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139-522: In addition, it is actively engaged worldwide in the peace movement . It is the most pacifist group in Japan of seven religious movements surveyed by Robert Kisala. The main practice of Nichiren Buddhism is to chant Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō . Nipponzan-Myōhōji monks, nuns and followers beat hand drums while chanting the Daimoku , and walk throughout the world promoting peace and non-violence. They try to explain

278-477: A Peace Ship to Europe, to help end the raging World War. He brought 170 peace activists; Jane Addams was a key supporter who became too ill to join him. Ford talked to President Woodrow Wilson about the mission but had no government support. His group met with peace activists in neutral Sweden and the Netherlands. A target of much ridicule, Ford left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden. A popular slogan

417-837: A Christian further popularized humanist ideas. In 1963, the British Humanist Association evolved out of the Ethical Union, and merged with many smaller ethical and rationalist groups. Elsewhere in Europe, humanist organizations also flourished. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Humanist Alliance gained a wide base of support after World War II; in Norway, the Norwegian Humanist Association gained popular support. In

556-405: A Greek myth in which the absurd hero Sisyphus is destined to push a heavy rock up a hill; the rock slips back and he must repeat the task. Sisyphus is negating Gods and preset meanings of life, but argues that life has value and significance, and that each individual is able to create their meanings of life. Camus thus highlights the importance of personal agency and self-determination that lie at

695-426: A concern for humans in relation to the world. Humanists tend to advocate for human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy. Starting in the 20th century, some humanist movements are non-religious and aligned with secularism . Most frequently in contemporary usage, humanism refers to a non-theistic view centered on human agency, and a reliance only on science and reason rather than revelation from

834-402: A disciple of Tolstoy because they agreed on the issues of opposition to state authority and colonialism, loathed violence, and preached non-resistance. However, they differed on political strategy. Gandhi called for political involvement; a nationalist, he was prepared to use nonviolent force but was also willing to compromise. Gandhi was the first person to apply the principle of nonviolence on

973-509: A divine source to understand the world. Non-theistic humanist worldview maintain religion is not a precondition of morality, and object to excessive religious entanglement with education and the state. Contemporary humanist organizations work under the umbrella of Humanists International . Well-known humanist associations include Humanists UK and the American Humanist Association . The word "humanism" derives from

1112-454: A few religious doctrines to also identify as a humanist. Copson adds that religious critics usually frame humanism as an enemy of religion but most humanists are proponents of religious tolerance or exhibit a curiosity about religion's effects in society and politics, commenting: "Only a few are regularly outraged by other people's false beliefs per se ". In the 19th century, along with the decline of religion and its accompanied teleology ,

1251-430: A high level of nonviolence required great faith and courage, which not everyone possessed. He advised that everyone need not strictly adhere to nonviolence, especially if it was a cover for cowardice: "Where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence." Gandhi came under political fire for his criticism of those who attempted to achieve independence through violence. He responded, "There

1390-632: A large scale. The concepts of nonviolence ( ahimsa ) and nonresistance have a long history in Indian religious and philosophical thought, and have had a number of revivals in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Jewish and Christian contexts. Gandhi explained his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth . Some of his remarks were widely quoted, such as "There are many causes that I am prepared to die for, but no causes that I am prepared to kill for." Gandhi later realized that

1529-412: A leading industrialist gave him a worldview that warfare was wasteful folly that retarded long-term economic growth. The losing side in the war typically suffered heavy damage. Small business were especially hurt, for it takes years to recuperate. He argued in many newspaper articles that capitalism would discourage warfare because, "If every man who manufactures an article would make the very best he can in

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1668-513: A range of combinations exists. Individualistic humanists often have a philosophical perspective of humanism; in politics, these are inclined to libertarianism and in ethics tend to follow a scientistic approach. Collectivists have a more-applied view of humanism, lean toward socialism, and have a humanitarian approach to ethics. The second group has connections with the thought of young Marx , especially his anthropological views rejecting his political practices. A factor that repels many humanists from

1807-481: A renewed interest in literature and the arts occurred in 13th-century Italy. Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly that of Aristotle, through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain. Other centers were Verona , Naples , and Avignon . Petrarch , who is often referred to as the father of humanism, is a significant figure. Petrarch was raised in Avignon; he was inclined toward education at

1946-435: A satisfying life with virtue and happiness by improving societies worldwide. Humanist Andrew Copson takes a consequentialist and utilitarian approach to morality; according to Copson, all humanist ethical traits aim at human welfare. Philosopher Stephen Law emphasizes some principles of humanist ethics; respect for personal moral autonomy, rejection of god-given moral commands, an aim for human well-being, and "emphasiz[ing]

2085-464: A shared purpose and constituting a single movement has been called " the peace movement", or an all-encompassing "anti-war movement". Seen from this perspective, they are often indistinguishable and constitute a loose, responsive, event-driven collaboration between groups motivated by humanism , environmentalism , veganism , anti-racism , feminism , decentralization , hospitality , ideology , theology , and faith . Ideas differ about what "peace"

2224-598: A strong international organization which could enforce peaceful conflict resolution. Later that year, the League to Enforce Peace was established in the United States to promote similar goals. Hamilton Holt published "The Way to Disarm: A Practical Proposal", an editorial in the Independent (his New York City weekly magazine) on September 28, 1914. The editorial called for an international organization to agree on

2363-544: A universal law, shaped the humanist moral narrative until the early 20th century. Because the concepts of free will and reason are not based on scientific naturalism, their influence on humanists remained in the early 20th century but was reduced by social progressiveness and egalitarianism. As part of social changes in the late 20th century, humanist ethics evolved to support secularism , civil rights, personal autonomy, religious toleration, multiculturalism , and cosmopolitanism . A naturalistic criticism of humanistic morality

