Misplaced Pages

#503496

297-624: With its attacks on the PNL establishment, the PNȚ came to endorse an authoritarian monarchy, mounting no resistance to a conspiracy which brought Carol II on the Romanian throne in 1930. Over the following five years, Carol manoeuvred against the PNȚ, which opposed his attempts to subvert liberal democracy . PNȚ governments were in power for most of the time between 1928 and 1933, with the leader Iuliu Maniu as its longest-serving Prime Minister . Supported by

594-531: A Radical Peasants' Party (PȚR) in 1933. Schisms and competition were compensated by recruitment, including in the intellectual sphere. Writer Șerban Cioculescu , who entered in early 1928, described the PNȚ as "the only political factor which may democratize Romania". In the early 1930s, new arrivals included philosophers Petre Andrei and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru , linguist Traian Bratu , and painter Rudolf Schweitzer-Cumpăna ; also joining were leaders of

891-630: A Soviet occupation , Maniu still counted on direct contacts with the West, sending Constantin Vișoianu to negotiate with them in Cairo. These "feelers" were again tolerated by Antonescu. However, a "stumbling-block in all subsequent negotiations" was the demand for Romania's unconditional surrender, which Maniu found unpalatable. The PNȚ advised against toppling Antonescu in February 1944, as had been proposed by

1188-558: A "science of the nation". Gusti took teams of professors from various disciplines to the countryside to study an entire community from all vantage points every summer, who then produce a lengthy report about the community. For most of the interwar period, Romania was in the French sphere of influence, and in June 1926, a defensive alliance was signed with France. The alliance with France, together with an alliance with Poland signed in 1921, and

1485-605: A BPD confrontation with the authorities. The Bloc existed largely because Maniu believed he could obtain Soviet lenience toward Romania following an armistice, and "only stood to enhance [the communists'] position". The plot involved statistician Sabin Manuilă , who acted as a PNȚ representative; a disciple of Moldovan, he had been involved with Antonescu's project to persecute Jews and deport Romanies , but also protected some 5,000 Jewish specialists working under his watch. Shortly before

1782-613: A Committee of the Liberated Regions. This was presided upon by Ionel Pop. Commissariat rule often veered into an antimagyarism that was only ever curbed by the Red Army after a "six-week killing spree". Various reports, including oral testimonies by Peasant Guard members and volunteers who answered calls printed in Ardealul , suggest that local Hungarians were victims of numerous lynchings, either tolerated of encouraged by

2079-417: A Legionary movement victory, Romania will have an alliance with Rome and Berlin". Without realizing it, Codreanu had sealed his doom with that speech. Carol had always insisted that control of foreign policy was his own exclusive royal prerogative, which no one else was allowed to interfere with. Despite the constitution, which stated that the foreign minister was responsible to the prime minister, in practice,

2376-448: A PCdR militant Mihail Roșianu and a communist-sympathizing priest, Ioan Marina . Carol rejected Maniu's proposals, and used the opportunity for an anti-democratic self-coup . Despite vocal protests by Maniu and the PNL's Dinu Brătianu , he inaugurated a royal dictatorship, leading to the creation of a catch-all National Renaissance Front (FRN). The PNȚ attempted to sabotage the authoritarian Constitution , instructing members to cast

2673-410: A basic level of well-being through subsidized social services such as healthcare , education , infrastructure, vocational training , and public housing. In a welfare state , the state assumes responsibility for the health, education, infrastructure and welfare of society, providing a range of social services such as those described. Some historians view systems of codified almsgiving , like

2970-514: A cabinet of "national resistance", which Maniu refused to do. One such proposal came from the PCdR and the Soviet Union, and promised Romania military assistance from the Red Army ; Maniu was outraged by the proposal, arguing that the Soviet Union was " imperialistic by definition ". Carol assigned the task of forming a cabinet to General Ion Antonescu , who obtained backing from both the PNȚ and

3267-518: A care provider, this insurance is provided by the state. The basic pension insurance provides, in time old-age pension (includes regular, proportional, early and other variants of old-age pension), disability benefits, widower's and orphan's pension. Pension insurance is applied for at the District Social Security Administration in the applicant's place of permanent residence. They can apply in person or by proxy, on

SECTION 10

#1732794313504

3564-537: A coup against the Regency, which ended with Carol's return and enthronement. The PNȚ briefly divided itself into backers of the coup and those who, like Maniu, remained more cautious. From July 1930, Carlist ideologue Nae Ionescu proposed a National Peasantist "mass dictatorship", which implied dissolving all other parties. Such ideas were contained by Maniu, who spoke out in favor of maintaining and cultivating electoral democracy, and by Carol, who would have rather formed

3861-528: A farming revolution where many sheep farms were broken up and sold to become smaller dairy farms. This enabled thousands of new farmers to buy land and develop a new and vigorous industry that has become the backbone of New Zealand's economy to this day. This liberal tradition flourished with increased enfranchisement for indigenous Māori in the 1880s and women. Pensions for the elderly, the poor and war casualties followed, with State-run schools, hospitals and subsidized medical and dental care. By 1960, New Zealand

4158-571: A fifth column. In addition, Rosenberg's agents had established contracts with the Romanian extreme right, most notably with the National Christian Party headed by Octavian Goga and less substantial links with the Iron Guard headed by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , which further annoyed Carol. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote about Carol's foreign policy views: "He admired and feared Germany, but feared and disliked

4455-615: A generous patron of the arts and actively supporting the work of the Royal Foundation, an organization with a broad mandate to promote and study Romanian culture in all fields. In particular, Carol supported the work of the sociologist Dimitrie Gusti of the Social Service of the Royal Foundation, who in the early 1930s started to bring social scientists from various disciplines like sociology, anthropology, ethnography, geography, musicology, medicine, and biology together in

4752-553: A historic impasse, whereby the PNL failed to clearly win elections organized under its watch. It dropped to 152 parliamentary seats, with the PNȚ holding on to 86 (and 20% of the vote); this was just 20 seats ahead of the Guard, which had emerged as Romania's third party. Carol opted to use his royal prerogative and bypassed all groups opposing his policies, handing power to a PNC minority cabinet, under Goga. Goga's arrival signaled Romania's rapprochement toward Germany, which had emerged as

5049-529: A key regional player following the Munich Agreement . Concerns about German re-armament also pushed Maniu into "demand[ing] an alignment with Berlin". However, he punished attempts by other PNȚ figures to collaborate with Goga, and expelled Călinescu, who had accepted a ministerial position. This move lost the PNȚ its party organization in Argeș County , which obeyed Călinescu. Maniu had a return as

5346-475: A long series of affairs with various Romanian men with whom she could obtain more emotional and sexual satisfaction than she could with Ferdinand, who fiercely resented being cuckolded. The stern Carol I felt that Marie was unqualified to raise Prince Carol because of her affairs and her young age, as she was only seventeen when Carol was born, while Marie regarded the King as a cold, overbearing tyrant who would crush

5643-620: A merger of the LANC and Goga's National Agrarians, was especially adept at canvassing the peasant vote in Bessarabia, veering it toward antisemitism. Alongside the FR, it earned Carol's blessing to establish a "nationalist parliamentary bloc", specifically designed to keep the PNȚ out of power. The danger was sensed by Mihalache, who presided over massive anti-fascist rally in November 1935, amassing

5940-497: A minimum Britain, France, Poland, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Romania, Greece and Yugoslavia. For his part, Carol was obsessed with fears in the first half of 1939 that Hungary, with German support, would soon attack his kingdom. On 6 April 1939, a cabinet meeting decided that Romania would not join the "peace front" but would seek Anglo-French support for its independence. The same meeting decided that Romania would work to strengthen ties with other Balkan nations but would seek to prevent

6237-721: A minority cabinet. The National Peasantists were defeated by their PNL rivals in the election of June 1931 , taking just 15% of the vote. Again called to power, with Vaida at the helm, they had a comeback with the early election of 1932 , taking 40%. Carol persuaded Maniu to become Prime Minister in October. He resigned again in January 1933, after a row with Carol, who wanted Mihalache stripped of his post at Internal Affairs . Vaida returned as PNȚ Prime Minister, holding on to that position until November 13. Maniu had stepped down as PNȚ leader in June 1931, leaving Mihalache in charge to July of

SECTION 20

#1732794313504

6534-807: A multi-party coalition. Ionescu's dictatorial optimism was published just as the Carol was antagonizing the PNȚ mainstream. Soon after his victory, the new King informed Maniu that he did not intend to honor his promises, causing a rift between monarch and government; Maniu resigned, was persuaded to return within days, and then resigned for good in October, handing the premiership to party colleague Gheorghe Mironescu . Historian Barbara Jelavich sees Maniu's resignation as "ill-considered", effectively leaving Romania's electorate without an administration that "best represented [its] option". Carol ultimately asked Mironescu to resign in April 1931, and replaced him with Iorga, who led

6831-568: A nation-wide clampdown against the Iron Guard, including Codreanu's physical liquidation. This resulted in a series of retaliatory attacks, peaking in September 1939, when a Guardist death squad managed to assassinate Călinescu. During November, Carol made one final attempt to establish a "national alliance" around the FRN, inviting Maniu to join in; the offer was dismissed. Mihalache held a seat in

7128-558: A negative vote in the February 24 plebiscite . The attempt was unsuccessful, and the party continued to lose ground over the following months. On March 30, it was outlawed together with all other traditional parties. The new government integrated much of the PNȚ's center, with Călinescu at Interior Affairs; Andrei, Ghelmegeanu, and Ralea, alongside Grigore Gafencu and Traian Ionașcu , became prominent FRN dignitaries, as did Moldovan. Gusti and Rădulescu-Motru were also co-opted into joining

7425-532: A new era of German-Romanian economic relations. Germany had almost no oil of its own, and throughout the Third Reich, control of Romania's oil was a key foreign policy goal. Reflecting the changed emphasis, Carol vetoed in February 1937 a plan promoted by France and Czechoslovakia for a new alliance that would formally unite France with the Little Entente and envisioned much closer military ties between

7722-610: A new majority coalition with the Iron Guard and the PNȚ (though demanding that Maniu be kept out of any such formula). Goga was deposed on February 10, 1938, when all political groups prepared for repeat elections. The Peasant Guards had been revived in January, taking the name of "Maniu Guards", and were divided into two main commands: Lazăr took over in Transylvania, and General Rujinschi in the Old Kingdom. The project also involved Victor Jinga , tasked by Maniu with supervising

8019-484: A newspaper, Ardealul , both of which reminded Romanians that Antonescu was not interested in a reversal of the Vienna Award. The Guardist takeover also pushed some National Peasantists into exile: facing a death sentence at home, Beza made his way to Cairo , where he formed a Free Romania Movement under British supervision. Viorel Tilea and Ion Rațiu opted not to return from England, serving as liaisons between

8316-412: A peace protest signed by 69 academics, which was "overtly pro-Soviet in sentiment". At least in part, this was a grassroots PNȚ initiative. In June 1944, the PNȚ and PNL agreed to form a Bloc of Democratic Parties (BPD) alongside the PCdR and Social Democrats, preparing for the " King Michael Coup " of August 23. By then, Coposu and Cezar Spineanu were stockpiling firearms in PNȚ buildings, preparing for

8613-589: A position in Sănătescu's cabinet. Maniu was additionally assisted by a Permanent Delegation, whose members included Halippa, Hudiță, Lazăr, Teofil Sauciuc-Săveanu , Gheorghe Zane , as well as, with the introduction of women's suffrage, Ella Negruzzi . Overall, the party was seeing a rejuvenation of its leadership, with Coposu and Virgil Veniamin taking over as junior party secretaries. Noted militants included young academics—among them Radu and Șerban Cioculescu, as well as Vladimir Streinu . The party lost its control over

8910-541: A preliminary agreement that June. During this process, the PȚ shed much of its radical platform. However, left-wing Peasantists supported their ideologue Stere, who had a controversial past, for a leadership position in the unified body. This proposal was strongly opposed by figures on the PNR's right-wing such as Vaida and Voicu Nițescu . The unification was only made possible once Mihalache "sacrificed" Stere. The two-party collaboration

9207-489: A preparatory move towards Goga's ultimate goal of the expulsion of all Romanian Jews. Carol was personally not an anti-Semite, but in the words of his biographer, Paul D. Quinlan, the king was "simply indifferent" to the sufferings of his Jewish subjects caused by Goga's oppressive anti-Semitic laws. The opportunistic Carol did not believe in antisemitism anymore than he believed in anything else other than power, but if raison d'état meant tolerating an anti-Semitic government as

National Peasants' Party - Misplaced Pages Continue

9504-582: A range of services, including universal healthcare, free education, and a comprehensive system of social security. It also provides financial assistance to citizens in need through programs such as unemployment benefits, housing assistance, and social assistance for low-income families. In Philippines, social welfare is mainly provided by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD). DSWD provides social welfare such as cash assistance (ayuda) and physical goods. The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program

9801-627: A range of social services and financial assistance to its citizens. The Estonian welfare state is a liberal welfare state, which means that it provides a minimal safety net for citizens in need and places a greater emphasis on individual responsibility and self-sufficiency. The Estonian welfare state provides a range of services, including universal healthcare, free education, and a comprehensive system of social security. It also provides financial assistance to citizens in need through programs such as unemployment benefits, housing assistance, and social assistance for low-income families. The Estonian welfare state

10098-466: A reported 500,000 participants nation-wide. Following an audience with Carol, he claimed that the PNȚ would be called to power. In December 1935, the PNȚ reinforced discipline against left-wing dissent, expelling from its ranks Dem. I. Dobrescu , who went on to create his own movement, the "Citizen Committees". Overall, however, the party became more sympathetic to left-wing causes. At his arrest in 1936, communist liaison Petre Constantinescu-Iași nominated

