme Obiecado (in Polish) as an example of their use. The rules that were proposed included the following: Parkoszowic's proposal was not adopted, as his conventions were judged to be impractical and cumbersome and bore little resemblance to

342-486: A subsequent rapid expansion of -ow- almost completely replaces -ew- in the next century. Eventually the forms with -ow- have made their way to the literary language: Modern Polish -ów , -owie and -owi . Feminine endings of the dative and locative plural had two variants: older endings with a long vowel -ām and -āch , and younger endings with a short vowel – -am and -ach . The shortening might have been caused either by frequent usage, or by leveling of

399-635: A ty odpocznij , English: Let me grind, while you take a rest ), written around 1270. The medieval recorder of the phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of the Henryków monastery, noted that Hoc est in polonico ("This is in Polish"). The difficulty that medieval scribes had to face while attempting to codify the language was the inadequacy of the Latin alphabet to some features of Old Polish phonology , such as vowel length and nasalization , or

456-421: Is a simplified table of Old Polish noun declension: Notes : Although Old Polish inherited all of the inflectional categories of Proto-Slavic , the whole system was subject to a fundamental reorganization. The Proto-Slavic inflection paradigms were applied based on the shape of the stem , but this had been obscured by many phonetic changes . Consequently, the endings began being assigned based primarily on

513-433: Is thought that early Old Polish had free, lexical stress inherited from Proto-Slavic. Occasional ellipsis of the second vowel in commonly used trisyllabic words and phrases in the 14th and 15th century ( wieliki > wielki , ażeby > ażby , iże mu > iż mu , Wojeciech > Wojciech ) point to the conclusion that by that time fixed initial stress had developed. The initial stress in

570-528: Is transversed by several walking trails including a 7 km (4.3 mi) bicycle trail and the newly open 4 km-long (2.5-mile) educational trail complete with informational placards about the local flora and fauna . Among the trails which lead deep into the forest, there is the 14 km-long (8.7-mile) Niepołomice – Poszyna (green) trail called the Royal Road, and the two trails each 12 km-long (7.5-mile), Grodkowice – Błoto – Sitowiec , and

627-692: The Holy Cross Sermons ( Polish : Kazania świętokrzyskie ), the Florian Psalter ( Psałterz floriański ), Bogurodzica ( Bogurodzica ), the Sharoshpatak Bible ( Biblia szaroszpatacka or Biblia królowej Zofii ) and some others. The Old Polish language was spoken mainly on the territory of modern Poland . It was the main vernacular of medieval Polish states under the Piasts and early Jagiellons , although it

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684-590: The Nazi German occupation of Poland between 1939 and 1945. The trees were cut indiscriminately and shipped to military bases and battle fronts across Europe. War crimes were being committed in the area by the Nazis, with Poles and Jews from the neighbouring towns of Bochnia and Niepołomice murdered deep in the woods. There are numerous mass graves in the forest including those of Polish soldiers from 156 Infantry Regiment of Army Kraków, killed on September 9, 1939, as well as those of local partisans who died before

741-772: The Podgórze district of Kraków in 1904. He studied law at the University of Vienna , and after his return he earned a doctorate at Jagiellonian University (UJ) in 1913. During World War I , Klimecki fought with the Second Brigade of the Polish Legions . In 1918, he took part in the disarming of Austrian soldiers in Kraków; he left the army in June 1919, with the rank of Reserve Captain . From 1919, Klimecki ran

798-760: The Podłęże – Przyborów – Sitowiec (blue) trail leading to mass graves of Poles and Jews from World War II. There is also the 8 km-long (5.0-mile) Stanisławice (red) trail leading toward the perimeter of the wisent reserve; however, the reserve is not accessible to visitors. All trails are designed and maintained by the Forestry Inspectorate of Niepołomice. Cited sources Further reading 50°02′25″N 20°22′13″E  /  50.040394°N 20.370344°E  / 50.040394; 20.370344 Old Polish language The Old Polish language ( Polish : język staropolski, staropolszczyzna )