2502-486: A very early age and studied alongside his well-educated father. Petrarch's enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover manuscripts such as Cicero's Pro Archia and Pomponius Mela 's De Chorographia that were influential in the development of the Renaissance. Petrarch wrote Latin poems such as Canzoniere and De viris illustribus , in which he described humanist ideas. His most-significant contribution

2641-438: A worldview or philosophical stance. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary , humanism is " ... a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially: a philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason". Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy . Pre-Socratic philosophers were

2780-446: Is (or should be), which results in a number of movements seeking different ideals of peace. Although "anti-war" movements often have short-term goals, peace movements advocate an ongoing lifestyle and a proactive government policy. It is often unclear whether a movement, or a particular protest, is against war in general or against one's government's participation in a war. This lack of clarity (or long-term continuity) has been part of

2919-494: Is a concept focusing on improving humanity's social conditions by increasing the autonomy and dignity of all humans. In 1999, Jeaneane D. Fowler said the definition of humanism should include a rejection of divinity, and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted there is a lack of shared belief system or doctrine but, in general, humanists aim for happiness and self-fulfillment. In 2015, prominent humanist Andrew Copson defined humanism as follows: According to

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3058-435: Is a major current of counseling. There are various approaches such as discussion and critical thinking , replying to existential anxiety , and focusing on social and political dimensions of problems. Humanist counseling focuses on respecting the client's worldview and placing it in the correct cultural context. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. It also recognizes

3197-449: Is a private issue and the state should have no power over it. He also argues that secularism helps plurality and diversity, which are fundamental aspects of our modern world. While barbarism and violence can be found in most civilizations, Haworth notes religion usually fuels rhetoric and enables these actions. He also said the values of hard work, honesty, and charity are found in other civilizations. According to Haworth, humanism opposes

3336-403: Is a tool rather than a set of doctrines that was used to develop human culture. Humanist philosopher Brian Ellis advocates a social humanist theory of morality called "social contractual utilitarianism", which is based on Hume's naturalism and empathy, Aristotelian virtue theory, and Kant's idealism. According to Ellis, morality should aim for eudaimonia , an Aristotelian concept that combines

3475-430: Is an example of an organization which seeks to merge all peace-movement and green organizations; they may have diverse goals, but have the common ideal of peace and humane sustainability. A concern of some peace activists is the challenge of attaining peace when those against peace often use violence as their means of communication and empowerment. A global affiliation of activists and political interests viewed as having

3614-463: Is an obstacle to morality rather than a prerequisite for it. According to humanists, acting only out of fear, adherence to dogma, and expectation of a reward is a selfish motivation rather than morality. Humanists point to the subjectivity of the supposedly objective divine commands by referring to the Euthyphro dilemma , originally posed by Socrates: "does God command something because it is good or

3753-406: Is based on faith in the goodness of human nature. Gandhi was strongly influenced by the pacifism of Leo Tolstoy . Tolstoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu in 1908, which said that the Indian people could overthrow colonial rule only through passive resistance . In 1909, Gandhi and Tolstoy began a correspondence about the practical and theological applications of nonviolence . Gandhi saw himself as

3892-536: Is considered obsolete. In the early 19th century, the term humanismus was used in Germany with several meanings and from there, it re-entered the English language with two distinct denotations; an academic term linked to the study of classic literature and a more-common use that signified a non-religious approach to life contrary to theism . It is probable Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined

4031-408: Is his body of ideas and principles Gandhi promoted. One of its most important concepts is nonviolent resistance. According to M. M. Sankhdher, Gandhism is not a systematic position in metaphysics or political philosophy but a political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and a humanitarian worldview. An effort not to systematize wisdom but to transform society, it

4170-412: Is lessened. Humanists also consider human essence to be universal, irrespective of race and social status, diminishing the importance of collective identities and signifying the importance of individuals. Immanuel Kant provided the modern philosophical basis of the humanist narrative. His theory of critical philosophy formed the basis of the world of knowledge, defending rationalism and grounding it in

4309-467: Is now rarely practiced. The American Humanist Association arose from religious humanism. The same term has been used by religious groups such as the Quakers to describe their humanistic theology . The term "Renaissance humanism" was given to a tradition of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers that developed during

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4448-534: Is something good because God commands it?" If goodness is independent from God, humans can reach goodness without religion but relativism is elicited if God creates goodness. Another argument against this religious criticism is the human-made nature of morality, even through religious means. The interpretation of holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning; different interpreters reach contradictory theories. Humanism has widely been seen as antithetical to religion. Philosopher of religion David Kline, traces

4587-406: Is the denial of the existence of morality. For naturalistic skeptics, morality was not hardwired within humans during their evolution; humans are primarily selfish and self-centered. Defending humanist morality, humanist philosopher John R. Shook makes three observations that lead him to the acceptance of morality. According to Shook, homo sapiens has a concept of morality that must have been with

4726-839: The Abbasid Caliphate in the eighth and ninth centuries influenced Islamic philosophers. Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational, and scientific discourse in their search for knowledge, meaning, and values . A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history, and philosophical theology show medieval Islamic thought was open to humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism, liberalism, and free speech; schools were established at Baghdad, Basra and Isfahan. The intellectual movement later known as Renaissance humanism first appeared in Italy and has greatly influenced both contemporaneous and modern Western culture. Renaissance humanism emerged in Italy and

4865-587: The American Friends Service Committee . Jeannette Rankin (the first woman elected to Congress) was another advocate of pacifism, and the only person to vote "no" on the U.S. entrance into both world wars. Peace promotion was a major activity of American automaker and philanthropist Henry Ford (1863-1947). He set up a $ 1 million fund to promote peace, and published numerous antiwar articles and ads in hundreds of newspapers. According to biographer Steven Watts, Ford's status as