10395-518: A result of this failure, Maniu returned as chairman of the PNȚ—he would serve as such uninterruptedly, to July 1947. Immediately after taking over, he proceeded to reinforce party discipline, obtaining promises of compliance from left-wingers Lupu and Madgearu. His return also allowed the formation of a right-wing section in Bucharest. Its leader, Ilariu Dobridor , openly argued for Lupu to be expelled from

10692-440: A scheming, dishonest man only interested in wrecking the democratic system to seize power for himself. To compensate for his rather negative and well-deserved "playboy king" image, Carol created a lavish personality cult around himself that grew more extreme as his reign went on, which portrayed the king as a Christ-like being "chosen" by God to create a "new Romania". In the 1934 book The Three Kings by Cezar Petrescu , which

10989-639: A seat there upon reaching maturity. Known more for his romantic misadventures than for any leadership skills, Carol was first married in the Cathedral Church of Odesa, Ukraine , on August 31, 1918 (under the occupation of the Central Powers at that time), to Joanna Marie Valentina Lambrino (1898–1953), known as "Zizi", the daughter of a Romanian general, Constantin Lambrino. The fact that Carol technically had deserted as he left his post at

11286-509: A significant effect on social protection policies. Prior to the 1980s, most Latin American countries focused on social insurance policies involving formal sector workers, assuming that the informal sector would disappear with economic development . The economic crisis of the 1980s and the liberalization of the labor market led to a growing informal sector and a rapid increase in poverty and inequality. Latin American countries did not have

11583-453: A so-called widow's / widower's pension. Provided to widowed individuals from the Czech pension system, its aim is to compensate households for losing income that they would in this situation be lacking. The widowed individual is entitled to a pension from a deceased person who has received an old-age or disability pension or has fulfilled the statutory condition on the required insurance period at

11880-564: A strong social security system to provide support to citizens in need. It also places a strong emphasis on promoting social cohesion and reducing income inequality, and it has a relatively high level of social spending compared to other countries. Solidarity is a strong value of the French Social Protection system. The first article of the French Code of Social Security describes the principle of solidarity. Solidarity

12177-651: A system known as the Nordic model . Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories; Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal. A report published by the ILO in 2014 estimated only 27% of the world population has access to comprehensive social security. The World Bank 's 2019 World Development Report argues that the traditional payroll-based model of many kinds of social insurance are "increasingly challenged by working arrangements outside standard employment contracts". Welfare can take

National Peasants' Party - Misplaced Pages Continue

12474-583: A throne anywhere in twentieth-century Europe". A colorful character, Carol was in the words of the British historian Richard Cavendish : "Dashing, willful and reckless, a lover of women, champagne and speed, Carol drove racing cars and piloted planes, and on state occasions, occasions appeared in operetta uniforms with enough ribbons, chains, and orders to sink a small destroyer." The Romanian historian Maria Bucur wrote about Carol: Of course, he loved luxury; being born to privilege he expected nothing less than

12771-686: A tremendous need for oil and no sooner had the 1937 agreement been signed than the Germans asked for a new economic treaty in 1938. At the same time that the German-Romanian treaty was signed in December 1937, Carol was receiving the French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos to show that the alliance with France was not yet dead. In September 1937, Carol paid an extended visit to Paris, during which he indicated to

13068-521: A variety of forms, such as monetary payments, subsidies and vouchers , or housing assistance. Welfare systems differ from country to country, but welfare is commonly provided to individuals who are unemployed , those with illness or disability , the elderly , those with dependent children, and veterans . Programs may have a variety of conditions for a person to receive welfare: Not all citizens use their social rights. Selective social rights have higher non-take-up rate than universal social rights due to

13365-540: A visit to Russia in January of that year, he made a formal proposal to Nicholas for Maria's hand, but Nicholas "good-naturedly laughed the proposal aside", and argued that Maria "was nothing more than a schoolgirl". Maria was only 17 at the time, and shared her older sister's desire to marry a Russian and remain in Russia. In November 1914, Carol joined the Romanian Senate , as the 1866 Constitution guaranteed him

13662-565: A war which would result, in a few weeks, in the destruction of its army and the occupation of its territory...We do not wish to be the lighting conductor for the coming storm". Carol went on to complain that he had enough equipment for only two-thirds of his army, which also lacked tanks, anti-aircraft guns, heavy artillery and anti-tank guns while his air force had only about 400 antiquated aircraft of French manufacture that were no match for latest German aircraft. Weygand reported to Paris that Carol wanted Anglo–French support, but would not fight for

13959-558: A way of nipping the developing humanitarian crisis caused by Goga in the bud. The British minister Sir Reginald Hoare and French minister Adrien Thierry both submitted notes of protest against the Goga government's anti-Semitism, while President Roosevelt of the United States wrote a letter to Carol complaining about the anti-Semitic policies he was tolerating. On 12, 1938, Goga stripped all Romanian Jews of their Romanian citizenship,

14256-554: A web of tactical alliances, it reconfirmed its pact with the BMȚ, while still shunning the PP. The PNȚ's first general congress was held on May 6, 1928 at Alba Iulia . It marked an early peak of PNȚ revolutionary activity, gathering between 100,000 and 200,000 supporters. Observers expected that the columns would then "march on Bucharest ", by analogy with the March on Rome . This never happened, but

14553-664: A winning combination. As summarized by historian Armin Heinen, PNȚ leftists also refrained from calling it a " popular front ", and only viewed socialist groups as subordinate. The PNȚ, PSDR, PCdR and PȚR created a de facto united front during the county elections of 1936 and early 1937 ; also signing up where satellite parties: the Ploughmen's Front, the Hungarian People's Union , the Popovici Socialists ,

14850-399: Is a distinction between disability pension for individuals with first, second and third degree disability. The amount of the pension depends on the rate of decline of the person's ability to work, with the categories being divided between the first degree (a decrease of 35–49%), the second degree (a decrease of 50–69%), and the third degree (a decrease of 70% and above). Furthermore, there is

15147-647: Is commonly comprehended in relations of similar work, shared responsibility and common risks. Existing solidarities in France caused the expansion of health and social security. The welfare state has a long tradition in Germany dating to the Industrial Revolution . Due to the pressure of the workers' movement in the late 19th century, Reichskanzler Otto von Bismarck introduced the first rudimentary state social insurance scheme . Under Adolf Hitler ,

SECTION 50

#1732794313504

15444-409: Is funded through a mix of taxation and public spending, and it relies on a strong social security system to provide support to citizens in need. However, compared to other welfare states, it has relatively low levels of social spending and may rely more on private sector solutions to address social welfare issues. The Finnish Nordic model welfare state is based on the principles of social equality and

15741-428: Is intended for gainfully employed individuals who, in cases of short-term social events, are provided with health insurance benefits. These are provided through financial benefits. Sickness insurance participants are employees and self-employed individuals. Employees are compulsorily covered by sickness insurance, unlike the self-employed, whose sickness insurance is voluntary (and there is no penalisation for opting out of

16038-413: Is now followed by (usually much lower) Arbeitslosengeld II (ALG II) or Sozialhilfe , which is independent of previous employment ( Hartz IV concept). As of 2022 , under ALG II, single adults receive up to €449 per month plus the cost of 'adequate' housing. ALG II can also be paid partially to employed persons to supplement a low work income. The Directive Principles of India , enshrined in part IV of

16335-544: Is often referred to instead of social security, encompassing a broader set of means, such as labour market intervention and local community-based programs, to alleviate poverty and provide security against things like unemployment. Prior to 1900 in Australia, charitable assistance from benevolent societies, sometimes with financial contributions from the authorities, was the primary means of relief for people not able to support themselves. The 1890s economic depression and

16632-751: Is one of the most well known social welfare programs by the DSWD where cash grants are given to parents and guardians in poverty to help their children continue schooling. This has assisted parents and guardians in poverty by helping them buy food and school supplies for their dependents. The Sustainable Livelihood Program (SLP) is also another social welfare program where the DSWD provides education, cash grants, or items such as vehicles and food stalls to individuals and communities to aid in their livelihoods. SLP grants are given to individuals such as street food vendors and organisations such as farmers cooperatives. DSWD also provides medical assistance for those who cannot afford

16929-487: Is outlined in a series of social policies , as is the tradition in Europe. Their goal is primarily preventing, but also mitigating social situations individuals may find themselves in through their lives. The social welfare is provided through social (including pension) insurance, sick insurance (not to be confused with health insurance ), public policy related to unemployment and low income benefits, which are financed through

17226-415: Is part of social insurance, in addition to sickness insurance and serves as a contribution to the state employment policy. It is a premium for old age retirement, disability retirement or benefits in the event of the death of the primary provider in a household. Participation in pension insurance is mandatory for economically active individuals. For those on various forms of benefits, or currently registered as

17523-476: Is therefore compulsory for all self-employed individuals, employees and employers operating in the Czech Republic and gets deducted from a salary in a similar manner to taxes. This insurance serves to finance unemployment support, disability benefits and covers a part of an employer's salary in cases of long-term illness that obstructs them from participating in the workforce. The sickness insurance system

17820-682: The Aadhaar system to distribute welfare measures in India. Some of the social programmes undertaken by the government are: As of 2023, the government's expenditure on social programme and welfare was approximately ₹ 21.3 lakh crore (US$ 260 billion), which was 8.3% of gross domestic product (GDP). In 2020, the expenditure was ₹ 17.1 lakh crore (equivalent to ₹ 20 trillion or US$ 240 billion in 2023), accounting for 7.7% of GDP. The Israeli government spend 86 billion NIS ($ 22.8 billion) in 2014. They are administered by

18117-528: The Allied Powers ; it also organized protests against the deportation of minorities and for the return of Northern Transylvania . Together with the PNL and the communists, it executed the Coup of August 1944 , emerging as the most powerful party of the subsequent democratic interlude (1944–1946). In this final period, National Peasantists were repressed as instigators of anti-communist resistance . The PNȚ

SECTION 60

#1732794313504

18414-534: The Assembly of Deputies . As the PȚ agreed to a full merger, the PNR lost support from Nicolae Iorga 's semi-independent faction, who went on to reestablish itself as a Democratic Nationalist Party . The fusion was enshrined at a PNR–PȚ congress on October 10, 1926. Also then, Maniu was voted in as chairman; Mihalache, Lupu, Vaida-Voevod and Paul Brătășanu were vice presidents, while Madgearu became general secretary and Mihai Popovici cashier. From October 17, 1927,

18711-628: The Attlee government (1944–1951). In the countries of western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, social welfare is mainly provided by the government out of the national tax revenues , and to a lesser extent by non-government organizations (NGOs), and charities (social and religious). A right to social security and an adequate standard of living is asserted in Articles 22 and 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . In

19008-755: The Biblical Maaser Ani , or poor- tithe , as well as Biblical practices, such as permitting the poor to glean the corners of a field and harvest during the Shmita (Sabbatical year). There is relatively little statistical data on transfer payments before the High Middle Ages . In the medieval period and until the Industrial Revolution , the function of welfare payments in Europe was achieved through private giving or charity, through numerous confraternities and activities of different religious orders . Early welfare programs in Europe included

19305-644: The Chamberlain government changing from appeasement of Germany to a policy of "containing" the Reich . Carol denied, unconvincingly, knowing anything about what Tilea was up to in London, but the British warnings to Germany against invading Romania in March 1939 led the Germans to relax their demands, and the latest German-Romanian economic treaty signed on 23 March 1939, was, in the words of Watt 'very vague". Despite

19602-607: The Conducător that he should reinstate order and individual security. After a brief civil war in January 1941 , the Guard was removed from power and again repressed. German reports identified PNȚ-ist generals as most active in destroying the National Legionary regime; armed PNȚ civilians, including Lupu, assisted the Army at various locations in Bucharest. Following the events, Antonescu had renewed hopes that he could co-opt

19899-432: The Conservative Party , and Dobrescu's Committees. In Bessarabia, the PCdR made noted efforts of reconciling the PNȚ and PȚR. Wherever the PNC appeared stronger, pacts also involved local PNL chapters. Similar pacts were signed in mid 1936 with the Magyar Party , although the latter withdrew, fearful of association with the communists. Many PNȚ sections also resisted alliances with far-leftist groups, but, even in such cases,

20196-458: The Crown Council in early 1940, possibly because doing so toned down pressures on his friend Madgearu, whom Carol had placed under arrest. A political crisis began in Romania during June 1940, when the FRN government gave in to a Soviet ultimatum and withdrew its administration from Bessarabia . Maniu referred to this as a Soviet invasion, and believed that the Army should have resisted. In August 1940, after reassurances from both Nazi Germany and

20493-464: The English Poor Law of 1601 , which gave parishes the responsibility for providing welfare payments to the poor. This system was substantially modified by the 19th-century Poor Law Amendment Act , which introduced the system of workhouses . It was predominantly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that an organized system of state welfare provision was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck , Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of

20790-408: The Four Year Plan organization to Bucharest with instructions to sign yet another German-Romanian economic treaty that would allow Germany total economic dominance over Romania, especially its oil industry. That Wohlthat, the number two man in the Four-Year Plan organization, was sent to Bucharest indicated the importance of the German-Romanian talks. Carol had resisted German demands for more oil in

21087-447: The Great Depression , most social services were provided by religious charities and other private groups. Changing government policy between the 1930s and 1960s saw the emergence of a welfare state, similar to many Western European countries. Most programs from that era are still in use, although many were scaled back during the 1990s as government priorities shifted towards reducing debt and deficits . Social welfare in Czech Republic

21384-703: The Indian Constitution , reflect that India is a welfare state. The National Food Security Act, 2013 aims to guarantee right to food to all citizens. The welfare system was fragmented until the passing of The Code on Social Security, 2020 , which standardised most of the programmes. The Government of India 's social programmes and welfare expenditures are a substantial portion of the official budget, and state and local governments play roles in developing and implementing social security policies. Additional welfare measure systems are also uniquely operated by various state governments. The government uses

