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164-569: The Romanian Communist Party ( Romanian : Partidul Comunist Român , [parˈtidul kɔmuˈnist rɔˈmɨn] , PCR ) was a communist party in Romania . The successor to the pro- Bolshevik wing of the Socialist Party of Romania , it gave an ideological endorsement to a communist revolution that would replace the social system of the Kingdom of Romania . After being outlawed in 1924,

328-467: A Leninist program was about to be adopted). According to Frunză, although contrasted by the Communist press with its previous equivalent, the measure was supposedly much less relevant—land awarded to individual farmers in 1923 was more than three times the 1945 figures, and all effects were canceled by the 1948–1962 collectivization . It was also then that, through Pătrășcanu and Alexandru Drăghici ,

492-488: A lexicon of over 150,000 words in its contemporary form, Romanian showed a high degree of lexical permeability, reflecting contact with Thraco-Dacian , Slavic languages (including Old Slavic , Serbian , Bulgarian , Ukrainian , and Russian ), Greek , Hungarian , German , Turkish , and to languages that served as cultural models during and after the Age of Enlightenment , in particular French . This lexical permeability

656-622: A planned economy were enforced beginning 11 June 1948. The first five-year plan , conceived by Miron Constantinescu 's Soviet-Romanian committee, was adopted in 1950. Of newly enforced measures, the arguably most far-reaching was collectivization —by 1962, when the process was considered complete, 96% of the total arable land had been enclosed in collective farming , while around 80,000 peasants faced trial for resisting and 17,000 others were uprooted or deported for being chiaburi (the Romanian equivalent of kulaks ). Chiaburs were defined by

820-535: A " Muscovite wing " in the following decades). The interior party only survived as an underground group after it was outlawed by the Brătianu government through the Mârzescu Law (named after its proponent, Minister of Justice Gheorghe Gh. Mârzescu ), passed in early 1924; Comintern sources indicate that, around 1928, it was losing contact with Soviet overseers. In 1925, the question of Romania's borders as posed by

984-627: A "regional language" alongside Ukrainian as per the 2012 legislation on languages in Ukraine . Romanian is an official or administrative language in various communities and organisations, such as the Latin Union and the European Union . Romanian is also one of the five languages in which religious services are performed in the autonomous monastic state of Mount Athos , spoken in the monastic communities of Prodromos and Lakkoskiti . In

1148-649: A Stalin-backed group around Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej before and after the large-scale Grivița Strikes . In 1934, Stalin's Popular Front doctrine was not fully passed into the local party's politics, mainly due to the Soviet territorial policies (culminating in the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact ) and the widespread suspicion other left-wing forces maintained toward the Comintern. The Communists did, nevertheless, attempt to reach consensus with other groupings on several occasions (in 1934–1943, they established alliances with

1312-593: A crucial role in supporting the Communist Party's rise to power as the Soviet military command virtually ruled the city and the country ( see Soviet occupation of Romania ). After having been underground for two decades, the Communists enjoyed little popular support at first, compared to the other opposition parties (however, the decrease in popularity of the National Liberals was reflected in

1476-741: A foreign language, for example the Nicolae Bălcescu High-school in Gyula , Hungary. Romanian is taught as a foreign language in tertiary institutions, mostly in European countries such as Germany, France and Italy, and the Netherlands, as well as in the United States. Overall, it is taught as a foreign language in 43 countries around the world. Romanian has become popular in other countries through movies and songs performed in

1640-522: A fundamental threat to Romania through the reduction of their "living space". The Axis Powers ultimately lost the war and the borders of Romania shifted once more. The Soviet Union retook Bessarabia and Romania regained northern Transylvania. To this day these are still the borders of Romania. A communist regime was installed in Romania following the end of the Second World War, and during

1804-507: A hard line by imposing the " July Theses ", re-Stalinizing the party's rule by intensifying the spreading of communist ideology in Romanian society and at the same time consolidating his grip on power whilst using the Party's authority to brew a persuasive cult of personality . Over the years, the PCR massively increased to become entirely submitted to Ceaușescu's will. From the 1960s onward, it had