5004-643: The Catholic Worker Movement urged young Americans not to enlist in the military. Peace movements have become widespread throughout the world since World War II, and their previously-radical beliefs are now a part of mainstream political discourse. Peace movements emerged in Japan, combining in 1954 to form the Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs. Japanese opposition to the Pacific nuclear-weapons tests

5143-645: The Fellowship of Reconciliation ), and individuals such as José Brocca and Amparo Poch . Activists on the left often put their pacifism on pause in order to help the war effort of the Spanish government. Shortly after the war ended, Simone Weil (despite volunteering for service on the Republican side) published The Iliad or the Poem of Force , which has been described as a pacifist manifesto. In response to

5282-737: The Inter-Parliamentary Union , the first international organization for the arbitration of conflicts, in 1889. The National Peace Council was founded after the 17th Universal Peace Congress in London in July and August 1908. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the novelist Baroness Bertha von Suttner (1843–1914) after 1889 became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her pacifist novel, Die Waffen nieder! ( Lay Down Your Arms! ). The book

5421-590: The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which is now known as Humanists International , and promotes the humanist agenda via the United Nations organizations UNESCO and UNICEF . Early 20th century naturalists, who viewed their humanism as a religion and participated in church-like congregations, used the term "religious humanism". Religious humanism appeared mostly in the US and

5560-498: The International Humanist and Ethical Union : Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality. Dictionaries define humanism as

5699-524: The Latin word humanitas , which was first used in ancient Rome by Cicero and other thinkers to describe values related to liberal education . This etymology survives in the modern university concept of the humanities —the arts, philosophy, history, literature, and related disciplines. The word reappeared during the Italian Renaissance as umanista and entered the English language in

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5838-543: The Nobel Peace Prize : "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts." Pauling founded the International League of Humanists in 1974; he was president of the scientific advisory board of

5977-490: The Peace Pledge Union in 1934, renouncing war and aggression. The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression with economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was a major test of international pacifism, pacifist organizations (such as War Resisters' International and

6116-694: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom , the No More War Movement , and the Peace Pledge Union (PPU). The League of Nations convened several disarmament conferences, such as the Geneva Conference . They achieved very little. However the Washington conference of 1921-1922 did successfully limit naval armaments of the major powers during the 1920s. The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom helped convince

6255-781: The World Union for Protection of Life , and a signatory of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement . On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the Cold War arms race . It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. International Day of Nuclear-disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983, at 50 locations across

6394-586: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The protest was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. for several decades. In Britain, there were many protests against the government's proposal to replace the aging Trident weapons system with newer missiles. The largest of the protests had 100,000 participants and, according to polls, 59 percent of the public opposed the move. The International Conference on Nuclear Disarmament , held in Oslo in February 2008,

6533-628: The environmental movement . These movements led to the formation of Green parties in a number of democratic countries in the late 20th century. The peace movement has influenced these parties in countries such as Germany . The first mass peace movements were the Peace of God ( Latin : Pax Dei , proclaimed in AD 989 at the Council of Charroux) and the Truce of God, which was proclaimed in 1027. The Peace of God

6672-570: The 14th and early 15th centuries. By the late 15th century, these academics began to be referred to as umanisti (humanists). While modern humanism's roots can be traced in part to the Renaissance, the term "Renaissance humanism" does not meaningfully relate to humanism in the modern sense. Other terms using "humanism" in their name include: These varieties of humanism are now largely of historical interest only. Some ethical movements continue (e.g. New York Society for Ethical Culture ) but in general humanism no longer needs any qualification "because

6811-598: The 16th century. The word "humanist" was used to describe a group of students of classical literature and those advocating for a classical education. In 1755, in Samuel Johnson 's influential A Dictionary of the English Language , the word humanist is defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word humaniste . In a later edition of the dictionary, the meaning "a term used in

6950-577: The Brethren . The Quakers were prominent advocates of pacifism, who had repudiated all forms of violence and adopted a pacifist interpretation of Christianity as early as 1660. Throughout the 18th-century wars in which Britain participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitment not to serve in an army or militia and not pay the alternative £10 fine. The major 18th-century peace movements were products of two schools of thought which coalesced at

7089-598: The CND, was held on Easter 1958. Several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square in London to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment , near Aldermaston in Berkshire , to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s, when tens of thousands of people participated in the four-day marches. The CND tapped into

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7228-572: The Committee of 100 had a non-hierarchical structure and no formal membership, many local groups assumed the name. Although this helped civil disobedience to spread, it produced policy confusion; as the 1960s progressed, a number of Committee of 100 groups protested against social issues not directly related to war and peace. In 1961, at the height of the Cold War , about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in

7367-519: The Enlightenment, Baruch Spinoza redefined God as signifying the totality of nature; Spinoza was accused of atheism but remained silent on the matter. Naturalism was also advanced by prominent Encyclopédistes . Baron d'Holbach wrote the polemic System of Nature , claiming that religion was built on fear and had helped tyrants throughout history. Diderot and Helvetius combined their materialism with sharp, political critique. Also during

7506-430: The Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity started forming—a critical juncture for the construction of humanist philosophy. Previous appeals to "men" now shifted toward "man"; to illustrate this point, scholar Tony Davies points to political documents like The Social Contract (1762) of Rousseau , in which he says "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Likewise, Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man uses

7645-646: The German occupation) died in concentration camps. Austrian farmer Franz Jägerstätter was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in the Wehrmacht . Conscientious objectors and war tax resisters existed in both world wars, and the United States government allowed sincere objectors to serve in non-combat military roles. However, draft resisters who refused any cooperation with the war effort often spent much of each war in federal prisons. During World War II, pacifist leaders such as Dorothy Day and Ammon Hennacy of