21681-534: The Iron Guard . The latter's "Captain", Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , took up elements from the PNȚ program and planned ahead for its downfall. In 1932, PNȚ enjoys approached the newly formed National Socialist Party with an offer to share electoral lists; the offer was rejected. National Peasantism also met competition from a hard-right version of itself: the National Agrarian Party , formed by Octavian Goga (a poet and activist, once affiliated with

21978-461: The Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services , and by Israel's national social security agency, Bituah Leumi . Social security schemes include pensions for the elderly and the disabled, unemployment benefits, and income support for low income households. All residents of Israel must pay insurance contributions to qualify for welfare. The Italian welfare state's foundations were laid along

22275-783: The National Liberal Party and the National Peasants Party and Iron Guard whom they would have needed to form a Coalition Government . Following this crisis Carol established a royal dictatorship in 1938 by removing the 1923 constitution , abolishing all political parties, and forming a new single party, the National Renaissance Front , which consisted mostly of former members of the National Peasants Party and National Christian Party who had been patronized by

22572-634: The National Socialist Program stated "We demand an expansion on a large scale of old age welfare." Today, the social protection of all its citizens is considered a central pillar of German national policy. 27.6 percent of Germany's GDP is channeled into an all-embracing system of health, pension, accident , longterm care and unemployment insurance , compared to 16.2 percent in the US. In addition, there are tax-financed services such as child benefits ( Kindergeld , beginning at €192 per month for

22869-591: The Reich . Starting in 1930, when the French began to build the Maginot Line along their border with Germany, some doubts started to be expressed in Bucharest about whether the French might actually come to Romania's aid in the event of a German aggression. In 1933, Carol had Nicolae Titulescu , an outspoken champion of collective security under the banner of the League of Nations, appointed foreign minister with instructions to use principles of collective security as

23166-806: The Roman Empire , the first emperor Augustus provided the Cura Annonae or grain dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food every month. Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan . Trajan's program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger . Other provisions for the poor were introduced during the history of Ancient Rome, such as the Alimenta . The Song dynasty government (960 CE) supported multiple programs which could be classified as social welfare, including

23463-481: The Romanian Army , including Nicolae Alevra and Ioan Mihail Racoviță . The PNȚ's left earned endorsements from poet Ion Vinea and his Facla newspaper, as well as from lawyer Haralambie Marchetti , known as a protector of the communists. The PNȚ's more leftist youth published the magazine Stânga , which attracted collaborations from Petru Comarnescu and Traian Herseni . A highly visible left-wing cell

23760-713: The Romanian National Committee . The release of political prisoners also allowed the PNȚ to claim existence inside Romania. Corneliu Coposu emerged as the underground leader of this tendency, which was admitted into the Christian Democrat World Union . Its legal successor, called Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party , was one of the first registered political groups after the December 1989 Revolution . Future PNȚ leader Maniu had had its first government experience during

24057-579: The Romanian Social Democrats , they expanded Romania's welfare state , but failed to tackle the Great Depression , and organized clampdowns against radicalized workers at Lupeni and Grivița . This issue brought Maniu into conflict with the outlawed Romanian Communist Party , though the PNȚ, and in particular its left, favored a Romanian popular front . From 1935, most of the centrist wing embraced anti-fascism , outvoting

24354-512: The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, though the zakat system was frequently inefficient and corrupt; Islamic jurists often instructed Muslims to distribute money to the needy directly instead to maximize its impact. Likewise, in Jewish tradition, charity (represented by tzedakah ) is a matter of religious obligation rather than benevolence. Contemporary charity is regarded as a continuation of

24651-624: The Volk Deutsch (ethnic German) community in Romania starting in 1934, a policy that greatly offended Carol, who regarded this as outrageous German interference in Romania's internal affairs. As Romania had half a million Volk Deutsch citizens in the 1930s, the Nazi campaign to take over the German community in Romania was a real concern for Carol, who feared that the German minority might become

24948-440: The camarilla was Carol's mistress, Madame Lupescu, whose political advice Carol greatly valued. Maniu had brought Carol to the throne out of the fear that the regency for Michael I was dominated by National Liberals, who would ensure that their party would always win the elections. Madame Lupescu was deeply unpopular with the Romanian people, and Maniu had demanded that Carol return to his wife, Princess Helen of Greece, as part of

25245-544: The union of Transylvania with Romania . In alliance with the Transylvanian Socialists , his PNR had organized a Transylvanian Directorate , which functioned as that region's transitional government to April 1920. This body was explicitly against regional autonomy, and its distinct initiatives were in the field of social welfare . As regional Minister of Social Welfare, the PNR doctor Iuliu Moldovan introduced eugenics , which also appeared as nativism in

25542-613: The zakat policy of the seventh century (634 CE) Rashidun caliph Umar , as early examples of universal government welfare. The first welfare state was Imperial Germany (1871–1918), where the Bismarck government introduced social security in 1889. In the early 20th century, the United Kingdom introduced social security around 1913, and adopted the welfare state with the National Insurance Act 1946 , during

25839-465: The "Little Entente," which united Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, were the cornerstones of Romanian foreign policy. Starting in 1919, the French sought to create the Cordon sanitaire that would keep both Germany and the Soviet Union out of Eastern Europe. Carol did not seek to replace the foreign policy he had inherited in 1930 at first, as he regarded the continuation of the cordon sanitaire as

26136-413: The "Tilea affair", Carol had decided that he would refuse to become involved in any diplomacy that would force him to decisively choose between Germany and Britain, and he would never accept any support from the Soviet Union to deter Germany. As part of their new policy of seeking to "contain" Germany starting in March 1939, the British sought the construction of the "peace front," which was to comprise at

26433-663: The "Young Liberal" faction headed by Gheorghe Tătărescu as a way of weakening the power of the Brătianu family, who dominated the National Liberals. Pointedly, Carol was willing to allow the "Young Liberal" faction under Tătărescu to come to power, but excluded the main National Liberal faction under the leadership of Dinu Brătianu from obtaining power; Carol had not forgotten how the Brătianus had excluded him from

26730-471: The "non-aggression pact". The scandal divided Romania's left-wing press: newspapers such as Adevărul remained committed to Maniu, though communist sympathizers such as Zaharia Stancu and Geo Bogza went back on their support for a PNȚ-led popular front, and switched to endorsing the PȚR. By contrast, Dobrescu and his Committees deserted Iunian on December 1, and were folded back into the PNȚ. The election marked

27027-436: The "Škoda Affair". He and all other defendants were acquitted. Coposu, who attempted to show that the case was instrumented by Carol as revenge against his PNȚ opponents, was found guilty of lèse-majesté and spent three months in prison. Ahead of legislative elections in December 1937 , Carol invited Mihalache to form a cabinet, but also tried to impose some of his own selections as ministers; Mihalache refused to comply. As

27324-407: The 1st Prussian Guards regiment did not achieve the desired results, and Carol remained the "playboy prince". Romania in the early 20th century was an intensely Francophile nation, indeed perhaps the most Francophile nation in the entire world as the Romanian elite obsessively went about embracing all things French as the model for perfection in everything. To a certain extent, Carol was influenced by

27621-524: The Allies if war came. Social welfare Welfare spending is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance programs which provide support only to those who have previously contributed (e.g. pensions ), as opposed to social assistance programs which provide support on

27918-662: The Allies. Carol's foreign policy going into 1939 was to strengthen Romania's alliances with Poland and the Balkan Entente, work to avoid conflicts with Romania's enemies Hungary and Bulgaria, and encourage Britain and France to get involved in the Balkans while trying to avoid giving offense to Germany. On 6 March 1939, the Patriarch Cristea died and was replaced as prime minister by Călinescu. In February 1939, Göring dispatched his deputy Helmuth Wohlthat of

28215-404: The Allies. During March 1944, Voice of America implied that, if PNȚ leaders still refused to take up armed opposition to the regime, they could expect to be bypassed or deposed. In April, Maniu was finally ready to accept Soviet promises that Romania would be allowed to fight the Germans as an equal partner, and that its territory would not be occupied militarily. The same month, Antonescu was sent

28512-593: The American usage) and not to healthcare and education spending (as in the European usage). The Canadian social safety net covers a broad spectrum of programs, and because Canada is a federation , many are run by the provinces . Canada has a wide range of government transfer payments to individuals, which totaled $ 145   billion in 2006. Only social programs that direct funds to individuals are included in that cost; programs such as medicare and public education are additional costs. Generally speaking, before

28809-645: The Anglo-French efforts to link the security of the Balkans to the security of Poland. On April 13, 1939, the British prime minister Neville Chamberlain speaking in the House of Commons and the French Premier Édouard Daladier speaking in the Chamber of Deputies, announced a joint Anglo-French "guarantee" of the independence of Romania and Greece. Carol promptly accepted the "guarantee.". On 5 May 1939,

29106-869: The Army without permission to marry Zizi Lambrino caused immense controversy at the time. The marriage was annulled on March 29, 1919, by the Ilfov County Court. Carol and Zizi continued to live together after the annulment. Their only child, Mircea Gregor Carol Lambrino , was born on 8 January 1920. Carol next married Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark , who was known in Romania as Crown Princess Elena, on 10 March, 1921, in Athens , Greece . They were second cousins, both of them great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria , as well as third cousins in descent from Nicholas I of Russia . Helen had known of Carol's dissolute behavior and previous marriage, but her love for him

29403-472: The Commissariat. By then, the PCdR had sparked a government crisis over Maniu's rejection of its communization programs; in the aftermath, communists spuriously claimed that Maniu had personally masterminded the killing of Transylvanian Hungarians. Upon taking over at Internal Affairs, PNȚ-ist Nicolae Penescu found himself accused of stalling democratization, and was pushed into resigning. After Maniu

29700-712: The December 1938 agreement and instead had succeeded by early 1939 in placing Romania to a certain extent within the British economic sphere of influence. To counterbalance the increasingly powerful German influence in the Balkans, Carol wanted closer ties with Britain. At the same time, the Four-Year Plan was running into major difficulties by early 1939, and in particular, Göring's plans to have synthetic oil plants that would make oil from coal were well behind schedule. The new technology of making synthetic oil from lignite coal had run into major technical problems and cost overruns, and Göring had been informed in early 1939 that

29997-610: The East , prompting Antonescu to order a clampdown against Anglophile resistance centers . Communist sources noted a discrepancy in repression statistics: while the elites were allowed to carry out a "paper war" with the regime, regular PNȚ militants risked imprisonment for expressing anti-fascist beliefs. From 1942, the camp in Târgu Jiu accommodated various PNȚ-ists, including Nicolae Carandino , who had published an article critical of Antonescu, and Anton Alexandrescu , who, as leader of

30294-498: The Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath and Hermann Göring to tell them of Romania's desire for a rapprochement with the Reich . Carol was much relieved when Brătianu reported that Hitler, Neurath, and Göring had all reassured him that the Reich had no interest in supporting Hungarian revanchism and was neutral on the Transylvania dispute. The decoupling of Berlin's campaign to overthrow

30591-579: The French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos that Romanian democracy would soon end. In a campaign speech for the general elections due that December, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , "Captain" of the Archangel Michael Legion , called for an end to the alliance with France and stated: "I am for a Romanian foreign policy with Rome and Berlin. I am with the states of the National Revolution against Bolshevism. Within forty-eight hours of

30888-606: The French Marshal Maxime Weygand visited Bucharest to meet with Carol and his prime minister, Armand Călinescu to discuss Romania's possible participation in the "peace front.". Both Carol and Călinescu were supportive but evasive, saying that they would welcome having the Soviet Union fight against Germany, but would never allow the Red Army to enter Romania even if Germany should invade. Carol told Weygand: "I do not wish to let my country be engaged in

31185-670: The French and their allies in Eastern Europe. Because of its oil, the French were keen to keep the alliance with Romania strong, and because Romania's manpower was a way of compensating the French for their lower population vs. Germany's (the French had 40 million people while Germany had 70 million people). Additionally, it was assumed in Paris that if Germany invaded Czechoslovakia Hungary would also attack Czechoslovakia to regain Slovakia and Ruthenia. French military planners envisioned

31482-434: The French to inject millions of francs into the Romanian treasury and to lower their tariffs on Romanian goods. When the French refused both requests, an annoyed Carol wrote in his diary that the "Latin sister" France was behaving in a less than sisterly way towards Romania. In April 1936, when Wilhelm Fabricius was appointed German minister in Bucharest, the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath in his instructions to

31779-534: The Goga-Codreanu pact and used it as the justification for the self-coup he had been planning since late 1937. On 10 February 1938, Carol suspended the Constitution and seized emergency powers. Carol proclaimed martial law and suspended all civil liberties under the grounds that the violent election campaign was at the risk of plunging the nation into civil war. Having outlived his usefulness, Goga

32076-524: The Guards' expansion into the provinces. Beza had left the project and, in January 1938, was attempting to form his own "Workers and Peasants' Party". At the height of the electoral campaign, the PNȚ and the PNL sought to obtain a new understanding with Carol, fearing that the PNC and the Iron Guard would form a powerful fascist alliance, and then a totalitarian state. Under pressure from the PNȚ base, Maniu revoked

32373-529: The Holocaust , heralded by the Iași pogrom . These crimes were also vocally condemned by the PNȚ and the PNL in letters to Antonescu. Maniu still refused to believe that Antonescu had a genocidal agenda and, when interviewed by American diplomats, played down the pogrom's importance. By 1942, having been informed that Britain and the US intended to assess and punish all antisemitic crimes, he told Romanian ministers that

32670-521: The Invalid and Old-Aged Pensions Act 1908. A national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912. During the Second World War, Australia under a labor government created a welfare state by enacting national schemes for: child endowment in 1941 (superseding the 1927 New South Wales scheme); a widows' pension in 1942 (superseding

32967-432: The Iron Guard by having Codreanu imprisoned for libeling the historian Nicolae Iorga after Codreanu had published a public letter accusing Iorga of dishonest business dealings. After Codreanu's conviction on 19 April 1938, he was convicted again in a second trial on 27 May 1938, of high treason where he was accused of working in the pay of Germany to affect a revolution since 1935 and sentenced to 10 years in prison. Carol