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1968-471: A homogenous Romanian state, and there was difficulty in imposing a "modern national consciousness" because of the hundreds of years of political separation of the Romanian regions. In the eyes of the nationalist anthropologists, historians, and scientists, the survival of Romania became fundamentally bound to the need for maintaining a national-ethnic unity within one state; discourse on the subject "soon became invested with racial and biopolitical tropes." By

2132-547: A minority population of 30%, and it was largely from this section that the party drew its membership—a large percentage of it was Jews , Hungarians and Bulgarians . Actual or perceived ethnic discrimination against these minorities added to the appeal of revolutionary ideas in their midst. Shortly after its creation, the PCdR's leadership was alleged by authorities to have been involved in Max Goldstein 's bomb attack on

2296-530: A name that was extended to the literature and writers around this time such as Vasile Alecsandri , Grigore Alexandrescu , Nicolae Bălcescu , Timotei Cipariu . Between 1830 and 1860 "transitional alphabets" were used, adding Latin letters to the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet . The Latin alphabet became official at different dates in Wallachia and Transylvania - 1860, and Moldova -1862. Following

2460-656: A number of Romanian Armed Forces officers, and armed Communist-led civilians supported by the National Democratic Bloc arrested dictator Ion Antonescu and seized control of the state ( see King Michael's Coup ). King Michael then proclaimed the old 1923 Constitution in force, ordered the Romanian Army to enter a ceasefire with the Red Army on the Moldavian front, and withdrew Romania from

2624-553: A principle conceived by Russian Marxist theoretician Vladimir Lenin , which entails a democratic and open discussion on policy on the condition of unity in upholding the agreed-upon policies. The highest body within the PCR was the Party Congress , which began in 1969 to convene every five years. The Central Committee was the highest body when Congress was not in session. Because the Central Committee met only twice

2788-733: A reputation for being far more independent of the Soviet Union than its brethren in the Warsaw Pact. However, it also became the most hardline party in the Eastern Bloc , which harmed its relationship with even the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . It collapsed in 1989 in the wake of the Romanian Revolution , but Romania kept its socialist-era constitution until 1991. Romania also retained its membership in

2952-578: A significant share of the local population (districts in Chernivtsi , Odesa and Zakarpattia oblasts ) Romanian is taught in schools as a primary language and there are Romanian-language newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting. The University of Chernivtsi in western Ukraine trains teachers for Romanian schools in the fields of Romanian philology, mathematics and physics. In Hertsa Raion of Ukraine as well as in other villages of Chernivtsi Oblast and Zakarpattia Oblast , Romanian has been declared

3116-473: A steady pace in its suppression of" class enemies ", until as late as 1962–1964. In 1962–1964, the party leadership approved a mass amnesty , extended to, among other prisoners, ca. 6,700 guilty of political crimes . This marked a toning down in the violence and scale of repression, after almost twenty years during which the Party had acted against political opposition and active anti-communist resistance , as well as against religious institutions (most notably,

3280-420: A stereotypical image of the regime as illegitimate. The early Communist Party had little influence in Romania. This was due to a number of factors: the country's lack of industrial development , which resulted in a relatively small working class (with industry and mining employing fewer than 10% of the active population) and a large peasant population; the minor impact of Marxism among Romanian intellectuals ;

3444-481: A time when troops were suffering major defeats on the Eastern Front , the PCdR proposed that all parties form a Blocul Național Democrat ("National Democratic Bloc"), in order to arrange for Romania to withdraw from its alliance with Nazi Germany. The ensuing talks were prolonged by various factors, most notably by the opposition of National Peasants' Party leader Iuliu Maniu , who, alarmed by Soviet successes,

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3608-576: A year, most day-to-day duties and responsibilities were vested in Politburo. The party leader held the office of General Secretary and, after 1945, held significant influence over the government. Between 1974 and 1989, the General Secretary also held the office of President of Romania . Ideologically, the PCR was committed to Marxism–Leninism , a fusion of the original ideas of German philosopher and economic theorist Karl Marx , and Lenin,