7784-476: The Humanist ethics the chief end of thought and action is to further this-earthly human interests on behalf of the greater glory of people. The watchword of Humanism is happiness for all humanity in this existence as contrasted with salvation for the individual soul in a future existence and the glorification of a supernatural Supreme Being ... It heartily welcomes all life-enhancing and healthy pleasures, from

7923-625: The Labour Party. Two years after the CND's formation, president Bertrand Russell resigned to form the Committee of 100 ; the committee planned to conduct sit-down demonstrations in central London and at nuclear bases around the UK. Russell said that the demonstrations were necessary because the press had become indifferent to the CND and large-scale, direct action could force the government to change its policy. One hundred prominent people, many in

8062-514: The Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace, was formed by philanthropist William Allen in 1816 to promote permanent, universal peace. During the 1840s, British women formed 15-to-20 person "Olive Leaf Circles" to discuss and promote pacifist ideas. The London Peace Society's influence began to grow during the mid-nineteenth century. Under Elihu Burritt and Henry Richard ,

8201-835: The Soviet Union in 1941. Although mainstream isolationist groups such as the America First Committee declined after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , a number of small religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to the war. Bertrand Russell said that the necessity of defeating Adolf Hitler and the Nazis was a unique circumstance in which war was not the worst possible evil, and called his position "relative pacifism". Albert Einstein wrote, "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence, yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer

8340-518: The U.S. Senate to launch an influential investigation by the Nye Committee to the effect that the munitions industry and Wall Street financiers had promoted American entry into World War I to cover their financial investments. The immediate result was a series of laws imposing neutrality on American business if other countries went to war. Pacifism and revulsion to war were popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. A number of novels and poems about

8479-787: The US, humanism evolved with the aid of significant figures of the Unitarian Church . Humanist magazines began to appear, including The New Humanist , which published the Humanist Manifesto I in 1933. The American Ethical Union emerged from newly founded, small, ethicist societies. The American Humanist Association (AHA) was established in 1941 and became as popular as some of its European counterparts. The AHA spread to all states, and some prominent public figures such as Isaac Asimov , John Dewey , Erich Fromm , Paul Kurtz , Carl Sagan , and Gene Roddenberry became members. Humanist organizations from all continents formed

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8618-507: The United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. It was the century's largest national women's peace protest . In 1958, Linus Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with a petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear weapons testing . The 1961 Baby Tooth Survey , co-founded by Dr. Louise Reiss , indicated that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in

8757-648: The United States was the New York Peace Society , founded in 1815 by theologian David Low Dodge , followed by the Massachusetts Peace Society . The groups merged into the American Peace Society , which held weekly meetings and produced literature that was spread as far as Gibraltar and Malta describing the horrors of war and advocating pacifism on Christian grounds. The London Peace Society , also known as

8896-597: The United States. In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C. in the Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament . Many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps were held at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s. Forty thousand anti-nuclear and anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York on May 1, 2005, 60 years after

9035-481: The arbitration of disputes and guarantee the territorial integrity of its members by maintaining military forces sufficient to defeat those of any non-member. The ensuing debate among prominent internationalists modified Holt's plan to align it more closely with proposals in Great Britain put forth by Viscount James Bryce , a former ambassador from the U.K. to the U.S. These and other initiatives were pivotal to

9174-425: The arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions ... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves man, woman, and child to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them." Although

9313-434: The arts, attached their names to the organization. Large numbers of demonstrators were essential to their strategy but police violence, the arrest and imprisonment of demonstrators, and preemptive arrests for conspiracy diminished support. Although several prominent people took part in sit-down demonstrations (including Russell, whose imprisonment at age 89 was widely reported), many of the 100 signatories were inactive. Since

9452-591: The aspects of personal belief that added to the hostility between humanism and religion. Humanism was linked with prominent thinkers who advocated against the existence of God using rationalistic arguments. Critique of theism continued through the humanistic revolutions in Europe, challenging religious worldviews, attitudes and superstitions on a rational basis—a tendency that continued to the 20th century. According to Stephen Law, humanist adherence to secularism placed humans at odds with religion, especially nationally dominant religions striving to retain privileges gained in

9591-623: The attitude changes which gave rise to the League of Nations after the war. In addition to the peace churches, groups which protested against the war included the Woman's Peace Party (organized in 1915 and led by Jane Addams ), the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace (ICWPP) (also organized in 1915), the American Union Against Militarism , the Fellowship of Reconciliation , and

9730-478: The belief that humans should not wage war or engage in ethnic cleansing about language, race, or natural resources , or engage in ethical conflict over religion or ideology . Long-term opponents of war are characterized by the belief that military power does not equal justice . The peace movement opposes the proliferation of dangerous technology and weapons of mass destruction , particularly nuclear weapons and biological warfare . Many adherents object to

9869-408: The brevity of man's life". Socrates spoke of the need to "know thyself"; his thought changed the focus of then-contemporary philosophy from nature to humans and their well-being. He was a theist executed for atheism, who investigated the nature of morality by reasoning. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) taught rationalism and a system of ethics based on human nature that also parallels humanist thought. In

10008-419: The centre of humanism. Personal humanist interpretations of the meaning of life vary from the pursuit of happiness without recklessness and excesses to participation in human history, and connection with loved ones, living animals, and plants. Some answers are close to those of religious discourse if the appeal to divinity is overlooked. According to humanist professor Peter Derks, elements that contribute to