33264-463: The Iron Guard on behalf of Maniu. In 1944, government agents caught Augustin Vișa and Rică Georgescu, who had handled radio communications between Maniu and the Allies. Both were imprisoned, with Vișa being put on trial for high treason. The Conducător dismissed Nazi suggestions that he should have Maniu killed, noting that doing so would only push Romania's peasantry into anti-fascist rebellion. By 1944, he

33561-438: The Iron Guard, whose affiliates joined into the effort to terrorize Hungarians into leaving the area. Any such recruitment drive was curbed by the PCdR, which obtained assurances from leading Guardists that they would prevent their followers from entering the PNȚ. The PNȚ's vice presidents in the coup's aftermath were Mihalache, Lupu, and Mihai Popovici . Ghiță Pop was a fourth member of this team, but has to resign upon taking up

33858-553: The Iron Guard. The mid 1930s also consolidated a PNȚ "centrist" wing, represented by Armand Călinescu , and supported by Ghelmegeanu. This faction favored a full clampdown on the Iron Guard, but hoped to achieve its defeat in close alliance with Carol. At the third general congress of April 4–5, 1937, which was to be the PNȚ's last, inner-party stability appeared to be threatened by "intrigue and ambition", although shows of unity were made in various rallies. During that interval, prosecutors brought R. Boilă to trial for his participation in

34155-409: The Jewish minority and led to immediate complaints from the British, French and American governments that Goga's policies were going to lead to a Jewish exodus out of Romania. Neither Britain, France, nor the United States had any wish to take in the Jewish refugees that Goga was creating by imposing increasingly oppressive anti-Semitic laws, and all three governments pressed for Carol to dismiss Goga as

34452-745: The Kingdom of Romania, to the Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia , the eldest daughter of the Russian emperor at the time, Tsar Nicholas II : Sergey Sazonov , the Foreign Minister of the Russian Empire between 1910 and 1916, wanted Olga to marry Carol to ensure Romania's position as an ally of Russia in the eventuality of a war, as Romania was an ally of Germany at the time. Both royal families, including

34749-487: The LANC militia, or Lăncieri . Clashes also occurred at Faraoani , where PNC men ambushed a PNȚ column, and at Focșani , where the Peasant Guards were called in to break up an Iron Guard rally. Codreanu's followers were especially incensed by the Guards' creation, and resorted to kidnapping and threatening Madgearu in order to have them called off. At Iași , Bratu narrowly survived a stabbing, for which he blamed

35046-696: The League Covenant. The process of Gleichschaltung (coordination) in National Socialist Germany did not extend only to the Reich but was rather thought of by the National Socialist leadership as a worldwide process in which the NSDAP would take control over all of the ethnic German communities around the entire world. The Foreign Policy Department of the NSDAP, headed by Alfred Rosenberg , had attempted to take over

35343-576: The Legion and partly because he hoped that Goga would prove so incompetent as prime minister as to provoke such a crisis that would allow him to seize power for himself. Carol wrote in his diary that the markedly stupid Goga could not possibly last long as prime minister and that Goga's failure would allow him to "be free to take stronger measures which will free me and the country from the tyranny of party interests". Carol agreed to Goga's request to dissolve parliament for new elections on 18, 1938. As leader of

35640-403: The Legion", the group that collected contributions to the Legion. Carol only stopped contributing to the Legion after Codreanu started calling Lupescu a "Jewish whore". Carol's image was always that of "the playboy king", a hedonistic monarch more interested in womanizing, drinking, gambling, and partying, than in affairs of state, and to the extent that he cared about politics, Carol was viewed as

35937-520: The Maniu–Codreanu rapprochement. Though Mihalache rallied with the party line in calling out the PNC ministers as "scoundrels", he secretly collaborated with Călinescu against Maniu. The latter viewed himself and his fellow defectors as a "pro-government" splinter of the PNȚ, and counted on Mihalache's contextual support. An international backlash against Goga's staunch antisemitism had also made Carol reconsider his choices. Initially, he favored creating

36234-469: The National Liberal prime minister, Ion G. Duca , which led to the first of several bans placed on the Legion. The assassination of Ion Duca, which was Romania's first political murder since 1862, shocked Carol, who saw the willingness of Codreanu to order the assassination of the Prime Minister as a clear sign that the egomaniacal Codreanu was getting out of control and that Codreanu would not play

36531-417: The National Liberals. The PNL's return to power came with the adoption of a new constitution , and with the enactment of land reform, which massively expanded Romania's smallholding class. The latter had an unintended consequence in that it created an electoral pool for the opposition parties; it also gave Peasantists hopes that Romania's economy could still be built around peasant consumers. At this stage, both

36828-644: The Nazis had repeatedly called for a multiparty alliance. The PNȚ continued to exist semi-clandestinely, obtaining repeated assurances from Antonescu that the various territorial chapters would not be harassed by the Iron Guard, and complaining whenever he failed to keep them. According to Siguranța reports, it was always more active than the PNL. Its quarters were informally acknowledged as being Ciulei House, an apartment complex located at Sfinților Street 10, Bucharest. From late 1940, Maniu channeled anti-Nazi discontent by forming an association called Pro Transilvania and

37125-542: The Nazis to get over their outrage over the killings of the Iron Guard leaders by early 1939, and relations with Carol soon went back to normal. In December 1938, the National Renaissance Front was formed as the country's only legal party. That same month, Carol appointed his friend since childhood and another member of the camarilla, Grigore Gafencu as foreign minister. Gafencu was appointed foreign minister partly because Carol knew he could trust Gafencu and partly because of Gafencu's friendship with Colonel Józef Beck ,

37422-579: The New South Wales 1926 scheme); a wife's allowance in 1943; additional allowances for the children of pensioners in 1943; and unemployment, sickness, and special benefits in 1945 (superseding the Queensland 1923 scheme). Canada has a welfare state in the European tradition; however, it is not referred to as "welfare", but rather as "social programs". In Canada, "welfare" usually refers specifically to direct payments to poor individuals (as in

37719-568: The PCdR also revived the Ploughmen's Front . This move was specifically intended to destabilize the PNȚ by recruiting smallholders. In November 1944, it absorbed the Socialist Peasants' Party , a small group established by Ralea and Ghelmegeanu. In order to counteract such moves, Maniu also established a PNȚ Workers' Organization, with Lazăr as its overseer. This body was successful in countering FND propaganda. As part of this conflict,

38016-420: The PCdR urged its followers to vote National Peasantist. Mihalache's solution was to impose and vet a single platform for the alliance, which prevented the PCdR from using it as a means to popularize socialism. At around the same time, Gheorghe Beza , a political conspirator with known links to the Iron Guard, began exposing Codreanu's various secrets, including his erstwhile cultivation by Vaida. From 1936, Beza

38313-669: The PNL. Both groups insisted that Antonescu could take over only after Carol agreed to abdicate. This put an end to Carol's rule, bringing the country under an Iron Guard regime—the National Legionary State , with Antonescu as Conducător ; though still neutral to 1941, Romania was now openly aligned with the Axis Powers . Widely seen as a German arrangement, the Legionary State was in fact a result of Maniu's refusal to follow Antonescu's ideological command;

38610-672: The PNR leadership expelled if they did not comply to his agenda. Under his watch, the PNȚ adopted a new statute in 1934, and a new program at the second party congress in April 1935. These pledged the party to a careful selections of cadres from the ranks of peasantry and youth, fully committing them to the project of establishing a "peasant state". The architects were figures on the left of the party—Ralea, Andrei, Mihail Ghelmegeanu , and Ernest Ene —, who worked from drafts first presented in Ralea's Viața Românească . During their ascendancy, in March 1934, Lupu and his followers were welcomed back into

38907-543: The PNR). From 1931, PNȚ ministers issued regulations banning the Guard, but these proved unsuccessful. This interval witnessed the first clashes between the PNȚ and the Guardists, including one at Vulturu . A first effort at organizing a self-defense force for PNȚ politicians resulted in the 1928 "civic guards". In 1929, the party had begun organizing another set of squads, called Voinici ("Braves"). Originally integrated with

39204-423: The PNȚ and PNL to preserve parts of their infrastructures, including some local offices. In early 1939, the regime proposed allowing the PNȚ a share of parliamentary mandates, to which Mihalache responded: "Mr Carol would do best to leave us alone." During the sham election of June 1939 , the FRN administration took care to prevent interference by "intermediary groups" such as the PNȚ, PNL, PNC and Iron Guard. In May,

39501-699: The PNȚ and PȚR as anti-fascist parties; in 1935, he had tried but failed to forge a PCdR alliance with both groups, as well as with the Social Democrats and the Jewish Party . Communist support and endorsement by the Ploughmen's Front were relevant in ensuring victories for PNȚ candidates Lupu and Ghiță Pop in the Assembly by-elections of Mehedinți and Hunedoara (February 1936). While the PNȚ elite took measures to downplay its far-left connection, left-wingers such as Dobrescu openly celebrated it as

39798-539: The PNȚ and the British war ministry . Towards the end of 1940, Antonescu became dissatisfied with the Guard partnership. The Guard organized the Jilava Massacre and various other murders of old-regime politicians, including Madgearu. This caused alarm for other figures of the PNȚ, in particular Mihalache and Lupu; Ghiță Pop took Madgearu's position at the party secretariat. In the aftermath, Maniu pleaded with

40095-553: The PNȚ and then PNL on his cabinet. Both parties refused the offer. During February, Maniu openly criticized Antonescu for abandoning Northern Transylvania and for previously condoning Guardist abuse. He also argued that a legalized PNȚ would have been a more efficient and legitimate actor in purging the Guard. In April, he attempted to organize a rally against the invasion of Yugoslavia , but called it off when Antonescu warned him that demonstrators would be fired upon. Later that year, Maniu and Coposu engaged in encrypted correspondence with

40392-399: The PNȚ moved office to Clemenceau Street 6, which would remain its headquarters until dissolution. Maniu was initially offered the premiership, but opted out, arguing that the position should go to a military man for the war's duration. Historian Vlad Georgescu singles this out as Maniu's "real mistake": "[It] deprived the country of the only leadership that could have been strong and popular,

40689-625: The PNȚ's far-right, which split of as a Romanian Front , under Alexandru Vaida-Voevod ; in that interval, the PNȚ set up pro-democratic paramilitary units, or Peasant Guards . However, the party signed a temporary cooperation agreement with the fascist Iron Guard ahead of national elections in 1937 , sparking much controversy among its own voters. The PNȚ was banned under the National Renaissance Front (1938–1940), which also absorbed its centrists. Regrouped under Maniu, it remained active throughout World War II as an underground organization , tolerated by successive fascist regimes , but supportive of

40986-727: The PNȚ's representatives. The promotion of such comparatively minor figures was criticized by the party's youth, leaving Maniu to acknowledge the brain drain which had affected National Peasantism ever since Călinescu and Ralea's defections. As described by scholar Lucian Boia , from 1945 the PNȚ emerged from the coup "believing itself the country's great party", which made it adopt a policy of "political and moral intransigence". By 1947, it had 2.12 million card-carrying members; as noted by Georgescu, it ranked ahead of all other parties, albeit "neither numbers nor popularity could bring it to power." Maniu preserved regional influence in reconquered Northern Transylvania, organized from September 1944 under

41283-432: The PNȚ, PNL and PCdR engaged in talks to form an "opposition parliament" and "united front"; authorities subsequently reported that protest votes had been cast for PNȚ leaders, whereas candidacies of PNȚ defectors such as Alexandru Mîță had been publicly booed. Maniu, Mihalache, Lupu and Iunian still qualified as lifetime Senators , but refused to wear the FRN uniform, and were expelled. By then, Călinescu had masterminded

41580-456: The PNȚ. This merger saw the party being joined by historian Ioan Hudiță , who later became one of Maniu's dedicated supporters. From May 1935, the PNȚ held massive rallies, showcasing Mihalache's ambition of forming a new cabinet. Party unity was enforced by the decision of centrist Transylvanians such as Corneliu Coposu to side with democratic traditions and reject Vaida's penchant for far-right authoritarianism. In 1935, Coposu became leader of

41877-425: The Peasant Guards (now also known as the "Maniu Guards"); they continued to be active throughout most of 1934, until the party leadership asked them to dissolve. From March 1933, Lupu began attacking his former colleagues by bringing up alleged government corruption, in what became known as the " Škoda Affair ". Maniu dismissed this as Carol's attempt to weaken the PNȚ, though the king's maneuvering permanently damaged

42174-449: The Ploughmen's Front, as Prime Minister. The PNȚ remained in the opposition, viewing the takeover as a coup. Although it sent representatives when Groza celebrated the full recovery and pacification of Northern Transylvania, these were purposefully selected from among the party youth. Groza engineered a takeover of all local administration, only failing to do so in six counties. These were progressively made to submit by selective arrests among

42471-485: The Polish foreign minister, as Carol wanted to strengthen ties with Poland. Gafencu was to prove himself something of an opportunist as foreign minister, the man who always wanted to take the path of least resistance, in marked contrast to Armand Călinescu , the tough, "almost freakish-looking," diminutive, one-eyed Interior Minister (and soon to be prime minister) who proved himself a consistent opponent of fascism both in Romania and abroad and encouraged Carol to stand with

42768-425: The Printers' Syndicate, which was under communist control, imposed censorship on the opposition press: in February 1945, the PNȚ could only print nine newspapers, whereas the PCdR had thirty-one. Rădescu was toppled following a massacre of communist-and-allied protesters, later revealed as a false flag operation carried out by PCdR militias. In early March 1945, the FND took over in government, with Petru Groza , of

43065-400: The PȚ and the PNR were opposed to the Constitution, seeing it as imposed on the Romanian public by the PNL, and arguing that it left the country open to future abuse of power. The two opposition groups embarked on a long series of negotiations, eventually producing a set of principles for merger. They began in May 1924, as informal talks between Stere and the PNR's Vasile Goldiș , resulting in