3772-424: Is also spoken within communities of Romanian and Moldovan immigrants in the United States, Canada and Australia, although they do not make up a large homogeneous community statewide. Many are Moldavians who were deported Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the " Moldovan language " In Transnistria, it

3936-494: Is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania ( Bulgaria , Hungary , Serbia and Ukraine ), and by the large Romanian diaspora . In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language . Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although

4100-649: Is consistently carrying out the policy of enclosing and eliminating capitalist elements". Gheorghiu-Dej, who remained an orthodox Stalinist, took the position of Premier while moving Groza to the presidency of the Presidium of the Great National Assembly (de facto President of the People's Republic ). Executive and PMR leaderships remained in Gheorghiu-Dej's hands until his death in 1965 (with

4264-616: Is continuing today with the introduction of English words. Yet while the overall lexis was enriched with foreign words and internal constructs, in accordance with the history and development of the society and the diversification in semantic fields, the fundamental lexicon—the core vocabulary used in everyday conversation—remains governed by inherited elements from the Latin spoken in the Roman provinces bordering Danube , without which no coherent sentence can be made. Romanian descended from

4428-485: Is distinguished by the activity of Romanian literature classics in its early decades: Mihai Eminescu , Ion Luca Caragiale , Ion Creangă , Ioan Slavici . The current orthography, with minor reforms to this day and using Latin letters, was fully implemented in 1881, regulated by the Romanian Academy on a fundamentally phonological principle, with few morpho-syntactic exceptions. The first Romanian grammar

4592-597: Is official only in the villages of Vojvodinci ( Voivodinț ), Markovac ( Marcovăț ), Straža ( Straja ), Mali Žam ( Jamu Mic ), Malo Središte ( Srediștea Mică ), Mesić ( Mesici ), Jablanka ( Iablanca ), Sočica ( Sălcița ), Ritiševo ( Râtișor ), Orešac ( Oreșaț ) and Kuštilj ( Coștei ). In the 2002 Census, the last carried out in Serbia, 1.5% of Vojvodinians stated Romanian as their native language. The Vlachs of Serbia are considered to speak Romanian as well. In parts of Ukraine where Romanians constitute

4756-666: Is officially called " Moldovan language " and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet . Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). According to the Constitution of Romania of 1991, as revised in 2003, Romanian is the official language of the Republic. Romania mandates

4920-512: Is over in Romania", which allowed for a momentary relaxing of pressures—begun by King Ferdinand 's granting of an amnesty to the tried PCdR. The PCdR was thus unable to send representatives to the Comintern, and was virtually replaced abroad by a delegation of various activists who had fled to the Soviet Union at various intervals (Romanian groups in Moscow and Kharkiv , the sources of

5084-606: Is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova . Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages , a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries. To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it

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5248-717: The Francs-tireurs ' Olga Bancic , Nicolae Cristea and Joseph Boczov . As Romania came under the rule of Ion Antonescu and, as an Axis country, joined in the German offensive against the Soviets , the Communist Party began approaching traditional parties that were engaged in semi-clandestine opposition to Antonescu: alongside the Social Democrats , it began talks with the National Peasants ' and

5412-558: The Cannes Film Festival ). Also some artists wrote songs dedicated to the Romanian language. The multi-platinum pop trio O-Zone (originally from Moldova) released a song called "Nu mă las de limba noastră" ("I won't forsake our language"). The final verse of this song, "Eu nu mă las de limba noastră, de limba noastră cea română" , is translated in English as "I won't forsake our language, our Romanian language". Also,

5576-558: The Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that "the official language of Moldova is Romanian". On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu , promulgated the law. The history of the Romanian language started in the Roman provinces north of

5740-588: The Eastern bloc —notably, the anti-"Cosmopolitan" campaign in which Joseph Stalin targeted Jews in the Soviet Union, and the Prague Trials in Czechoslovakia which removed Jews from leading positions in that country's Communist government. At the same time, a new republican constitution , replacing its 1948 precedent, legislated Stalinist tenets, and proclaimed that "the people's democratic state