10147-602: The contemporary era. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic ideas resurfaced, this time further from religion and classical literature. Science and intellectualism advanced, and humanists argued that rationality could replace deism as the means with which to understand the world. Humanistic values, such as tolerance and opposition to slavery, started to take shape. New philosophical, social, and political ideas appeared. Some thinkers rejected theism outright; and atheism, deism, and hostility to organized religion were formed. During

10286-407: The deconstruction of the religious narrative in favor of human-generated knowledge. This ultimately uncoupled the fate of humans from the divine will, prompting social and political shifts. The relation of state and citizens changed as civic humanistic principles emerged; people were no longer to be servile to religiously grounded monarchies but could pursue their own destinies. Kline also points at

10425-620: The dominance of Aristotelian philosophy by revitalizing Sextus Empiricus ' skepticism. Religious studies were affected by the growth of Renaissance humanism when Pope Nicholas V initiated the translation of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, and other texts in those languages, to contemporaneous Latin. Humanist values spread from Italy in the 15th century. Students and scholars went to Italy to study before returning to their homelands carrying humanistic messages. Printing houses dedicated to ancient texts were established in Venice, Basel, and Paris. By

10564-508: The effects of war. In 2010, they participated in the Walk for a Nuclear Free Future across the United States. Many argue that the order shows a certain political stance with its active opposition to the nuclear industry in Japan and U.S. involvement in Okinawa . They refer to a speech given by the founder of the sect in which he states that Buddhism has to be actively involved with the affairs of

10703-489: The elimination of nuclear weapons. The anti-Vietnam War peace movement began during the 1960s in the United States, opposing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . Some within the movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of American forces from South Vietnam . Humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers

10842-474: The empirical world. He also supported the idea of the moral autonomy of the individual, which is fundamental to his philosophy. According to Kant, morality is the product of the way humans live and not a set of fixed values. Instead of a universal ethic code, Kant suggested a universal procedure that shapes the ethics that differ among groups of people. Philosopher and humanist advocate Corliss Lamont , in his book The Philosophy of Humanism (1997), states: In

10981-441: The end of the 15th century, the center of humanism had shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam being the leading humanist scholar. The longest-lasting effect of Renaissance humanism was its education curriculum and methods. Humanists insisted on the importance of classical literature in providing intellectual discipline, moral standards, and a civilized taste for the elite—an educational approach that reached

11120-619: The end of the century. One, rooted in the secular Age of Enlightenment , promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world's ills; the other was part of the evangelical religious revival which had played an important role in the campaign for the abolition of slavery . Representatives of the former included Jean-Jacques Rousseau , in Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre (1756); Immanuel Kant in Thoughts on Perpetual Peace , and Jeremy Bentham , who proposed

11259-455: The export of weapons (including hand-held machine guns and grenades ) by leading economic nations to developing countries. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute has voiced a concern that artificial intelligence , molecular engineering , genetics and proteomics have destructive potential. The peace movement intersects with Neo-Luddism and primitivism , and with mainstream critics such as Green parties , Greenpeace and

11398-610: The first Western philosophers to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason and natural law without relying on myth, tradition, or religion. Protagoras , who lived in Athens c.  440 BCE , put forward some fundamental humanist ideas, although only fragments of his work survive. He made one of the first agnostic statements; according to one fragment: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist nor of what kind they are in form: for many things prevent me for knowing this, its obscurity and

11537-683: The first peace pagoda in the United States was completed, the New England Peace Pagoda in Leverett, Massachusetts . The second US pagoda was built in 1993. There are currently three peace pagodas in the United States, and as of April 2022 there are plans for a fourth. Followers of the order have also undertaken numerous peace pilgrimages. One of the most prominent of these was the 1994–1995 The Interfaith Pilgrimage for Peace and Life from Auschwitz to Hiroshima , by way of Bosnia , Iraq , Cambodia , and other countries experiencing

11676-587: The form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows which ate contaminated grass. Public pressure and the research results then led to a moratorium on above ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy , Nikita Khrushchev , and Harold Macmillan . On the day that the treaty went into force, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling

11815-744: The formation of a peace association in 1789. One representative of the latter was William Wilberforce ; Wilberforce thought that by following the Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood, strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars . During the Napoleonic Wars (1793-1814), no formal peace movement was established in Britain until hostilities ended. A significant grassroots peace movement, animated by universalist ideals, emerged from

11954-477: The futility of war and the slaughter of youth by old fools were published, including Death of a Hero by Richard Aldington , Erich Maria Remarque 's All Quiet on the Western Front and Beverley Nichols ' Cry Havoc! A 1933 University of Oxford debate on the proposed motion that "one must fight for King and country" reflected the changed mood when the motion was defeated. Dick Sheppard established

12093-413: The global peace movement seek to guarantee health security by ending war and ensure what they view as basic human rights , including the right of all people to have access to clean air, water, food, shelter and health care . Activists seek social justice in the form of equal protection and equal opportunity under the law for groups which had been disenfranchised. The peace movement is characterized by

12232-602: The goal of achieving world peace . Some of the methods used to achieve these goals include advocacy of pacifism , nonviolent resistance , diplomacy , boycotts , peace camps , ethical consumerism , supporting anti-war political candidates, supporting legislation to remove profits from government contracts to the military–industrial complex , banning guns , creating tools for open government and transparency , direct democracy , supporting whistleblowers who expose war crimes or conspiracies to create wars , demonstrations , and political lobbying . The political cooperative

12371-443: The idea—which is sometimes attributed to Thomas Paine —of a " religion of humanity ". According to scholar Tony Davies, this was intended to be an atheist cult based on some humanistic tenets, and had some prominent members but soon declined. It was nonetheless influential during the 19th century, and its humanism and rejection of supernaturalism are echoed in the works of later authors such as Oscar Wilde , George Holyoake —who coined