43362-454: The PȚ had been joined by Nicolae L. Lupu , formerly of the Labor Party . In 1919–1920, the PNR was able to outmaneuver the PNL, and, backed by the PȚ, formed Romania's national government, headed by Vaida-Voevod. Mihalache was personally involved in drafting the land reform project , taking a revolutionary stand which greatly increased the proportion of smallholders . Vaida's cabinet was brought down by King Ferdinand I , who openly favored

43659-406: The Regency Council that governed for King Michael, was known to be friendly with the National Liberals, the new prime minister was determined to dispose of the regency council by bringing back Carol. Returning to the country on 7 June, 1930, in a coup d'état engineered by National Peasant Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu , Carol was recognized by the Parliament as king of Romania the following day. For

43956-455: The Rhineland in March 1936, which had the effect of allowing the Germans to start building the Siegfried line along the border with France, something that considerably lessened the prospect of a French offensive into western Germany if the Reich should invade any of the states of the cordon sanitaire . A British Foreign Office memo from March 1936 stated that the only nations in the world that would apply sanctions on Germany for remilitarizing

44253-496: The Rhineland if the League of Nations should vote for such a step were Britain, France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, and Romania. In the aftermath of the remilitarization of the Rhineland, and once it was clear that no sanctions were going to be applied against Germany, Carol started to voice his fears that the days of French influence in Eastern Europe were numbered and Romania might have to seek some understanding with Germany to preserve its independence. After continuing

44550-422: The Royal Palace called Lupescu a "Jewish whore" who was robbing Romania blind, which led to an insulted Carol calling on one of the members of his camarilla , the Bucharest police prefect Gavrilă Marinescu, who sent the police out to break up the Iron Guard rally with much violence. The doubts about the French willingness to undertake an offensive against Germany were further reinforced by the Remilitarization of

44847-462: The Soviet Union, Regency Hungary asked Romania to negotiate territorial cessions in Transylvania. Maniu issued a public protest, demanding no reduction of territorial integrity. The same month, Carol's regime yielded to Nazi pressures and Romania signed the Second Vienna Award , which divided the region roughly in half, with Northern Transylvania assigned to Hungary. This sparked major unrest, with "huge protest rallies" asking for Maniu to establish

45144-401: The Soviet Union.". The fact that the first leader to visit Nazi Germany (albeit not in an official capacity) was the Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös , who during his visit to Berlin in October 1933 signed an economic treaty that placed Hungary within the German economic sphere of influence – was a source of much alarm to Carol. For the entire interwar period, Budapest refused to recognize

45441-447: The TNȚ, had been approached by the PCdR. Detainees also included a selection of militants from all party factions: Lazăr, Zaharia Boilă , Radu Cioculescu , Victor Eftimiu , Augustin Popa , and Emanoil Socor . Released before May 1943, these men became vocal supporters of an understanding between Romania and the Soviets. Boilă, Coposu, Ghiță Pop and Virgil Solomon were also rounded up and threatened for having maintained contacts with

45738-468: The TNȚ, with Alexandrescu favoring a PCdR alliance. Consequently, Maniu ordered Coposu to establish a loyalist youth group, called Organizația M . On February 3, 1945, the youth wing broke away from the PNȚ as the Alexandrescu Peasantists . It rallied with a communist-run National Democratic Front (FND), established in October 1944, being identified in PNȚ propaganda as "lackeys of the Communist Party". While Alexandrescu's group remained exceedingly small,

46035-417: The Tsar and his wife Alexandra , gave their support for the idea, and there were high expectations that the marriage would take place. However, neither Carol or Olga demonstrated an interest for the other: Carol wasn't fond of Olga's appearance, and Olga expressed her wish to remain in Russia (should the marriage have taken place, Olga would have become the Crown Princess, and later the Queen of Romania ). This

46332-493: The Western Allies, preparing for an anti-Nazi takeover in Romania; they aligned themselves closely with Britain, seeking to obtain direct advice from Winston Churchill . The PNȚ and the PNL welcomed Romania's participation in the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union , since it returned Bessarabian lands to Romania. However, both parties protested when Antonescu gave the order to advance beyond interwar borders and annex Transnistria . This period also signaled Romania's participation in

46629-418: The adoption of laws which set the working day at a maximum 10 hours and limited child labor ; the effort to unify social insurance was completed in 1933. Endorsed by the Social Democratic Party (PSDR), this government team was put to the test during the December 1928 elections , which are often recognized as free from abuse and government interference, and which it still won in a landslide—with almost 78% of

46926-466: The alliance with France, Carol also began a policy of attempting to improve relations with Germany. On the domestic front, in the summer of 1936, Codreanu and Maniu formed an alliance to oppose the growing power of the Crown and the National Liberal government. In August 1936, Carol had Titulescu fired as foreign minister, and in November 1936, Carol sent the renegade National Liberal politician Gheorghe I. Brătianu to Germany to meet with Adolf Hitler ,

47223-412: The anti-revisionist states of Eastern Europe. Like France, Romania was allied to both Czechoslovakia and Poland, but because of the Teschen dispute in Silesia, Warsaw and Prague were bitter enemies. Like the diplomats of the Quai d'Orsay, Carol was exasperated by the bitter Polish-Czechoslovak dispute, arguing that it was absurd for anti-revisionist Eastern European states to be feuding with one another in

47520-445: The basis of a notarized power of attorney. The amount of the pension consists of two component – the basic acreage and the percentage acreage. Another form of pension is the disability pension. This is provided to individuals that are unable to participate in the workforce to the same degree as their able-bodied counterparts, due to their disability contributing to the decline of their ability to work (be it partially or entirely). There

47817-419: The basis of need alone (e.g. most disability benefits). The International Labour Organization defines social security as covering support for those in old age , support for the maintenance of children , medical treatment , parental and sick leave , unemployment and disability benefits , and support for sufferers of occupational injury . More broadly, welfare may also encompass efforts to provide

48114-540: The battle between the King and Marie, Carol ended up being both spoiled and deprived of love. During his teenage years, Carol ( Romanian for "Charles") acquired the "playboy" image that was to become his defining persona for the rest of his life. Carol expressed some concern at the direction that Prince Carol was taking, as the young Prince's only serious interest was stamp collecting and he spent an inordinate amount of time drinking, partying, and chasing after women. Young Carol fathered at least two illegitimate children by

48411-428: The belief that all citizens should have access to the same basic rights and opportunities. It provides a range of services, including universal healthcare, free education, and a comprehensive system of social security. It also provides financial assistance to citizens in need through programs such as unemployment benefits, housing assistance, and social assistance for low-income families. The Finnish welfare state relies on

48708-433: The benefactor of every philanthropic endeavor in the country. He loved parades and grandiose festivals and watched them closely, but he was not taken in by these events as more than shows of his power. He did not take them as a show of sincere popularity as Ceaușescu did during his later years. Carol had sworn in his coronation an oath to uphold the constitution of 1923, a promise he had no intention of keeping, and right from

49005-407: The best guarantee of Romania's independence and territorial integrity, and as such, his foreign policy was essentially pro-French. At the time that Romania signed the alliance with France, the Rhineland region of Germany was demilitarized, and the thinking in Bucharest had always been that if Germany should commit any act of aggression anywhere in Eastern Europe, the French would begin an offensive into

49302-401: The birth of a disabled child, when this period is extended even more. The beginning of maternity leave is usually 6 weeks before expected due date, and after maternity leave, it is possible to request further parental leave, which is optional and can be performed by either parent, regardless of gender. Parental leave lasts up to four years, depending on individual preferences. Pension insurance

49599-442: The building blocks for creating some sort of security structure intended to keep both Germany and the Soviet Union out of Eastern Europe. Carol and Titulescu personally disliked one another, but Carol wanted Titulescu as a foreign minister as he believed he was the best man for strengthening ties with France and for bringing Great Britain into the affairs of Eastern Europe under the guise of the collective security commitments contained

49896-540: The chagrin of his parents. Carol found low-born women to have the qualities that he sought in a woman, such as informality, spontaneity, humor, and passion. The marriage soon collapsed in the wake of Carol's affair with Elena (Magda) Lupescu (1895–1977), the Roman Catholic daughter of Jewish parents who had converted to Christianity. Magda Lupescu had formerly been the wife of Army officer Ion Tâmpeanu. The National Liberal Party , which dominated Romania's politics, made much of Carol's relationship with Lupescu argue that he

50193-467: The clampdown. During May 1945, while organizing Antonescu's trial by a Romanian People's Tribunal (with which it hoped to discredit Maniu as a Nazi collaborator), the government also ordered massive arrests among its cadres. A large number of PNȚ regional activists, as well as PNȚ youth who had participated in the November rally, were detained at camps in Caracal and Slobozia , but ultimately released in December 1945. While Maniu dissociated himself from

50490-439: The collection and distribution of public welfare. The seventh century caliph Umar implemented a form of zakat , one of the Five Pillars of Islam , as a codified universal social security tax. Traditionally estimated at 2.5% of an individual's assets, government zakat funds were distributed to various groups of Muslims, including impoverished people and those in severe debt. The collection of zakat increased during

50787-464: The complexity of the information and the Bureaucracy. Sometimes people need the help of other people to mediate their rights. In developing countries, formal social security arrangements are often absent for the vast majority of the working population, in part due to reliance on the informal economy . Additionally, the state's capacity to reach people may be limited because of its limited infrastructure and resources. In this context, social protection

51084-430: The constitution; silence was deemed as a "yes" vote. Under these conditions, an implausible 99.87 percent were reported as having approved the new charter, against fewer than 5,500 votes against it. At the time of his coup in February 1938, Carol informed the German minister Wilhelm Fabricius of his wish for closer ties between his country and Germany. Thierry told Carol in a meeting after the coup that his new government

51381-425: The country. His name was subsequently removed from the royal house of Romania by King Ferdinand I. After his removal from the Royal House, Carol moved to France with Lupescu under the name Carol Caraiman. Michael, aged 5, inherited the throne on the death of King Ferdinand in 1927. Princess Helen eventually divorced Carol in 1928. In the political crisis created by the deaths of Ferdinand I and Ion I. C. Brătianu and

51678-487: The coup, Maniu clashed with PCdR envoy Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who had wanted the BPD to be joined by Ralea and other FRN eminences. Though largely unaware about any conspiracy, the PNȚ's lower echelons organized a pro-Allied rally at Bellu cemetery on August 20. Meeting with its leaders, Maniu expressed the hope that Antonescu himself would take Romania out of the Axis. Dreptatea , which had been banned in 1938, reentered print on August 27, 1944. Openly active from September,

51975-568: The date of death. The amount of the assessment is 10% of the average wage and the amount of the percentage assessment is 50% of the percentage of the old-age or disability pension to which the deceased was entitled at the time of their death. Danish welfare is handled by the state through a series of policies (and the like) that seeks to provide welfare services to citizens, hence the term welfare state. This refers not only to social benefits, but also tax-funded education, public child care, medical care, etc. A number of these services are not provided by

52272-427: The democratic great powers would object to Carol proclaiming a dictatorship. Coming to realize belatedly that he was being used by Carol, Goga had a meeting with Codreanu on 8 February 1938, at the house of Ion Gigurtu to arrange for a deal under which the Iron Guard would withdraw its candidates from the election in order to ensure that the radical anti-Semitic right would have a majority. Carol quickly learned of

52569-489: The deportation of Bessarabian Jews risked destroying Romania; Mihalache also added his input, describing deportations as "alien to the humanitarian traditions of our people." Antonescu largely tolerated such insubordination, but also curbed it at regular intervals. In August 1942, he threatened to "castigate in due course" Maniu and others who opposed "cleansing this nation totally of the [Jewish] blight." In November 1941, Maniu also publicized his complete opposition to war in

52866-402: The emergency powers Carol had seized in February, turning his government into a de facto legal dictatorship. It concentrated virtually all governing power in his hands, almost to the point of absolute monarchy . The new constitution was approved in a plebiscite held under far-from-secret conditions; voters were required to appear before an election bureau and verbally state whether they approved

53163-584: The enduring Franco-Romanian friendship between the two "Latin sisters.". The German minister to Romania, Count Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg complained with disgust in a report to Berlin that everyone in the Romanian elite was an incurable Francophile who told him that Romania would never betray its "Latin sister" France. At the same time, Carol also considered the possibility that if Romanian-German relations were improved, then perhaps Berlin could be persuaded not to support Budapest in its campaign to regain Transylvania. Further pressing Carol towards Germany

53460-402: The entire elite needed to be destroyed was winning popular approval. In the spring of 1934, after Codreanu was acquitted, Carol, together with Bucharest police prefect Gavrilă Marinescu and Madame Lupescu, were involved in a half-hearted plot to kill Codreanu by poisoning his coffee, an effort that was abandoned before being attempted. Until 1935, Carol was a leading contributor to the "Friends of

53757-447: The exodus during late 1938. More junior PNȚ-ists such as Adrian Brudariu abandoned the National Peasantist cause, allegedly joining the FRN for material benefits. Maniu and Popovici could still count on their core Transylvanian constituency, which helped them circulate a December 1938 memorandum calling on Carol to restore civil liberties. Coposu was arrested and detained for distributing copies of that document. Călinescu tacitly allowed

54054-422: The extreme inequality levels and the mass scale of poverty; locating a financial basis for programs; and deciding on exit strategies or on the long-term establishment of programs. The economic crisis of the 1980s led to a shift in social policies, as understandings of poverty and social programs evolved (24). New, mostly short-term programs emerged. These include: New Zealand is often regarded as having one of

54351-493: The face of the rise of German and Soviet powers. Several times, Carol attempted to mediate the Teschen dispute and thus end the Polish-Czechoslovak feud without much success. Reflecting his initially pro-French orientation, in June 1934, when the French foreign minister Louis Barthou visited Bucharest to meet with the foreign ministers of "the Little Entente" of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, Carol organized lavish celebrations to welcome Barthou that were made to symbolize