5904-561: The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , led by Avram Iancu , fought the Hungarian revolutionaries and themselves demanded autonomy. These nationalist currents ultimately culminated with the establishment of the personal union of Moldavia and Wallachia under Alexandru Ioan Cuza in 1859, which became a full political union in 1862 and established the modern Romanian state. It remained under Ottoman suzerainty, though this status

6068-586: The Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are 3 main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the "as-well-as" thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube. Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from

6232-593: The National Bank of Romania was passed into full public ownership (December 1946), and, in order to combat the Romanian leu 's devaluation , a surprise monetary reform was imposed as a stabilization measure in August 1947 (severely limiting the amount convertible by people without an actual job, primarily members of the aristocracy). The Marshall Plan was being overtly condemned, while nationalization and

6396-512: The National Liberal parties. At the time, virtually all the interior leadership was imprisoned at various locations (most of them interned at Caransebeș or in a concentration camp near Târgu Jiu ). Some communists, such as Petre Gheorghe , Filimon Sârbu , Francisc Panet or Ștefan Plavăț , tried to establish organised resistance groups; however, they were quickly captured by the Romanian authorities and executed, as were some of

6560-599: The National Peasants' Party against King Carol II and the Gheorghe Tătărescu government (who had intensified repression of Communist groups), finding themselves placed in an unusual position after the Iron Guard , a fascist movement, signed an electoral pact with Maniu; participation in the move was explained by Communist historiography as provoked by the Social-Democrats ' refusal to collaborate with

6724-978: The Parliament of Romania ; all major party figures, including the general secretary Gheorghe Cristescu , were prosecuted in the Dealul Spirii Trial . Constantin Argetoianu , the Minister of the Interior in the Alexandru Averescu , Take Ionescu , and Ion I. C. Brătianu cabinets, equated Comintern membership with conspiracy , ordered the first in a series of repressions, and, in the context of trial, allowed for several communist activists (including Leonte Filipescu ) to be shot while in custody—alleging that they had attempted to flee. Consequently, Argetoianu stated his belief that"communism

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6888-573: The Peasant Workers' Bloc . During the mid-1930s, due to the purges against the Iron Guard, the party was on the road to achieving power, but the dictatorship of king Carol II crushed this. In 1934–1936, PCR reformed itself in the mainland of Romania properly, with foreign observers predicting a possible communist takeover in Romania. The party emerged as a powerful actor on the Romanian political scene in August 1944, when it became involved in

7052-563: The People's Democratic Front (FND), which won with 93.2 percent of the vote. By then, however, the FND had taken on the same character as other " popular fronts "in the Soviet bloc. The member parties became completely subservient to the PMR, and had to accept its" leading role "as a condition of their continued existence. Groza, however, remained Prime Minister. A new series of economic changes followed:

7216-621: The Ploughmen's Front , the Hungarian People's Union , and the Socialist Peasants' Party ), and small Communist groups became active in the leftist sections of mainstream parties. In 1934, Petre Constantinescu-Iași and other PCdR supporters created Amicii URSS , a pro-Soviet group reaching out to intellectuals , itself banned later in the same year. During the 1937 elections , the Communists backed Iuliu Maniu and

7380-401: The Romanian Academy . The third phase of the modern age of Romanian language, starting from 1880 and continuing to this day, is characterized by the prevalence of the supradialectal form of the language, standardized with the express contribution of the school system and Romanian Academy, bringing a close to the process of literary language modernization and development of literary styles. It

7544-473: The Romanian Roman Catholic and Greek-Catholic Churches). Estimates for the total number of victims in the 1947/1948-1964 period vary significantly: as low as 160,000 or 282,000 political prisoners, and as high 600,000 (according to one estimate, about 190,000 people were killed or died in custody— ). Notorious penal facilities of the time included the Danube-Black Sea Canal , Sighet , Gherla , Aiud , Pitești , and Râmnicu Sărat ; another method of punishment

7708-400: The Socialist-Communist Party ( Partidul Socialist-Comunist ) and, soon after, the Communist Party of Romania ( Partidul Comunist din România or PCdR ). Government crackdown and competition with other socialist groups brought a drastic reduction in its membership—from the ca. 40,000 members the Socialist Party had, the new group was left with as much as 2,000 or as little as 500; after