12510-408: The importance of moral questions about one's interactions with people according to one's worldview. This is examined using a process of dialogue. Humanist counseling originated in post-World War II Netherlands. Humanistic counseling is based on the works of psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow . It introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what Rogers and Maslow viewed as

12649-478: The invocation of supernatural phenomena fails to coherently explain the world. One form of irrational thinking is adducing . Humanists are skeptical of explanations of natural phenomena or diseases that rely on hidden agencies. Human autonomy is another hallmark of humanist philosophy. For people to be autonomous, their beliefs and actions must be the result of their own reasoning. For humanists, autonomy dignifies each individual; without autonomy, people's humanity

12788-415: The irrationality of nationalism and totalitarianism , whether these are part of fascism or Marxist–Leninist communism . According to professor Joseph O. Baker, in political theory, contemporary humanism is formed by two main tendencies; the first is individualistic and the second inclines to collectivism . The trajectory of each tendency can lead to libertarianism and socialism respectively, but

12927-534: The last centuries. Worth notes religious persons can be secularists. Law notes secularism is criticized for suppressing freedom of expression of religious persons but firmly denies such accusation; instead, he says, secularism protects this kind of freedom but opposes the privileged status of religious views. According to Andrew Copson, humanism is not incompatible with some aspects of religion. He observes that components like belief, practice, identity, and culture can coexist, allowing an individual who subscribes to only

13066-428: The libertarian view is the neoliberal or capitalistic consequences they feel it entails. Humanism has been a part of both major 20th-century ideological currents—liberalism and Marxism. Early 19th-century socialism was connected to humanism. In the 20th century, a humanistic interpretation of Marxism focused on Marx's early writings, viewing Marxism not as " scientific socialism " but as a philosophical critique aimed at

13205-504: The lifestance is by definition naturalistic, scientific, and secular". However, according to Andrew Copson the view that there are still two types of humanism – religious and secular – "has begun to seriously muddy the conceptual water". Humanism is strongly linked to rationality. For humanists, humans are reasonable beings, and reasoning and the scientific method are means of finding truth. Humanists argue science and rationality have driven successful developments in various fields while

13344-473: The meaning of life are a morally worthy purpose in life, positive self-evaluation, an understanding of one's environment, being seen and understood by others, the ability to emotionally connect with others, and a desire to have a meaning in life. Humanist professor Anthony B. Pinn places the meaning of life in the quest of what he calls "complex subjectivity". Pinn, who is advocating for a non-theistic, humanistic religion inspired by African cultures, says seeking

13483-465: The meaning of their ministry to all wishing to understand it. The most recognizable achievement of Nipponzan-Myōhōji is peace pagodas ( stupas ), that have been erected in various locations around the world, the first of which was inaugurated in 1954 at Kumamoto in Japan. Since then cities such as London , New Delhi , Vienna , Comiso (in Italy) and Tokyo have all received peace pagodas. In 1985

13622-444: The never-reaching meaning of life contributes to well-being, and that rituals and ceremonies, which are occasions for reflection, provide an opportunity to assess the meaning of life, improving well-being. The hallmark of contemporary humanism in politics is the demand for secularism. Philosopher Alan Haworth said secularism delivers fair treatment to all citizens of a nation-state since all are treated without discrimination; religion

13761-625: The only effective protection." French pacifists André and Magda Trocmé helped to conceal hundreds of Jews fleeing the Nazis in the village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon . After the war, the Trocmés were declared Righteous Among the Nations . Pacifists in Nazi Germany were treated harshly. German pacifist Carl von Ossietzky and Norwegian pacifist Olaf Kullmann (who remained active during

13900-500: The onset of the First World War was generally greeted with enthusiastic patriotism across Europe, peace groups were active in condemning the war. Many socialist groups and movements were antimilitarist . They argued that by its nature, war was a type of governmental coercion of the working class for the benefit of capitalist elites. In 1915, the League of Nations Society was formed by British liberal leaders to promote

14039-518: The over-pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology . Some modern counseling organizations have humanist origins, like the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy , which was founded by Harold Blackham , which he developed alongside the British Humanist Association 's Humanist Counselling Service. Modern-day humanist pastoral care in

14178-498: The overcoming of " alienation ". In the US, liberalism is associated mostly with humanistic principles, which is distinct from the European use of the same word, which has economical connotations. In the post-1945 era, Jean-Paul Sartre and other French existentialists advocated for humanism, linking it to socialism while trying to stay neutral during the Cold War . Humanist counseling is humanism-inspired applied psychology, which

14317-755: The peace movement's earliest victories by securing a commitment for arbitration from the Great Powers in the Treaty of Paris (1856) at the end of the Crimean War . Wracked by social upheaval , the first peace congress on the European continent was held in Brussels in 1848; a second was held in Paris a year later. By the 1850s, these movements were becoming well organized in the major countries of Europe and North America, reaching middle-class activists beyond

14456-429: The perception that Britain fought in a reactionary role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the nation's welfare in the form of higher taxes and casualties. Sixteen peace petitions to Parliament were signed by members of the public; anti-war and anti- Pitt demonstrations were held, and peace literature was widely disseminated. The first formal peace movements appeared in 1815 and 1816. The first movement in

14595-478: The plurality of species. Darwin's theory also suggested humans are simply a natural species, contradicting the traditional theological view of humans as more than animals. Philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Karl Marx attacked religion on several grounds, and theologians David Strauss and Julius Wellhausen questioned the Bible. In parallel, utilitarianism was developed in Britain through

14734-476: The post-Hellenic world. It is a repeated view among scholars that the humanistic features of ancient Greek thought are the roots of humanism 2,000 years later. Other predecessor movements that sometimes use the same or equivalent vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism . Arabic translations of Ancient Greek literature during