855-570: The Wehrmacht on September 6, 1939, when he approached them with the call to stop shooting because the city was defenseless: "Feuer einstellen!" The second time, if only briefly – on September 11, 1939, for interrogation; and then once more on September 20, 1939 (with ten-day detention), when he was dismissed as president. On November 6, 1939, Klimecki was arrested again, during the notorious Sonderaktion Krakau , and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp . He returned to Kraków upon his release, and

912-678: The aurochs (extinct since 1627, pictured ), wisent, and other big game. The forest was a source of major wood construction material. It was looked after by foresters and Masters of the Royal Hunt. During the military partitions of Poland , from 1795 on, the Austro-Hungarian Empire (controlling the province for well over a century) destroyed most of the old-growth forest and replanted that area with fast growing pine trees meant for commerce. Even more thorough destruction of what remained of Niepołomice Forest came about during

969-401: The lexical gender of nouns, which previously was not the primary consideration (although stem shape still played a role in certain cases), and the old declension classes gradually merged. Many endings were lost from Proto-Slavic and others, often those which were more distinct, took their place. Although many of the above endings are the same as modern Polish , they did not necessarily have

1026-574: The palatalization of consonants. Thus, Old Polish did not have a unified spelling . Polish glosses in Latin texts use romanized spelling, which often failed to distinguish between distinct phonemes . Already then, however, certain spellings of proper names become unified. The spelling in the major works of Old Polish, such as the Holy Cross Sermons or the Sankt Florian Psalter is better developed. Their scribes tried to resolve

1083-540: The proto-language -ev- regularly occurred after soft consonants, and the equivalent -ov- – after hard consonants, in Old Polish this variance was disrupted. There came a tendency to regularize one of them, and so southern Poland: Lesser Poland and Silesia , generalize -ow- to all positions, while Greater Poland generalizes -ew- . Masovia until the 15th century used -ew- as in Greater Poland, but

1140-402: The singular in place of the accusative . This was directly caused by the fact that the accusative of all masculine nouns used to be identical with the nominative , causing confusion as to which of two animate nouns was the subject and which the direct object due to free word order : Ociec kocha syn – "The father loves the son" or "The son loves the father". The use of the genitive for

1197-451: The 14th and 15th century these two sounds became firmly established in borrowings (in earlier loanwords foreign [f] was replaced by either /b/ or /p/). Perhaps one of the oldest loanwords which keeps /f, fʲ/ unchanged is the word ofiara ("victim; offering"), loaned from Czech ofěra , since the pre-writing era change ě > a before a hard consonant ( przegłos polski ) seemed to have operated in it. /f/ also appeared later from

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1254-408: The 15th century when vowel length was disappearing the two nasals retained the old length distinction through changes in quality, like the other non-high vowels. The short nasal was fronted to /æ̃~ɛ̃/ and the long backed to /ɒ̃~ɔ̃/ and lost its length (both with differing dialectal realizations). The described changes led to the creation of the late Old Polish vocalic system: Although stress

1311-688: The Collegium Novum. He informed them that the Poles did not have permission from the German authorities to start a new school year. They were arrested on the spot, as part of an integrated action plan known as Sonderaktion Krakau . Klimecki was apprehended at his home at 5 pm the same evening. Within days, they were deported in one rail car – 184 persons in all – to Reichsgau Wartheland and soon imprisoned at Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Berlin. Klimecki spent over three months there during

1368-712: The Great built the Royal hunting Castle , later rebuilt by Sigismund I the Old and fitted with the Queen Bona Sforza's gardens. The first official mention of the Niepołomice Forest comes from a document written in 1242, calling it "Kłaj". In 1393, the forest is mentioned as Niepołomice Woods (Las Niepołomicki), and in 1441 – for the first time, it was written about under its current name. Throughout its entire history,

1425-517: The Old Polish period, vowel length ceased to be a feature distinguishing phonemes. The long high vowels /iː/, [ɨː] and /uː/ merged with their short counterparts, with no change in quality . The fate of the remaining long oral vowels was different; they also lost their length, but their articulation became more closed and so they remained distinct from their old short counterparts. Thus, /ɛː/ changed to /e/ and /ɔː/ changed to /o/. The earlier long /aː/ also gained roundedness and became /ɒ/. This process