7872-434: The Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , in which Khurshchev initiated De-Stalinization , Gheorghiu-Dej issued propaganda accusing Pauker, Luca and Georgescu of having been an arch-Stalinists responsible for the party's excesses in the late 1940s and early 1950s (notably, in regard to collectivization)—despite the fact that they had occasionally opposed a number of radical measures advocated by

8036-440: The Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman provinces of Southeastern Europe north of the Jireček Line (a hypothetical boundary between the dominance of Latin and Greek influences). Most scholars agree that two major dialects developed from Common Romanian by the 10th century. Daco-Romanian (the official language of Romania and Moldova) and Istro-Romanian (a language spoken by no more than 2,000 people in Istria ) descended from

8200-405: The Warsaw Pact until its dissolution on 1 July 1991; that role had been largely symbolic since the late 1960s. The PCR co-ordinated several organizations during its existence, including the Union of Communist Youth , and organized training for its cadres at the Ștefan Gheorghiu Academy (future SNSPA ). In addition to Scînteia , its official platform and main newspaper between 1931 and 1989,

8364-422: The fall of one-party rule in 1989 , Romanian historians generally asserted that the party only had around 1,000 members at the end of World War II. Other researchers argue that this figure may have been intentionally based on the Muscovite faction figures and, as such, underestimated to undermine the influence of the internal faction; this estimate was afterwards promoted in post-communist historiography to reinforce

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8528-428: The reunification of Moldova and Romania . Moldova (formed from most of Soviet Bessarabia) gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 but failed to reunify with Romania. The movement faced hostility from previous pro-Russian governments of independent Moldova. Nonetheless, the pro-European government of Maia Sandu has developed a closer relationship with Romania fostered by the links in culture and heritage between

8692-413: The royal coup that toppled the pro- Nazi government of Ion Antonescu . With support from Soviet occupational forces , the PCR pressured King Michael I into abdicating, and it established the Romanian People's Republic in December 1947. The party operated as the Romanian Workers' Party ( Partidul Muncitoresc Romîn between 1948 and 1964 and Partidul Muncitoresc Român in 1964 and 1965) until it

8856-435: The unification of Moldavia and Wallachia further studies on the language were made, culminating with the founding of Societatea Literară Română on 1 April 1866 on the initiative of C. A. Rosetti , an academic society that had the purpose of standardizing the orthography, formalizing the grammar and (via a dictionary) vocabulary of the language, and promoting literary and scientific publications. This institution later became

9020-547: The " prison faction " ( political prisoners who looked to Gheorghiu-Dej as their leader) and the one around Ștefan Foriș and Remus Koffler . The exterior faction of the party was decimated during the Great Purge : an entire generation of party activists was killed on Stalin's orders, including, among others, Alexandru Dobrogeanu-Gherea , David Fabian , Ecaterina Arbore , Imre Aladar , Elena Filipescu , Dumitru Grofu , Ion Dic Dicescu , Eugen Rozvan , Marcel Pauker , Alexander Stefanski , Timotei Marin , and Elek Köblös . It

9184-434: The "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language". Romanian finally became

9348-409: The 16th century, by various foreign travelers into the Carpathian Romance-speaking space, as well as in other historical documents written in Romanian at that time such as Cronicile Țării Moldovei  [ ro ] ( The Chronicles of the land of Moldova ) by Grigore Ureche . The few allusions to the use of Romanian in writing as well as common words, anthroponyms, and toponyms preserved in

9512-472: The 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits. From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic , a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic letters , and until late 18th century, including during

9676-417: The Assembly, the Executive Council and the provincial administrative bodies. The Romanian language and script are officially used in eight municipalities: Alibunar , Bela Crkva ( Biserica Albă ), Žitište ( Sângeorgiu de Bega ), Zrenjanin ( Becicherecu Mare ), Kovačica ( Covăcița ), Kovin ( Cuvin ), Plandište ( Plandiște ) and Sečanj ( Seceani ). In the municipality of Vršac ( Vârșeț ), Romanian