14873-416: The question of the meaning of life became more prominent. Unlike religions, humanism does not have a definite view on the meaning of life. Humanists commonly say people create rather than discover meaning. While philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre wrote on the meaning of life in a godless world, the work of Albert Camus has echoed and shaped humanism. In Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus , he quotes

15012-601: The range of the earlier religious connections. Support decreased during the resurgence of militarism during the American Civil War and the Crimean War, the movement began to spread across Europe and infiltrate fledgling working-class socialist movements. In 1870, Randal Cremer formed the Workman's Peace Association in London. Cremer and the French economist Frédéric Passy were the founding fathers of

15151-552: The role of reason in making moral judgements". Humanism's godless approach to morality has driven criticism from religious commentators. The necessity for a divine being delivering sets of doctrines for morals to exist is a common argument; according to Dostoevsky 's character Ivan Karamázov in The Brothers Karamazov , "if God does not exist, then everything is permitted". This argument suggests chaos will ensue if religious belief disappears. For humanists, theism

15290-466: The roots of this animosity since the Renaissance, when humanistic views deconstructed the previous religiously defined order. Kline describes several ways this antithesis has evolved. Kline notes the emergence of a confident human-made knowledge, which was a new way of epistemology , repelled the church from its authoritative position. Kline uses the paradigm of non-humanists Copernicus , Kepler , and Galileo to illustrate how scientific discoveries added to

15429-432: The schools of Scotland " was added. In the 1780s, Thomas Howes was one of Joseph Priestley 's many opponents during the celebrated Unitarian disputes. Because of the different doctrinal meanings of Unitarian and Unitarianism , Howes used "the more precise appellations of humanists and humanism " when referring to those like Priestley "who maintain the mere humanity of Christ ". This theological origin of humanism

15568-684: The scientific method was followed in the late 19th century in Britain by the start of many rationalist and ethical associations, such as the National Secular Society , the Ethical Union , and the Rationalist Press Association . In the 20th century, humanism was further promoted by the work of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer , Antony Flew , and Bertrand Russell , whose advocacy of atheism in Why I Am Not

15707-426: The singular form of the word, revealing a universal conception of "man". In parallel, Baconian empiricism—though not humanism per se —led to Thomas Hobbes 's materialism. Scholar J. Brent Crosson argues that, while there is a widely-held belief that the birth of humanism was solely a European affair, intellectual thought from Africa and Asia significantly contributed as well. He also notes that during enlightenment,

15846-419: The society convened the first International Peace Congress in London in 1843. The congress decided on two goals: to achieve the ideal of peaceable arbitration of the affairs of nations, and to create an international institution to achieve it. Richard became the society's full-time secretary in 1850; he held the position for the next 40 years, and became known as the "Apostle of Peace". He helped secure one of

15985-446: The species since the beginning of human history, developing by recognizing and thinking upon behaviors. He adds morality is universal among human cultures and all cultures strive to improve their moral level. Shook concludes that while morality was initially generated by our genes, culture shaped human morals and continues to do so. He calls "moral naturalism" the view that morality is a natural phenomenon, can be scientifically studied, and

16124-614: The starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humanism" has changed according to successive intellectual movements that have identified with it. During the Italian Renaissance , ancient works inspired Catholic Italian scholars, giving rise to the Renaissance humanism movement. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic values were reinforced by advances in science and technology, giving confidence to humans in their exploration of

16263-518: The strategy of those seeking to end a war, such as the Vietnam War . Global protests against the U.S. invasion of Iraq in early 2003 are an example of a specific, short-term, loosely affiliated single-issue "movement" consisting of relatively-scattered ideological priorities ranging from pacifism to Islamism and Anti-Americanism . Those involved in multiple, similar short-term movements develop trust relationships with other participants, and tend to join more-global, long-term movements. Elements of

16402-481: The term humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools. Soon, other scholars such as Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt adopted the term. In the 20th century, the word was further refined, acquiring its contemporary meaning of a naturalistic approach to life, and a focus on the well-being and freedom of humans. There is no single, widely accepted definition of humanism, and scholars have given different meanings to

16541-475: The term. For philosopher Sidney Hook , writing in 1974, humanists are opposed to the imposition of one culture in some civilizations, do not belong to a church or established religion, do not support dictatorships, and do not justify the use of violence for social reforms. Hook also said humanists support the elimination of hunger and improvements to health, housing, and education. In the same edited collection , Humanist philosopher H. J. Blackham argued humanism

16680-426: The third century BCE, Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy that focused on achieving eudaimonia . Epicureans continued Democritus ' atomist theory—a materialistic theory that suggests the fundamental unit of the universe is an indivisible atom. Human happiness, living well, friendship, and the avoidance of excesses were the key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy that flourished in and beyond

16819-400: The threat of fascism, pacifist thinkers such as Richard B. Gregg devised plans for a campaign of nonviolent resistance in the event of a fascist invasion or takeover. At the beginning of World War II , pacifist and anti-war sentiment declined in nations affected by the war. The communist-controlled American Peace Mobilization reversed its anti-war activism, however, when Germany invaded

16958-444: The unconditional renunciation of the use, production, or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain, and the creation of a general disarmament convention. Although the country was progressing towards de-nuclearization, the CND declared that Britain should halt the flight of nuclear-armed planes, end nuclear testing, stop using missile bases, and not provide nuclear weapons to any other country. The first Aldermaston March , organized by

17097-476: The universal man did not encompass all humans but was shaped by gender and race. According to Crosson, the shift from man to human started during enlightenment and is still ongoing. Crosson also argues that enlightenment, especially in Britain, produced not only a notion of universal man, but also gave birth to pseudoscientific ideas, such as those about differences between races, that shaped European history. French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced

17236-461: The very best way at the very lowest possible price the world would be kept out of war, for commercialists would not have to search for outside markets which the other fellow covets." Ford admitted that munitions makers enjoyed wars, but he argued the typical capitalist wanted to avoid wars to concentrate on manufacturing and selling what people wanted, hiring good workers, and generating steady long-term profits. In late 1915, Ford sponsored and funded

17375-615: The vigorous enjoyments of youth to the contemplative delights of mellowed age, from the simple gratifications of food and drink, sunshine and sports, to the more complex appreciation of art and literature, friendship and social communion. The humanist attitude toward morality has changed since its beginning. Starting in the 18th century, humanists were oriented toward an objective and universalist stance on ethics. Both Utilitarian philosophy —which aims to increase human happiness and decrease suffering—and Kantian ethics , which states one should act in accordance with maxims one could will to become

17514-527: The week and times of the year when the nobility was able to employ violence. These peace movements "set the foundations for modern European peace movements." The Reformation gave rise to a number of Protestant sects beginning in the 16th century, including the peace churches . Foremost among these churches were the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ), Amish , Mennonites , and the Church of

17653-541: The widespread popular fear of, and opposition to, nuclear weapons after the development of the first hydrogen bomb . During the late 1950s and early 1960s, anti-nuclear marches attracted large numbers of people. Popular opposition to nuclear weapons produced a Labour Party resolution for unilateral nuclear disarmament at the 1960 party conference, but the resolution was overturned the following year and did not appear on later agendas. The experience disillusioned many anti-nuclear protesters who had previously put their hopes in

17792-537: The word secularism — George Eliot , Émile Zola , and E. S. Beesly . Paine's The Age of Reason , along with the 19th-century Biblical criticism of the German Hegelians David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach , also contributed to new forms of humanism. Advances in science and philosophy provided scholars with further alternatives to religious belief. Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection offered naturalists an explanation for

17931-436: The works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill . Utilitarianism, a moral philosophy, centers its attention on human happiness, aiming to eliminate human and animal pain via natural means. In Europe and the US, as philosophical critiques of theistic beliefs grew, large parts of society distanced themselves from religion. Ethical societies were formed, leading to the contemporary humanist movement. The rise of rationalism and

18070-443: The world. (p.78) This has led to a difference in views with fellow Nichiren sect Soka Gakkai , who the founder of Nippozan Myohoji considered to be more conservative . (see above source) Peace movement A peace movement is a social movement which seeks to achieve ideals such as the ending of a particular war (or wars) or minimizing inter-human violence in a particular place or situation. They are often linked to

18209-458: The world. By the early 20th century, organizations dedicated to humanism flourished in Europe and the United States, and have since expanded worldwide. In the early 21st century, the term generally denotes a focus on human well-being and advocates for human freedom , autonomy , and progress . It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals, espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings, and emphasizes

18348-482: Was " merchants of death " alleging the promotion of war by armaments makers, based on a widely read nonfiction exposé Merchants of Death (1934), by H. C. Engelbrecht and F. C. Hanighen . The immense loss of life during the First World War for what became known as futile reasons caused a sea-change in public attitudes to militarism. Organizations formed at this time included War Resisters' International ,

18487-709: Was a list of books outlining the four major disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that became the basis of humanistic studies ( studia humanitatis ). Petrarch's list relied heavily on ancient writers, especially Cicero. The revival of classicist authors continued after Petrarch's death. Florence chancellor and humanist Coluccio Salutati made his city a prominent center of Renaissance humanism; his circle included other notable humanists—including Leonardo Bruni , who rediscovered, translated, and popularized ancient texts. Humanists heavily influenced education. Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese created schools based on humanistic principles; their curriculum

18626-592: Was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms ... but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the Hindu–Moslem riots; therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense." Gandhi's views were criticized in Britain during the Battle of Britain . He told the British people in 1940, "I would like you to lay down

18765-811: Was organized by the government of Norway , the Nuclear Threat Initiative , and the Hoover Institute . The conference, entitled "Achieving the Vision of a World Free of Nuclear Weapons", was intended to build consensus between states with and without nuclear weapons in the context of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons . In May 2010, 25,000 people (including members of peace organizations and 1945 atomic-bomb survivors) marched for about two kilometers from lower Manhattan to United Nations headquarters calling for

18904-480: Was published in 37 editions and translated into 12 languages. She helped organize the German Peace Society and became known internationally as the editor of the international pacifist journal Die Waffen nieder! In 1905 she became the first woman to win a Nobel Peace Prize. Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) was one of the 20th century's most influential spokesmen for peace and non-violence, and Gandhism

19043-463: Was spearheaded by bishops as a response to increasing violence against monasteries after the fall of the Carolingian dynasty . The movement was promoted at a number of subsequent church councils, including Charroux (989 and c. 1028), Narbonne (990), Limoges (994 and 1031), Poitiers (c. 1000), and Bourges (1038). The Truce of God sought to restrain violence by limiting the number of days of

19182-450: Was widely adopted and by the 16th century, humanistic paideia was the dominant outlook of pre-university education. Parallel with advances in education, Renaissance humanists made progress in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In philosophy, Angelo Poliziano , Nicholas of Cusa , and Marsilio Ficino further contributed to the understanding of ancient classical philosophers and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola undermined

19321-529: Was widespread, and an "estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons". In the United Kingdom, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) held an inaugural public meeting at Central Hall Westminster on 17 February 1958 which was attended by five thousand people. After the meeting, several hundred demonstrated at Downing Street . The CND advocated

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