1482-534: The Renaissance. The Book of Henryków ( Polish : Księga henrykowska , Latin : Liber fundationis claustri Sancte Marie Virginis in Heinrichau ), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (pronounced originally as: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj , modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mielił,

1539-615: The administrative centre of the Collegium Novum building, where the registration of teachers and students took place in the following weeks. By September 20, 1939, nearly 20,000 students of all types and about 650 teachers and educators signed up. By the end of September, most schools began teaching. However, on September 20, 1939, Klimecki was arrested by the Gestapo again for the second time in two weeks (after his first brief arrest on September 11), and fired as president, along with

1596-528: The aforementioned issues in various ways, which led to each manuscript having separate spelling rules. Digraphs were commonly employed to write sounds not present in Latin, the letter ⟨ꟁ⟩ with appearance varying between ⟨ꟁ⟩, ⟨ø⟩ and ⟨ɸ⟩ (see image on the right) was introduced to spell the nasal vowels, and the basic Latin letters were now used consistently for the same sounds. Nevertheless, many features were still only rarely marked, for example vowel length . About 1440, Jakub Parkoszowic  [ pl ] ,

1653-475: The appointment of Bolesław Czuchajowski in May 1939, by the minister of internal affairs. Three days after the German invasion of Poland, on September 3, 1939, President Czuchajowski hastily departed Kraków. The City Council gave his vacant position to Klimecki. On his own initiative, Klimecki went to meet the invading Wehrmacht troops on September 6, 1939, and offered himself as a hostage. In this way, he protected

1710-569: The differences between Old and Modern Polish are comparatively slight, and the Polish language is somewhat conservative relative to other Slavic languages. That said, the relatively slight differences between Old and Modern Polish are unremarkable considering that the chronological stages of other European languages that Old Polish is contemporary with are generally not very different from the Modern stages and many of them already labelled "Early Modern". Old Polish includes texts that were written as late as

1767-422: The direct object solves this issue: Ociec kocha syna – unambiguously "The father loves the son". Such forms are ubiquitous already in the oldest monuments of the language, although exceptions still happen occasionally. The Proto-Slavic language had a variant cluster -ev- / -ov- , which occurred in some suffixes , such as the dative singular, nominative plural and genitive plural of masculine nouns. While in

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1824-423: The end of World War II . Among the 40 hostages executed there on December 11, 1942, was the heroic President of Kraków, Dr Stanisław Klimecki . At present, the forest is maintained according to modern forestry practices. Very old trees are generally rare. The program of reconstruction began in postwar Poland around the mid 20th century, including the reinstatement of native plants in drawn-out areas. The forest

1881-478: The entire City Council. He was replaced as head of the municipal government by Ernst Emil Zörner from the NSDAP , who arrived from Dresden . Klimecki was released from prison at Montelupich street ten days later. A little over two months after the invasion, SS-Obersturmbannführer Bruno Müller , the newly appointed chief of the Gestapo in Kraków, called a meeting of all university professors and academics at

1938-430: The following phonemes . As mentioned, the sound qualities are approximations. [ɨ] and [ɨː] were in complementary distribution with [i] and [iː] respectively – the former occurred after hard consonants, the latter in all other positions. The pairs can therefore be regarded as allophones . All vowel phonemes occurred in pairs, one short and one long. Long vowels emerged in Old Polish from four sources: Due to

1995-537: The forest was owned by the state – by the Polish kings between 13th and 18th centuries until the military partitions of Poland , and after liberation, by the sovereign state of Poland. The early road leading through the forest was called the Royal Road ( see also: the Royal Road of Kraków terminating at the Wawel Castle in the heart of the city). It was traveled by prominent Polish kings hunting for bear ,

2052-493: The former two were affricated . The resultant sounds were similar to their modern Polish counterparts: /t͡ɕ/, /d͡ʑ/, /ɕ/ and /ʑ/. This change happened very early, starting already in the 13th century as evidenced by spelling. Somewhere around the 13th to 14th century, the phoneme /rʲ/ came to be pronounced with considerable friction, probably resulting in a sound similar to Czech /r̝/ (but by then probably still palatalized: /r̝ʲ/). The Proto-Slavic language did not have