9840-623: The Axis. Later party discourse tended to dismiss the importance of both the Soviet offensive and the dialogue with other forces (and eventually described the coup as a revolt with large popular support). The King named General Constantin Sănătescu as prime minister of a coalition government which was dominated by the military, but included one representative each from the National Liberal Party, National Peasants' Party and Social Democratic Party, with Pătrășcanu as Minister of Justice —the first Communist to hold high office in Romania. The Red Army entered Bucharest on 31 August, and thereafter played

10004-399: The Comintern led to protests by Cristescu and, eventually, to his exclusion from the party ( see Balkan Communist Federation ). Around the time of the party's Fifth Congress in 1931, the Muscovite wing became the PCdR's main political factor: Joseph Stalin replaced the entire party leadership, including the general secretary Vitali Holostenco —appointing instead Alexander Stefanski , who

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10168-496: The Communists consecrated their control of the legal system—the process included the creation of the Romanian People's Tribunals , charged with investigating war crimes , and constantly supported by agitprop in the Communist press. During the period, government-backed Communists used various means to exercising influence over the vast majority of the press, and began infiltrating or competing with independent cultural forums. Economic dominance, partly responding to Soviet requirements,

10332-413: The Cyrillic script, and the Latin script as stipulated by the law, the Croat , Hungarian , Slovak , Romanian and Rusyn languages and their scripts, as well as languages and scripts of other nationalities, shall simultaneously be officially used in the work of the bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the manner established by the law. The bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are:

10496-410: The General Secretary. After that purge, Gheorghiu-Dej had begun promoting PMR activists who were perceived as more loyal to his own political views; among them were Nicolae Ceauşescu , Gheorghe Stoica , Ghizela Vass , Grigore Preoteasa , Alexandru Bârlădeanu , Ion Gheorghe Maurer , Gheorghe Gaston Marin , Paul Niculescu-Mizil , and Gheorghe Rădulescu ; in parallel, citing Khrushchevite precedents,

10660-410: The Groza cabinet representatives threatened to kill 1,000 students they had rounded up in custody. In February 1948, the Communists ended a long process of infiltrating the Romanian Social Democratic Party (ensuring control through electoral alliances and the two-party Frontul Unic Muncitoresc —Singular Workers' Front, the PCR had profited from the departure of Constantin Titel Petrescu 's group from

10824-401: The Moldovan autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria . Romanian is also an official language of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia along with five other languages. Romanian minorities are encountered in Serbia ( Timok Valley ), Ukraine ( Chernivtsi and Odesa oblasts ), and Hungary ( Gyula ). Large immigrant communities are found in Italy, Spain, France, and Portugal. In 1995,

10988-449: The Moldovan musicians Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici performed a song called "The Romanian language". Romanian is also called Daco-Romanian in comparative linguistics to distinguish from the other dialects of Common Romanian : Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , and Istro-Romanian . The origin of the term "Daco-Romanian" can be traced back to the first printed book of Romanian grammar in 1780, by Samuil Micu and Gheorghe Șincai . There,

11152-409: The National Democratic Bloc was dissolved on 8 October 1944; instead, the Communists, Social Democrats, the Ploughmen's Front , Mihai Ralea 's Socialist Peasants' Party (which was absorbed by the former in November), the Hungarian People's Union (MADOSZ), and Mitiţă Constantinescu 's Union of Patriots formed the National Democratic Front (FND), which campaigned against the government, demanding

11316-401: The Old Church Slavonic religious writings and chancellery documents, attested prior to the 16th century, along with the analysis of graphemes show that the writing of Romanian with the Cyrillic alphabet started in the second half of the 15th century. The oldest extant document in Romanian precisely dated is Neacșu's letter (1521) and was written using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet , which

11480-459: The PCR remained a minor and illegal grouping for much of the interwar period and submitted to direct Comintern control. During the 1920s and the 1930s, most of its activists were imprisoned or took refuge in the Soviet Union , which led to the creation of competing factions that sometimes came into open conflict. That did not prevent the party from participating in the political life of the country through various front organizations , most notably