54648-425: The first and second child, €198 for the third and €223 for each child thereafter, until they attain 25 years or receive their first professional qualification), and basic provisions for those unable to work or anyone with an income below the poverty line. Since 2005, reception of full unemployment pay (60–67% of the previous net salary) has been restricted to 12 months in general and 18 months for those over 55. This

54945-403: The first comprehensive welfare systems in the world. During the 1890s, a Liberal government adopted many social programmes to help the poor who had suffered from a long economic depression in the 1880s. One of the most far reaching was the passing of tax legislation that made it difficult for wealthy sheep farmers to hold onto their large land holdings. This and the invention of refrigeration led to

55242-416: The first welfare systems for the working classes. In Great Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911, a system later expanded by Clement Attlee . Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands, as well as the Nordic countries , such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ

55539-428: The following year; he then returned and held on to his seat to January 1933, when he was replaced by Vaida. Maniu and his supporters were now in the minority, issuing reprimands against Vaida's alliance with Carol. Despite its unprecedented success, the party was pushed into a defensive position by the Great Depression , and failed to enact many its various policy proposals; its support by workers and left-wing militants

55836-435: The foreign ministers had always reported to the king. By challenging Carol's right to control foreign policy, Codreanu had crossed the Rubicon in the king's eyes and from that time on, Carol was committed to the destruction of the arrogant upstart Codreanu and his movement who had dared to challenge the king's prerogative. In the December 1937 elections , the National Liberal government of Prime Minister Gheorghe Tătărescu won

56133-483: The fourth party in parliament, Goga's government was certain to be defeated on a vote of no-confidence when parliament convened as the National Liberals, National Peasants and All for the Fatherland Party had all come out against Goga, albeit for very different reasons. The election got off to a violent start with a brawl in Bucharest between Goga's Lăncieri paramilitary group and the Iron Guard that left two dead, 52 hospitalized and 450 people arrested. The 1938 election

56430-486: The fragmentation of Greater Romania by the seceding of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR, Northern Transylvania to Hungary and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria . Although a German guarantee was finally achieved, the situation had a disastrous effect on the reputation of Carol II. The reorientation of Romania's foreign policy towards Nazi Germany, however, would not prevent his regime from collapsing and he would be forced to abdicate by General Ion Antonescu ,

56727-567: The frontiers imposed by the Treaty of Trianon and laid claim to Transylvania region of Romania. Carol, like the rest of the Romanian elite, was worried by the prospect of an alliance of the revisionist states that rejected the legitimacy of the international order created by the Allies in 1918–20, indicating that Germany would support Hungary's claims to Transylvania. Hungary had territorial disputes with Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia, all of which happened to be allies of France. Accordingly, Franco–Hungarian relations were extremely bad during

57024-408: The government and attempting to form nationally concentrated governments, such as the Iorga-Argetoianu government. He also allowed for the formation of a corrupt parliament chamber around him, under the patronage of Elena Lupescu . A political crisis followed the December 1937 elections, where no party achieved an absolute majority and a coalition could not be formed because of disagreements between

57321-493: The government budget, and health insurance, which is financed through an array of insurance companies. Therefore, the social welfare program is usually separated into three categories: health insurance, social insurance and social benefits support. Social insurance is a type of statutory insurance that provides citizens for a future unforeseen social event, such as unemployment or disability that would prevent an individual from working, but also planned retirement. Social insurance

57618-467: The grand lifestyle he saw in the other courts of Europe. Yet his style was not outlandish or grotesque like Nicolae Ceaușescu 's unique brand of kitsch. He liked things large but relatively simple – his royal palace testifies to that trait. Carol’s true passions were Lupescu, hunting, and cars and he spared no expense on them. Carol liked to present an impressive and populist persona to the public, wearing garish military uniforms adorned with medals, and being

57915-439: The helm of the country and dethrone his son again but was stopped by the Western Allies . For the rest of his life, he traveled the world, finally marrying Elena Lupescu while living in Brazil in 1947. After settling in the Portuguese Riviera , Carol II died peacefully at the age of 59, in exile. His son Michael I, refused to attend his funeral out of disgust for the treatment of his mother, Princess Helen by his father. Carol

58212-415: The high point of the Iron Guard's electoral success. On 28, 1937, Carol swore in the radical anti-Semitic poet Octavian Goga of the National Christian Party , which only won 9% of the vote, as prime minister. Carol's reasons for appointing Goga Prime Minister were partly because he hoped that anti-Semitic policies Goga would bring in would win him support from the All for Fatherland! voters and thus weaken

58509-410: The ill or otherwise disabled and for the old, has long been provided in Japan by both the government and private companies. Beginning in the 1920s, the government enacted a series of welfare programs, based mainly on European models, to provide medical care and financial support. During the postwar period, a comprehensive system of social security was gradually established. The 1980s marked a change in

58806-434: The ineffective regency of Prince Nicholas of Romania , Miron Cristea , and Gheorghe Buzdugan , Carol was allowed to return to Romania in 1930, and his name was restored by the royal house of Romania, dethroning his own son. The beginning of Carol’s reign was marked by the negative economic effects of the Great Depression . Carol II weakened the parliament of Romania, often appointing minority factions of historical parties to

59103-598: The institutions and funds to properly handle such a crisis, both due to the structure of the social security system, and to the previously implemented structural adjustment policies (SAPs) that had decreased the size of the state. New Welfare programs have integrated the multidimensional, social risk management , and capabilities approaches into poverty alleviation. They focus on income transfers and service provisions while aiming to alleviate both long- and short-term poverty through, among other things, education, health, security, and housing. Unlike previous programs that targeted

59400-467: The insurance). It is calculated through a series of reductions of an assessment base. Employees' sickness insurance provides 4 types of sickness benefits: benefits for caring for a family member, pregnancy and maternity allowance, maternity allowance. It is standard to go on paid maternity leave in the Czech Republic, which ordinarily lasts 28 weeks. This period is prolonged to 37 weeks in the case of twins. Furthermore, there are special circumstances, such as

59697-459: The international system created by the Treaty of Versailles from Budapest's campaign to overthrow the system created by the Treaty of Trianon was welcome news to Carol, creating the possibility that a greater Germany would not mean a greater Hungary. Göring, the newly appointed chief of the Four Year Plan organization designed to have Germany ready to wage a total war by 1940, was especially interested in Romania's oil and talked much to Brătianu about

59994-409: The interwar period, and so – it seemed natural that Hungary would ally itself with France's archenemy, Germany. In 1934, Titulescu played a leading role in creating the Balkan Entente which brought together Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey in an alliance intended to counter Bulgarian revanchism. The Balkan Entente was intended to be the beginning of an alliance that would bring together all of

60291-410: The involvement of the USSR , Carol II maintained a neutrality policy. After the fall of France , Carol II's policy changed towards re-alignment with Nazi Germany in hopes of gaining a German guarantee. He was, however, not aware of the secret clauses of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact between Germany and the Soviet Union that would see Romania lose significant parts of its territory. The year 1940 marked

60588-403: The king. The National Renaissance Front was the last of several attempts to counter the popularity of the fascist Iron Guard . Following the start of World War II , Carol II reaffirmed the Polish–Romanian alliance ; the military assistance was, however, declined by Poland , which wished to follow the Romanian Bridgehead plan that required a neutral Romania. Following the fall of Poland and

60885-400: The kingdom. Further adding to Lupescu's immense unpopularity, she was a businesswoman who used her connections to the Crown to engage in dubious transactions that usually involved large sums of public money – going into her pocket. However, the contemporary viewpoint that Carol was a mere puppet of Lupescu is incorrect, and Lupescu's influence on political decision-making was much exaggerated at

61182-402: The largest number of seats, but less than the 40% required to form a majority government in parliament. After assassinating Prime Minister Duca in 1933, the Iron Guard had been banned from participating in elections, and to get around the ban Codreanu founded the All for Fatherland! party as a front for the Legion. The All for Fatherland! the party won 16% of the vote in the 1937 election, marking

61479-423: The leader of the Transylvanian branch of the National Peasants, broke away to form the Romanian Front with Carol's encouragement. During the same time, Carol developed close contacts with Armand Călinescu , an ambitious National Peasant leader who founded a faction opposed to the leadership of Carol's archenemy, Iuliu Maniu, and wanted the National Peasants to work with the Crown. In the same way, Carol encouraged

61776-462: The life out of her son. Additionally, the childless Carol I, who had always wanted a son, treated Prince Carol as his surrogate son and thoroughly spoiled him, indulging his every whim. Ferdinand was a rather shy and weak man who was easily overshadowed by the charismatic Marie, who became the most loved member of the Romanian royal family. Growing up, Carol felt ashamed of his father, whom both his grand-uncle and mother pushed around. Carol's childhood

62073-420: The lines of the corporatist -conservative model, or of its Mediterranean variant. Later, in the 1960s and 1970s, increases in public spending and a major focus on universality brought it on the same path as social-democratic systems. In 1978, a universalistic welfare model was introduced in Italy, offering a number of universal and free services such as a National Health Fund. Social welfare, assistance for

62370-508: The movement, Groza was supported by the communists' "popular assemblies", which openly called for the PNȚ and PNL to be outlawed and repressed. Churchill's electoral defeat in July was read as an additional bad omen by Maniu, who noted that Labour had no sympathy for Romanian anti-communists. He asked Rațiu not to return from England, but continue to serve as his lobbyist. Carol II of Romania Carol II (15 October 1893 [ O.S. 3 October 1893] – 4 April 1953)

62667-401: The murder of Codreanu and for a period in late 1938 waged a violent propaganda campaign against Carol, with German newspapers regularly running stories casting doubt about the official version of events that Codreanu had been "shot while trying to escape" while calling Codreanu's murder "a victory for the Jews," but ultimately economic concerns, especially the German need for Romanian oil caused

62964-551: The national youth wing, called Tineretul Național Țărănesc (TNȚ), proceeding to purge Vaidists from the various party organizations. Maniu's nephew and potential successor, Ionel Pop , also took a stand against antisemitism, expressing horror at any attempt to align Romania with Nazi Germany . Anti-Nazism was likewise voiced by Facla , causing its editorial offices to be stormed by the National-Christian Defense League (LANC). The Vaidist dissidence resulted in scuffles throughout Transylvania. In one such incident, PNȚ-ist Ilie Lazăr

63261-517: The new German-Romanian economic agreement, which was signed on 10 December 1938, Weinberg wrote that "Carol made the needed concessions, but he demonstrated his concern for his country's independence by driving a very hard bargain.". The British historian D.C. Watt wrote that Carol had a "trump card" in his control of the oil Germany needed so badly and that the Germans were willing to pay a very high price for Romanian oil, without which their military could not function. During his summit with Hitler, Carol

63558-437: The new king. Despite his dislike of the National Liberals, Maniu's enmity towards Carol left the king with no choice, but to enlist as his allies the break-away factions of the National Liberals against the National Peasants, who demanded that Carol banish Lupescu and return to his wife. The "Red Queen," as Lupescu was known to the Romanian people on account of the color of her hair, was the most hated woman in 1930s Romania. She

63855-461: The new minister, described Romania as an unfriendly, pro-French state but suggested that the prospect of more trade with the Reich might bring the Romanians out of the French orbit. Neurath further instructed Fabricius that while Romania was not a major power in a military sense, it was a state of crucial importance to Germany because of its oil. Carol often encouraged splits in the political parties to his own ends. In 1935, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod ,

64152-426: The newly appointed and Nazi-backed prime minister , to be succeeded by his son Michael . After his abdication, Carol was permitted to leave the country with a special train loaded with his personal fortunes, which he had acquired during his time as king, and an attempt on his life was made by the Iron Guard, who had fired on the train in hope of killing the former king. After World War II, Carol II wanted to return to

64449-586: The next decade, he sought to influence the course of Romanian political life, first through manipulation of the rival Peasant and Liberal parties and anti-Semitic factions, and subsequently (January 1938) through a ministry of his own choosing. Carol also sought to build up his own personality cult against the growing influence of the Iron Guard , for instance, by setting up a paramilitary youth organization known as Straja Țării in 1935. The American historian Stanley G. Payne described Carol as "the most cynical, corrupt and power-hungry monarch who ever disgraced

64746-487: The only party that could have rallied the people around a truly democratic program. In refusing to take over in 1944, Maniu [...] caused a power vacuum into which the Communist Party moved." A military-civilian cabinet was formed by General Constantin Sănătescu . Since the National Peasantists and PCdR envoys could not agree on a list of ministers, these were recruited from Michael I's courtiers, with party men serving only as ministers without portfolio; Leucuția and Solomon were

65043-484: The opposition activists and by the institution of political censorship , resulting in the closure of other PNȚ newspapers. Emil Hațieganu reported that 40 party newspapers had been shut down since 1944; Dreptatea itself was banned in March, and could only briefly reemerge in January 1946. A standoff between the King and Groza was saluted by the National Peasantists, who participated in a massive monarchist rally in November 1945. Many, including Coposu, were arrested during

65340-419: The opposition leader, speaking out against Carol and Goga, and promising a "national revolt" against their regime—while making note of his intention to form an "opposition bloc" alongside the Iron Guard. During the early days of 1938, the PNȚ was negotiating with the PNL to also join this alliance. The project was vetoed by Tătărescu, whose "Young Liberals" supported Carol's policies, and by Mihalache, who resented

65637-409: The pact with the Iron Guard, leaving that group entirely isolated on the political scene. He had instead initiated talks with the PȚR. This produced a "common constitutional front" before January 18, with negotiations continuing for the PNL's adherence to it. The PNȚ again sought grassroots communist support: in Vâlcea County , it shared a list with the "Democratic Union", assigning eligible positions to