2109-616: The heart of Niepołomice Forest is the most protected area inhabited by the Polish wisent ( Żubr ), the heaviest surviving land animal in Europe - The European Bison Breeding Centre of the Niepołomice Forest District . Because of its close proximity to Kraków, then the capital of Poland, Niepołomice Forest was the most popular hunting ground for the Polish royalty beginning in the 13th century. In its vicinity, King Casimir III

2166-532: The introduction of borrowings which had hard velars before front vowels, as well as the denasalization of word final /ɛ̃/. Note that this change did not affect the velar fricative /x/ or velars before the front nasal vowel /æ̃~ɛ̃/. Not all regional varieties handled this change in the way here described, most notably in Masovia . After these alternations, the late Old Polish consonant system presented itself thus: The early Old Polish vocalic system consisted of

2223-407: The lengthening described in 1. short vowels could not occur in word-final syllables before a voiced consonant. The only exceptions was short /ɛ/ from an older strong yer. Similarly to some other Slavic languages and dialects , there existed a tendency to constrain the occurrence of vowels in word onset. A prosthetic [j], [w] or [h] was often introduced to words beginning with a vowel: During

2280-493: The original vowels and the consonants of Czech veselý ). Also, in later centuries, with the onset of cities founded on German law (namely, the so-called Magdeburg law ), Middle High German urban and legal words filtered into Old Polish. Around the 14th or the 15th centuries, the aorist and the imperfect became obsolete. In the 15th century the dual fell into disuse except for a few fixed expressions (adages and sayings). In relation to most other European languages, though,

2337-471: The peripheral Podhale and southern Kashubian dialects (now considered a separate language but still part of the Lechitic dialect continuum ) are taken to be remnants of earlier widespread initial stress. In the case of Podhale, Slovak influence is usually ruled out, because Slovak dialects bordering Podhale have penultimate rather than initial stress. In this section, Old Polish sounds are spelled

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2394-420: The precise realization of these sounds is unknown, the transcriptions used here are meant to be approximations. The sound [d͡ʒ] only occurred in the cluster [ʒd͡ʒ], therefore its phonemic status is doubtful. The most important consonantal changes concerned the realization of the soft coronal consonants . Of these, /tʲ/, /dʲ/, /sʲ/ and /zʲ/ strengthened their palatalization and became alveolo-palatal , and

2451-403: The reduction of the cluster /pv/ (chiefly in the word upwać > ufać and derivatives ). The very end of the Old Polish period (15th–16th century, so during the transition to Middle Polish ) saw the palatalization of the velar plosives /k/ and /ɡ/ before front oral vowels to [kʲ] and [ɡʲ], named the so-called "fourth Slavic palatalization". This distinction was later phonemicized with

2508-509: The residents of the city from German attack. After the German takeover of Kraków, Stanisław Klimecki – as the sole representative of the Polish authorities – decided to create an emergency Committee that would launch the new school year at all levels. He entrusted the task of organizing the new board to the Rector of Jagiellonian University , Tadeusz Lehr-Spławiński , who set it up by September 9, 1939. The new office headquarters were located at

2565-711: The same as their primary reflexes using modern Polish orthography , except that non-high long vowels are marked with a macron : ā , ē , ō . The represented state of the nasal vowels is that of the 14th century – two nasal vowels differing in length. This is represented by letters from modern Polish orthography; for example, ę for /ã/ and ꟁ for /ãː/, for the sake of easier comparison with modern forms and proper display. Old Polish nouns declined for seven cases : nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , instrumental , locative and vocative ; three numbers : singular, dual , plural; and had one of three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine or neuter. The following

2622-401: The same distribution. In classes which had a choice of two or more endings, these were commonly interchangeable, while in modern Polish, some words stabilized and only accept one. The modern Polish distinction in animacy in masculine declension was only beginning to appear in Old Polish. The most visible symptom of this trend was the use of the genitive of masculine animate nouns in