11644-419: The PCR was still highly disorganized and factionalized, it benefited from Soviet backing (including that of Vladislav Petrovich Vinogradov and other Soviet appointees to the Allied Commission ). After 1944, it was leading a paramilitary wing, the Patriotic Defense ( Apărarea Patriotică , disbanded in 1948), and a cultural society, the Romanian Society for Friendship with the Soviet Union . On PCdR initiative,

11808-513: The PCdR and other minor socialist groups has been attributed to the legacy of Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea 's quasi-Poporanist ideas inside the latter, as an intellectual basis for the rejection of Leninism .) The PCdR's "foreign" image was because ethnic Romanians were a minority in its ranks until after the end of World War II: between 1924 and 1944, none of its general secretaries was of Romanian ethnicity. Interwar Romania had

11972-476: The PCdR made possible the creation of the Bloc, which was designed as the basis of a future anti-Axis government. Parallel contacts were established, through Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu and Emil Bodnăraș , between the PCdR, the Soviets, and King Michael . A seminal event also occurred during those months: Ștefan Foriș , who was still general secretary, was deposed by with Soviet approval by the rival " prison faction "(at

12136-565: The PCdR protested Northern Transylvania 's cession to Hungary later in the same year (the Second Vienna Arbitration ), but evidence is inconclusive (party documents attesting the policy are dated after Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union ). As the border changes sparked a political crisis leading to an Iron Guard takeover—the National Legionary State —the interior wing's confusion intensified:

12300-432: The PCdR. In the years following the elections, the PCdR entered a phase of rapid decline, coinciding with the increasingly authoritarian tone of King Carol's regime (but in fact inaugurated by the 1936 Craiova Trial of Ana Pauker and other high-ranking Communists). Journals viewed as associates of the party were closed down, and all suspected PCdR activists faced detention ( see Doftana Prison ). Siguranța Statului ,

12464-462: The PMR and resulted in a wave of arrests. While refusing to allow dissemination of Soviet literature exposing Stalinism (writers such as Ilya Ehrenburg and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ), Romanian leaders took active part in the campaign against Boris Pasternak . Despite Stalin's death, the massive police apparatus headed by the Securitate (created in 1949 and rapidly growing in numbers) maintained

12628-423: The PMR briefly reorganized its leadership on a plural basis (1954–1955), while Gheorghiu-Dej reshaped party doctrine to include ambiguous messages about Stalin's legacy (insisting on the defunct Soviet's leader contribution to Marxist thought, official documents also deplored his personality cult and encouraged Stalinists to self-criticism ). In this context, the PMR soon dismissed all the relevant consequences of

12792-399: The PMR leadership officially questioned its own political support, and began a massive campaign to remove"foreign and hostile elements" from its rapidly expanded structures. In 1952, with Stalin's renewed approval, Gheorghiu-Dej emerged victorious from the confrontation with Ana Pauker , his chief "Muscovite"rival, as well as purging Vasile Luca , Teohari Georgescu , and their supporters from

12956-403: The PMR was occupied by the conflict between the " Muscovite wing ", the " prison wing "led by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej , and the newly emerged and weaker" Secretariat wing "led by Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu . After October 1945, the two former groups had associated in neutralizing Pătrăşcanu's—exposed as" bourgeois "and progressively marginalized, it was ultimately decapitated in 1948. Beginning that year,

13120-705: The PMR, associated with Constantin Doncea (June 1958). On the outside too, the PMR, leading a country that had joined the Warsaw Pact , remained an agent of political repression: it fully supported Khurshchev's invasion of Hungary in response to the Revolution of 1956 , after which Imre Nagy and other dissident Hungarian leaders were imprisoned on Romanian soil. The Hungarian rebellion also sparked student protests in such places as Bucharest, Timișoara , Oradea , Cluj and Iași , which contributed to unease inside

13284-415: The Party as the common enemies of communism in Romania. Thus, they were subjected to abuses by the cadres. In 1950, the party, which viewed itself as the vanguard of the working class , reported that people of proletarian origin held 64% of party offices and 40% of higher government posts, while results of the recruitment efforts remained below official expectations. During the period, the central scene of