65934-419: The parties in Romania. With regards to the Legion of the Archangel Michael , Carol had no intention of ever letting the Iron Guard come to power, but insofar as the Legion was a disruptive force that weakened both the National Liberals and the National Peasants, Carol welcomed the rise of the Iron Guard in the early 1930s, and he sought to use the Legion for his own ends. On 30, 1933, the Iron Guard assassinated

66231-501: The party central organ became Dreptatea , though the party continued to publish various other periodicals, including Patria . On November 21 of that year, the party was admitted into the International Agrarian Bureau . The National–Peasantist fusion could not lead to an immediate challenge to the PNL supremacy. The party dropped to 22% and 54 deputies after the June 1927 election . With Ferdinand terminally ill, it reluctantly backed Barbu Știrbey 's nominally independent cabinet, which

66528-410: The party. The PNȚ completely revised its alliances, agreeing to limited cooperation with the Iron Guard and the Georgist Liberals . The three parties agreed to support "free elections" and still competed against each other; however, the pact's very existence shocked the liberal mainstream, especially after revelations that PNȚ cadres could no longer criticize the Guard. Călinescu and Ghelmegeanu's group

66825-411: The police to arrest Iron Guardsmen without warrant and to summarily execute those found with weapons. In view of Germany's desperate need for oil and the repeated German requests for a new economic agreement that would allow for more Romanian oil to be shipped to the Reich , Carol met Fabricius to tell him that he wanted such an agreement to create a lasting understanding between Germany and Romania. At

67122-475: The political thought a PNR leader, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod . Based in the Romanian Old Kingdom , the Peasants' Party was founded in December 1918 by schoolteacher Ion Mihalache , with assistance from academics such as Virgil Madgearu and Dimitrie Gusti . The group soon established itself in Bessarabia , also recently united with Romania . This was due to it absorbing much of the Bessarabian Peasants' Party , under Pan Halippa and Constantin Stere . In 1921,

67419-421: The poor and slaves. From the 14th century onward, the governments of the Italian city-states began to partner with the church to provide welfare and education to the lower classes. In the 18th Century, according to one study, the Qing Dynasty had “the most elaborate relief system in world history, based on state and local granaries that were used in times of shortage to stabilize food prices and provide relief to

67716-404: The powerful Brătianu family to exercise power and, after the National Liberal prime minister Ion I. C. Brătianu died in 1927, the Brătianu's were unable to agree upon a successor, causing the fortunes of the National Liberals to go into decline. In the 1928 elections, the National Peasant Party under Iuliu Maniu won a resounding victory, taking 78% of the vote. As Prince Nicolae , the chief of

68013-405: The prevailing Francophilia, but at the same time, he inherited from Carol I, in the words of the American historian Margaret Sankey, a "profound love of German militarism" and the idea that all democratic governments were weak governments. Sometime before the First World War , the Romanian and Russian royal families held talks about the marriage of Carol, at that time the heir to the throne of

68310-417: The price for being given the throne. When Carol broke his own word and continued to live with Madame Lupescu, Maniu resigned in protest in October 1930 and was to emerge as one of Carol's leading enemies. At the same time, Carol's return had prompted a break in the National Liberals with Gheorghe I. Brătianu breaking away to found a new party, the National Liberal Party-Brătianu that was willing to work with

68607-704: The price of gaining power, Carol was quite prepared to sacrifice the rights of his Jewish subjects. At the same time, Goga proved himself a better poet than politician, and there was a crisis atmosphere in early 1938 as the Goga government, which obsessed with solving the "Jewish Question", to the exclusion of everything else, was clearly floundering. Weinberg wrote about Goga, saying that he was "Unprepared for office and untouched by any leadership ability..." and whose clownish antics left diplomats stationed in Bucharest "half-amused, half-appalled". As Carol had expected, Goga proved to be such an inept leader as to discredit democracy while his anti-Semitic policies ensured that none of

68904-415: The pro-Allied King Michael I —Maniu feared that doing so would leave Romania exposed to Nazi retribution. " Operation Autonomous ", a British attempt to mediate between Maniu and the Soviets, ended abruptly when Alfred Gardyne de Chastelain and Ivor Porter were captured in Romania. In the aftermath, Antonescu again protected Maniu, reassuring the Axis that the Romanian opposition had no real contact with

69201-439: The reputation of PNȚ-ists such as Romulus Boilă . Won over by Carol's political vision, Vaida lost the party chairmanship in March 1935, and inaugurated a new schism, creating his very own far-right party, the Romanian Front (FR), during the following month. Maniu also lost his grip on the PNȚ, and Mihalache was voted in for his second term. His relationship with Maniu reached a low point, with Mihalache hinting that he could order

69498-426: The rest of the Romanian elite, was deeply shocked by the Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938, which he saw as allowing all of Eastern Europe to fall within the German sphere of influence. Romania had long been one of the most Francophile nations in the world, which meant that the effects of Munich were felt especially strongly there. Weinberg wrote about the effect of Munich on Franco-Romanian relations: "In view of

69795-443: The rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania, both of which were refused by his father, King Ferdinand . After the dissolution of his marriage, he met Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark , daughter of King Constantine I of Greece , married her in March 1921, and later that year had a son, Michael . But due to Carol's continued affairs with Elena Lupescu he was obliged to renounce his succession rights in 1925 and leave

70092-413: The rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform. In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65 and over. Queensland legislated a similar system in 1907 before the Australian labor Commonwealth government led by Andrew Fisher introduced a national aged pension under

70389-517: The role assigned by the king as a disruptive force threatening the National Liberals and National Peasants alike. In 1934, when Codreanu was brought to trial for ordering Duca's assassination, he used as his defense the argument that the entire Francophile elite was completely corrupt and not properly Romanian, and as such, Duca was just another corrupt National Liberal politician who deserved to die. The jury acquitted Codreanu, an act that worried Carol as it showed that Codreanu's revolutionary message that

70686-431: The role of Romania and Yugoslavia in such a war as invading Hungary to relieve the pressure on Czechoslovakia. Until 1940, Carol's foreign policy teetered uneasily between the traditional alliance with France and an alignment with the newly ascending power of Germany. In the summer of 1937, Carol told French diplomats that if Germany attacked Czechoslovakia, he would not allow the Red Army transit rights across Romania but

70983-539: The same time his economic experts were telling him the Reich needed to import 400,000 tons of oil per month while Germany had in fact imported only 61,000 tons of oil per month in the last four months of 1938. In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons of pig iron , 510,000 tons of cement and 289,000 tons of rolled steel. Hence Wohlthat demanded during his talks with Romanian Foreign Minister Grigore Gafencu that Romania nationalize their entire oil industry, which

71280-475: The same time, Carol mobilized five infantry corps on the Hungarian border to guard the supposed invasion. The British "economic offensive" in the Balkans was causing Germany very real economic pain as the British bought up Romanian oil that the Germans badly needed, hence their demands for control of the Romanian oil industry that so offended Carol. As the British believed in Tilea's claims, the "Tilea affair" had an immense impact on British foreign policy and led to

71577-404: The same time, in October–November 1938, Carol was playing a double game and appealed to Britain for help, offering to place Romania within the British economic sphere of influence, and visited London between 15 and 20 November to hold unsuccessful talks on that subject. On 24 November 1938, Carol visited Germany to meet with Hitler in order to improve German-Romanian relations. During the talks for

71874-407: The showing impressed the Regents into deposing the PNL cabinet and handing power to Maniu. Carol reportedly watched on as the events unfolded: at the time, Maniu "remain[ed] silent" as to whether he would back him for the throne. In fact, Maniu and Aurel Leucuția promised him the PNȚ's backing if he accepted a set of conditions, including un-divorcing Helen of Greece ; Carol reluctantly agreed. Maniu

72171-443: The spring to murder all of the Iron Guard leaders in custody. On the night of 30 November 1938, Carol had Codreanu and 13 other Iron Guard leaders murdered, with the official story being that they were "shot while trying to escape.". The killings on the night of 30 November 1938, which saw much of the Iron Guard's leadership wiped out, have gone down in Romanian history as "the night of the vampires.". The Germans were much offended by

72468-408: The start of a glorious golden age as Petrescu asserted that rule by monarchs was what God wanted for Romanians. Carol had little understanding of or interest in economics, but his most influential economic advisor was Mihail Manoilescu who favored a statist model of economic development with the state intervening in the economy to encourage growth. Carol was very active in the cultural realm, being

72765-537: The start of his reign, the king meddled in politics to increase his own power. Carol was an opportunist with no real principles or values other than the belief that he was the right man to rule Romania and that what his kingdom needed was a modernizing dictatorship. Carol ruled via an informal body known as the camarilla , comprising courtiers together with senior diplomats, army officers, politicians, and industrialists, who were all in some way dependent upon royal favor to advance their careers. The most important member of

73062-411: The state directly, but administered by municipalities, regions or private providers through outsourcing. This sometimes gives a source of tension between the state and municipalities, as there is not always consistency between the promises of welfare provided by the state (i.e. parliament) and local perception of what it would cost to fulfill these promises. Estonia does have a welfare state that provides

73359-466: The state hospitals, low-interest loans for peasants, state orphanages, free pharmacies for the poor, filled state granaries, fire stations and libraries in the large cities, retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers' graveyards. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson , "the medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching and comprehensive welfare system for the poor   ...". Ancient Greek city-states provided free medical services for

73656-405: The structure of Latin American social protection programs. Social protection embraces three major areas: social insurance, financed by workers and employers; social assistance to the population's poorest, financed by the state; and labor market regulations to protect worker rights. Although diverse, recent Latin American social policy has tended to concentrate on social assistance. The 1980s, had

73953-426: The succession in the 1920s. In February 1935, the Legion's leader, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , who until then had been regarded as an ally of Carol, for the first time attacked the king directly when he organized demonstrations outside of the royal palace attacking Carol after Dr. Dimitrie Gerota had been imprisoned for writing an article exposing the corrupt business dealings of Lupescu. Codreanu, in his speech before

74250-402: The synthetic oil plants whose construction had started in 1936 would not be operative by 1940 as planned. It was not until the summer of 1942 that Germany's first synthetic oil plants finally started operating. It was painfully obvious to Göring in the first months of 1939 that the German economy would not be ready to support a total war by 1940 as the Four-Year Plan of 1936 had envisioned while at

74547-410: The talks in Bucharest went very badly. It was at this point that Carol began what became known as the "Tilea affair" when, on 17 March 1939, Virgil Tilea , the Romanian minister in London, burst unexpectedly into the office of the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax in an agitated state to announce that his country was faced with an imminent German invasion and asked Halifax for British support. At

74844-434: The teenage schoolgirl Maria Martini by the time that he was 19. Carol rapidly became a favorite of gossip columnists around the world owing to the frequent photographs that appeared in the newspapers showing him at various parties with him holding a drink in one hand and a woman in the other. In order to teach the prince the value of Prussian virtues , the King had the prince commissioned as an officer in 1913. His time with

75141-411: The throne on December 28, 1925, in favor of his son by Crown Princess Helen, Michael I (Mihai), who became king in July 1927 upon the death of his paternal grandfather, King Ferdinand I . Helen divorced Carol in 1928. After renouncing his right to the throne, Carol moved to Paris, where he lived openly in a common-law relationship with Madame Lupescu. The National Liberal Party was largely a vehicle for

75438-432: The throne. The campaign waged by the National Liberals had less to do with disgust with Carol's relationship with Madame Lupescu than with an effort to remove a potential "loose cannon", as Carol made it clear when he succeeded to the throne that he would not be content to let the National Liberals dominate politics in the way that the previous Hohenzollern kings had. As a result of the scandal, Carol renounced his right to

75735-409: The time. Lupescu was primarily interested in enriching herself to support her extravagant lifestyle and had no real interest in politics, beyond protecting her ability to engage in corruption. Unlike Carol, Lupescu had utterly no interest in social policy or foreign affairs and was such a self-absorbed narcissist that she was unaware of just how unpopular she was with ordinary people. Carol by contrast

76032-499: The traditional ties going back to the beginnings of Romanian independence and manifested in the way in which the Romanian elite looked to France as the model for everything from fashion to government, the revelation of France's abdication was particularly shocking." In October 1938, the Iron Guard had begun a terrorist campaign of assassinating police officers and bureaucrats and staging bombings of government offices as part of an effort to overthrow Carol. Carol struck back hard, ordering

76329-496: The urban and rural poor.” This system, however, was weakened after imperialism entered China following the 1840 Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1860), which resulted in a crisis in the Qing Dynasty. Following the foundation of the Republic in 1912 and the following years of civil wars and warlordism, “the state granary system became almost non-existent.” Throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire, various social welfare services and institutions were established. Provision

76626-412: The vote. This result was partly owed to its alliance with the PSDR, the Jewish National People's Party , the German Party , and the Ukrainian Nationalists . At this early stage, the PNȚ was fully controlled by Maniu, who ordered PNȚ members of Parliament to sign resignations that he would file and enact upon in case of insubordination. In June 1930, a trans-party group of Carlist supporters engineered

76923-428: The working class, new programs have successfully focused on locating and targeting the very poorest. The impacts of social assistance programs vary between countries, and many programs have yet to be fully evaluated. According to Barrientos and Santibanez, the programs have been more successful in increasing investment in human capital than in bringing households above the poverty line. Challenges still exist, including

77220-532: The youth organization, they later became a nucleus for the paramilitary Peasant Guards . By that time, Maniu's guidelines had eroded left-wing support for the party. In February 1927, Lupu and Ion Buzdugan founded a rival group, the Peasants' Party–Lupu . Stere was finally expelled from the PNȚ after a heated controversy in 1930. In 1931, he established an agrarian socialist group called Democratic Peasants' Party–Stere . Another left-wing dissidence broke away with Grigore Iunian in late 1932, establishing itself as

77517-400: Was King of Romania from 8 June 1930, until his forced abdication on 6 September 1940. As the eldest son of King Ferdinand I , he became crown prince upon the death of his grand-uncle, King Carol I , in 1914. He was the first of the Hohenzollern kings of Romania to be born in the country, as both of his predecessors had been born in Germany and came to Romania only as adults. As such, he