2679-399: The spellings commonly used. However, his tract is of great importance to the history of the Polish language , as the first scientific work about the Polish language. It provides especially useful insight to contemporary phonology . Over the centuries, Old Polish pronunciation underwent several changes . The early Old Polish consonantal system consisted of the following phonemes . Since

2736-434: The suffix to the nominative singular -a . Old Polish verbs conjugated for three persons ; three numbers , singular, dual and plural; two moods , declarative and imperative; and had one of two lexical aspects , perfective or imperfective. There was also the analytical conditional mood, formed by the aorist of the verb być ("to be") and an old participle form. Significant changes from Proto-Slavic occurred in

2793-413: The usage of tenses . The ancient aorist and imperfect tenses were already in the process of disappearing when the language was first attested . In the oldest texts of the 14th and 15th century, only 26 existed, and neither tenses show the whole inflection paradigm. The only exception was the aorist of być , which survived and came to be used to form the conditional mood. The role of the past tense

2850-404: The village of Stanisławice ), was established for the protection of a rare flowering fern named Osmunda regalis ( Polish : Długosz Królewski ). The reserve called Dębina (12.66 ha) is set up for the preservation of ancient oak trees. Koło Reserve, with a smaller area of 3.49 ha, consists of lime trees and hornbeams. The reserve called Wiślisko Kobyle (6.67 ha) is devoted to water plants. In

2907-508: The winter. Thanks to an international protest by prominent Italians, including Benito Mussolini and the Vatican , 101 professors from Kraków universities who were older than 40 were released from the camp on February 8, 1940. Klimecki was released with them. The German authorities allowed only the operation of elementary schools during the occupation. After his return to Kraków in February 1940, Stanisław Klimecki worked for two years as

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2964-548: Was a period in the history of the Polish language between the 10th and the 16th centuries. It was followed by the Middle Polish language . The sources for the study of the Old Polish language are the data of the comparative-historical grammar of Slavic languages , the material of Polish dialects , several Latin manuscripts with Polish glosses , as well as – most importantly – monuments written in Old Polish:

3021-659: Was apprehended for the last time of his life on November 29, 1942. A few days later, on December 11, 1942, he was executed, along with some 40 hostages at a remote killing ground in the Niepołomice Forest . Klimecki was born in Wola Przemykowska near Brzesko , the son of Edmund Klimecki and Rozalia née Wróblewska. He went to school first in Złoczów , then in Wadowice , Bochnia , and graduated from high school in

3078-469: Was long and only complete by the late 15th century. The higher vowels are traditionally called pochylone ("skewed") in Polish. The nasal vowels developed differently. Old Polish continued to have four nasal vowels until the 14th century, when they merged in respect to quality, but retained the length distinction. Therefore, the new system had only two nasal vowels: short /ã/ (from earlier /æ̃/ and /ɑ̃/) and long /ãː/ (from earlier /æ̃ː/ and /ɑ̃ː/). In

3135-478: Was never marked in writing, its development in Old Polish can be partially inferred from certain other phonetic changes. In older works, the verbal suffix -i / -y of the 2nd & 3rd ps. sg. imp. is dropped in some verbs, but retained in others. A comparison with East Slavic languages shows that the suffix remained when it was stressed in Proto-Slavic. Examples: Because of this and other evidence, it

3192-449: Was not the state language (that being Latin ). The Polish language started to change after the baptism of Poland , which caused an influx of Latin words, such as kościół "church" (Latin castellum , "castle"), anioł "angel" (Latin angelus ). Many of them were borrowed via Czech , which, too, influenced Polish in that era (hence e.g. wiesioły "happy, blithe" (cf. wiesiołek ) morphed into modern Polish wesoły , with

3249-572: Was taken up by a new analytical formation, composed of the present of być and the old L-participle of a verb. (The introduction to The Legend of Saint Alexius – 15th century) Stanis%C5%82aw Klimecki Stanisław Klimecki (November 20, 1883 – December 11, 1942) was a Polish lawyer, social activist , and the President of Kraków at the time of the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. He served as president only for

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