77814-399: Was "well received" in Paris and that the French would not allow the end of democracy to affect their relations with Romania. The new government of Patriarch Cristea did not introduce new anti-Semitic laws but did not repeal the laws passed by Goga either, though Cristea was less extreme about enforcing these laws. When asked by a Jewish friend if his citizenship would be restored now that Goga

78111-448: Was a National Liberal sweep, leaving the PNȚ with less than 15% of the votes cast. Duca took on the task of dissolving the Iron Guard, and was murdered by a death squad on December 29; the premiership passed to another PNL man, Gheorghe Tătărescu . The PNȚ viewed Tătărescu's appointment as arbitrary, and protested on the issue. The spread of credible rumors according to which Maniu was slated for assassination by Carol's partisans rekindled

78408-437: Was a card-carrying PNȚ man, assigned leadership over the Peasant Guards, following their reactivation by Mihalache. The Guards were supervised by a Military Section, comprising Army officials: Admiral Dan Zaharia was a member, alongside generals Ștefan Burileanu , Gheorghe Rujinschi , Gabriel Negrei , and Ioan Sichitiu . Zaharia was directly involved with the Peasant Guards of Muscel County , whom he used to quell violence by

78705-441: Was a woman whom ordinary Romanians saw as "the embodiment of evil," in the words of the British historian Rebecca Haynes. Princess Helen was widely viewed as the wronged woman, while Lupescu was seen as the femme fatale who had stolen Carol away from the loving arms of Helen. Lupescu was Roman Catholic, but because of her parents' background, she was widely viewed as Jewish. Lupescu's personality did not win her many friends, as she

79002-479: Was able to afford one of the best-developed and most comprehensive welfare systems in the world, supported by a well-developed and stable economy. Norway has a strong welfare state that provides a range of social services and financial assistance to its citizens. The Norwegian welfare state is based on the principles of social democracy, which means that it has a strong focus on reducing income inequality and promoting social cohesion. The Norwegian welfare state provides

79299-467: Was adamant that Carol's mistress Elena Lupescu stay exiled, and for this reason earned the Prince's eternal enmity. Maniu was sworn in as Prime Minister on October 10, 1928, leading the first of eight PNȚ government teams. This saw an extension of the welfare state and the regulation of labor through collective bargaining . Maniu's first cabinet had Moldovan as Labor Minister , using this position to advance his program in " biopolitics ". His tenure saw

79596-402: Was affected during the strike actions of Lupeni and Grivița , which its ministers repressed with noted expediency. The former incident in particular was received as a shock by working-class voters, and led journalist Romulus Cioflec to hand in his resignation from the party, in what became a public scandal. All PNȚ cabinets were also confronted by the rise of revolutionary fascism, heralded by

79893-644: Was again offered the premiership, and again declined, power went to General Nicolae Rădescu . Maniu and his followers agreed with the PCdR on the need for "de-fascization" in Romania, overseeing a purge of Romania's police agencies and appointing Ghiță Pop as PNȚ representative on the Special Committee for the investigation of war crimes. However, as noted by Boia, "curious solidarities" continued to be formed locally by anti-Carol PNȚ-ists and their Guardist counterparts. Noted Guardists who were accepted as PNȚ members include Horațiu Comaniciu and Silviu Crăciunaș . National Peasantists in Transylvania no longer screened against

80190-429: Was alienated, openly describing the pact as morally unsound, and preferring full cooperation with Carol; Mihalache also dissented, but on democratic grounds. The events caught the PCdR underground by surprise: in November, its leader Ștefan Foriș had urged his colleagues to vote PNȚ, even in preference to the PSDR. A "workers' delegation", made up of PSDR and PCdR activists, visited Maniu and insisted that he should revise

80487-429: Was also made for the State to provide food and clothing for children that parents were unable to bring up due to indigence. In later Protestant European nations such as the Dutch Republic , welfare was managed by local guilds until the abolition of the guild system in the early 19th century. In the free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire , the city governments in cities like Nuremberg could take control of

80784-425: Was arrogant, pushy, manipulative, and extremely greedy, with an insatiable taste for buying the most expensive French clothes, cosmetics, and jewelry. At a time when many Romanians were suffering from the Great Depression in Romania , Carol's habit of indulging Lupescu's expensive tastes caused much resentment, with many of Carol's subjects grumbling that the money would have been better spent on alleviating poverty in

81081-425: Was best seen during the visit of the Romanian royal family to Russia in March, 1914 , and during a visit of Nicholas and his family to Romania a few months later. After the failure of the planned joining of Carol and Olga, the idea of a possible marriage of a Romanian royal to a Russian royal faded until 1917 , when Carol began showing interest in the younger sister of Olga, the Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna . In

81378-482: Was born in Peleș Castle and grew up under the thumb of his dominating grand-uncle, King Carol I. King Carol I largely excluded Carol's parents, the German-born Crown Prince Ferdinand and the British-born Crown Princess Marie , from any role in bringing him up. Romania in the early 20th century had a famously relaxed "Latin" sexual morality, and the British Princess Marie of Edinburgh despite or perhaps because of her Victorian upbringing ended up "going native", having

81675-421: Was called by Ferdinand to take power. Maniu was a first choice, but eventually discarded for his association with Mihalache, whom Ferdinand regarded as a dangerous radical. Weakened when Goldiș and others defected to the PP, the PNR became "second-fiddle" to the Peasantist caucus. In the subsequent national election of June , the PNR and PȚ formed a National–Peasant Bloc, which took 27% of the vote and 69 seats in

81972-496: Was conceived out of wedlock. Apparently close at first, Carol and Helen drifted apart. Carol's marriage with Princess Helen was an unhappy one, and he frequently engaged in extramarital affairs. The elegant wallflower Helen found the bohemian Carol, with his love of heavy drinking and constant partying, rather too wild for her tastes. For his part, Carol disliked royal and aristocratic women, whom he found too stiff and formal, and had an extremely marked preference for commoners, much to

82269-401: Was formed at the University of Iași by Bratu and Andrei, gathering new members and sympathizers: Constantin Balmuș , Octav Botez , Iorgu Iordan , Andrei Oțetea , and Mihai Ralea . Unable to obtain a reduction of the foreign debt, and harangued by an increasingly confident PNL, the Vaida cabinet fell in November 1933. A PNL team under Ion G. Duca took over. The election of December 1933

82566-439: Was gone, Interior Minister Armand Călinescu , who detested the Iron Guard and antisemitism, replied that the Cristea government had no interest in restoring citizenship back to the Jews. In March 1938, Armand Călinescu , the Interior Minister who had emerged as one of Carol's closet allies and who was to serve as the "strong man" of the new regime, demanded the Iron Guard be finally destroyed. In April 1938, Carol moved to crush

82863-404: Was henceforth controlled by a new corporation owned jointly by the German and Romanian governments, while demanding Romania "respect German export interests" by only selling their oil to Germany. In addition, Wohlthat demanded a host of other measures that, to all practical purposes, would have converted Romania into a German economic colony. As Carol had no intention of giving in to these demands,

83160-414: Was in practice a National Liberal front. Its leadership also rejected a pact with Averescu's group, pushing it into further into political insignificance. These events also overlapped with a dynastic crisis: after Ferdinand's death in July 1927, the throne went to his minor grandson Michael I —Michael's disgraced father Carol II having been forced to renounce his claim and pushed into exile. The arrangement

83457-451: Was intended for a less educated audience, Carol was constantly described as being almost god-like, the "father of the villagers and workers of the land" and the "king of culture" who was the greatest of all the Hohenzollern kings and whose return from exile from France via airplane in June 1930 was a "descent from the heavens". Petrescu depicted Carol's return as the beginning of his God-appointed task of becoming "the maker of eternal Romania",

83754-420: Was interested in the affairs of the state, and though he never sought to deny his relationship with Lupescu, he was careful not to display her too much in public, as he knew that this would bring him unpopularity. Carol sought to play the National Liberals, the National Peasant Party, and the Iron Guard off against each other with the ultimate aim of making himself master of Romanian politics and disposing of all

84051-462: Was made a Stranger Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter in 1938 (the 982nd member since the order's inception) by his second cousin, George VI (King of the United Kingdom). In 1937, he was awarded the Grand Cross of Justice of the Military and Hospitaler Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem and given the Grand Collar of the Order on 16 October 1938. He served as the Grand Bailiwick of the budding Grand Bailiwick of Romania. Carol, together with

84348-484: Was much offended when Hitler demanded that Carol free Codreanu and appoint him prime minister. Carol believed that as long as Codreanu lived, there was a possible alternative leadership in Romania for Hitler to back, and that if this possibility was eliminated then Hitler would have no choice other than to deal with him. Carol had initially planned to keep Codreanu in prison, but after the terrorist campaign began in October 1938, Carol agreed to Călinescu's plan drawn up in

84645-431: Was one of the most violent elections in Romanian history, as the Iron Guard and Lăncieri battled one another for control of the streets while seeking to establish their anti-Semitic creditations by assaulting Jews. As Parliament never met during the Goga government, Goga had to pass laws via emergency decree, which all had to be countersigned by the king. The harsh anti-Semitic policies of the Goga government impoverished

84942-442: Was registered as having lost the fraudulent elections in 1946 , and was banned following the " Tămădău Affair " of 1947. The communist regime imprisoned its members in large numbers, though some on the pro-communist left were allowed to go free. Both Maniu and his more leftist deputy, Ion Mihalache , died in prison. PNȚ cells were revived in the Romanian diaspora by youth leaders such as Ion Rațiu , and had representation within

85239-412: Was reportedly shot in the arm. Only some 10% or 15% of PNȚ cadres were attracted by Vaida's group. Overall, however, the National Peasantist failure to address the economic needs of its own constituents resulted in a steady decrease of its voting share—many peasants switched to supporting the Iron Guard or any of the other far-right parties. The explicitly fascist National Christian Party (PNC), founded as

85536-472: Was resented by both the PNL and the PNR. For different reasons, both groups sketched out plans to depose Michael and turn Romania into a republic. The unexpected death of PNL chairman Ion I. C. Brătianu pushed the PNȚ back into full-blown opposition: "All hopes [...] focused on the democratic movement of renewal, outstandingly represented by Iuliu Maniu." The party withdrew its elected representatives and pushed citizens to engage in tax resistance . In creating

85833-470: Was sacked as prime minister and Carol appointed Patriarch Elie Cristea , the head of the Romanian Eastern Orthodox Church , as his successor. Carol knew he would command wide respect in a country where the majority of the population was Orthodox. On 11, 1938, Carol drafted a new constitution . Although it was superficially similar to its 1923 predecessor, it was actually a severely authoritarian and corporatist document. The new constitution effectively codified

86130-540: Was spent being caught up in an emotional tug-of-war between Carol I and Marie, who had very different ideas about how to raise him. The Romanian historian Marie Bucur described the battle between Carol I and Princess Marie as one between traditional 19th-century Prussian conservatism as personified by Carol I versus the 20th-century liberal, modernist, and sexually deviant values of the " New Woman " as personified by Princess Marie. Aspects of both Marie's and Carol I's personalities were present in Carol II. Largely because of

86427-449: Was successfully tested during the August 1925 elections for the Agricultural Chambers, a professional consultative body. In the local election of early 1926 , both parties ran a United Opposition Bloc, in conjunction with Alexandru Averescu 's People's Party (PP); also joining them was a Peasant Workers' Bloc (BMȚ), which acted as a legal front for clandestine Romanian Communist Party (PCdR). The PP withdrew from this pact once Averescu

86724-497: Was the desperate state of the Romanian economy: even before the worldwide Great Depression , Romania had been a poor country, and the Great Depression hit Romania hard, with Romanians being unable to export much owing to the global trade war set off by the American Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, which in turn led to a decline in the value of the Leu as Romania's reserves of foreign exchange were being used up. In June 1934, Romanian finance minister Victor Slăvescu visited Paris to ask

87021-450: Was the first member of the Romanian branch of the Hohenzollerns who spoke Romanian as his first language and was also the first member of his royal family to be raised in the Orthodox faith. Carol's life and reign were surrounded by controversy and accusations of lack of duty, due to his desertion from the army during World War I . Another controversy was his marriage to Zizi Lambrino , which resulted in two attempts by Carol to give up

87318-582: Was tolerating the transit through Romania of Northern Transylvanian Jews fleeing extermination in Hungary , some of whom were assisted on their journey by a PNȚ-ist network. By early 1942, Maniu and Brătianu had come to favor an anti-Nazi coup, and had asked for direct British support. The Soviets were informed of this, but fully rejected Maniu's demands for a restoration of Greater Romania. In January 1943, with over 100,000 Romanian soldiers trapped at Stalingrad , PCdR members approached Maniu with concrete offers for collaboration. Hoping to obtain full peace without

87615-439: Was undeterred. The intent behind this arranged marriage was to help organize a dynastic alliance between Greece and Romania. Bulgaria had territorial disputes with Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia, and all three of the latter states tended to be close during the interwar period owing to their shared fears of the Bulgarians. Helen and Carol's only child, Michael , was born seven months after their marriage, sparking rumors that Michael

87912-424: Was unqualified to be king. One of the leading figures of the National Liberals was Prince Barbu Știrbey – who was also Queen Marie's lover, and Carol had a strong dislike of Știrbey, who had humiliated his father via his indiscreetly disguised relationship with Marie, and hence of the National Liberals. Knowing that Carol was ill-disposed towards them, the National Liberals waged a sustained campaign to keep him from

88209-407: Was willing to ignore the Soviets if they crossed Romanian airspace on their way to Czechoslovakia. On December 9, 1937, a German-Romanian economic treaty was signed that placed Romania within the German economic sphere of influence but left the Germans unsatisfied as the Reich' s enormous demand for oil to power its increasingly large war machine, was not yet fulfilled by the 1937 treaty. Germany had

#503496