13448-567: The Romanian secret police , infiltrated the small interior wing and probably obtained valuable information about its activities. The financial resources of the party, ensured by Soviet support and by various satellite organizations (collecting funds in the name of causes such as pacifism or support for the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War ), were severely drained—by political difficulties at home, as well as, after 1939, by

13612-606: The Romanian dialect spoken north of the Danube is called lingua Daco-Romana to emphasize its origin and its area of use, which includes the former Roman province of Dacia , although it is spoken also south of the Danube, in Dobruja , the Timok Valley and northern Bulgaria. This article deals with the Romanian (i.e. Daco-Romanian) language, and thus only its dialectal variations are discussed here. The differences between

13776-773: The Romanian language. Examples of Romanian acts that had a great success in non-Romanophone countries are the bands O-Zone (with their No. 1 single Dragostea Din Tei , also known as Numa Numa , across the world in 2003–2004), Akcent (popular in the Netherlands, Poland and other European countries), Activ (successful in some Eastern European countries), DJ Project (popular as clubbing music) SunStroke Project (known by viral video " Epic Sax Guy ") and Alexandra Stan (worldwide no.1 hit with " Mr. Saxobeat ") and Inna as well as high-rated movies like 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days , The Death of Mr. Lazarescu , 12:08 East of Bucharest or California Dreamin' (all of them with awards at

13940-609: The Romanian military and occupying key installations, Michael agreed and dismissed Rădescu, who fled the country. On 6 March, Groza became leader of a Communist-led government and named Communists to lead the Romanian Armed Forces as well as the ministries of the Interior (Georgescu), Justice ( Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu ), Communications ( Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej ), Propaganda ( Petre Constantinescu-Iaşi ) and Finance ( Vasile Luca ). The non-Communist ministers came from

14104-480: The Romanian neuter became a mixture of masculine and feminine. The verb morphology of Romanian has shown the same move towards a compound perfect and future tense as the other Romance languages. Compared with the other Romance languages , during its evolution, Romanian simplified the original Latin tense system. Romanian is spoken mostly in Central , South-Eastern , and Eastern Europe , although speakers of

14268-794: The Romanian soul." During this time, Romanian territorial successes were somewhat reversed with the 1940 Soviet occupation and annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bucovina and the forced cession of Northern Transylvania to Hungary that same year. Romania under Ion Antonescu joined the Second World War on the side of the Axis Powers and participated in Operation Barbarossa in 1941, receiving back Bessarabia plus Odessa and surrounding territory (the Transnistria Governorate ) in compensation for

14432-628: The Romanians had Roman ancestry and made failed attempts to unite Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania - the three principal regions inhabited by Romanians. Later the Wallachian prince Michael the Brave was able to, for a short time in 1600, unite the three regions, marking the first time this had ever been done under a single ruler. For this he is still today regarded as a symbol of Romanian unity. In Transylvania, then under Habsburg rule ,

14596-690: The Social Democrats (who were falling under the control of the pro-Communists Lothar Rădăceanu and Ștefan Voitec ) and the traditional Ploughmen's Front ally, as well as, nominally, from the National Peasants' and National Liberal parties (followers of Tătărescu and Alexandrescu's dissident wings). As a result of the Potsdam Conference , where Western Allied governments refused to recognize Groza's administration, King Michael called on Groza to resign. When he refused,

14760-521: The Social Democrats in March 1946). The Social Democrats merged with the PCR to form the Romanian Workers' Party ( Partidul Muncitoresc Român, PMR ) which remained the ruling party's official name until 24 July 1965 (when it returned to the designation as Romanian Communist Party ). Nevertheless, Social Democrats were excluded from most party posts and were forced to support Communist policies on

14924-525: The Soviets to withdraw their remaining troops from Romanian soil. As early as 1956, Romania's political apparatus reconciled with Josip Broz Tito , which led to a series of common economic projects (culminating in the Iron Gates venture). Romanian language Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian ; endonym : limba română [ˈlimba roˈmɨnə] , or românește [romɨˈneʃte] , lit.   ' in Romanian ' )

15088-702: The Twentieth Soviet Congress, and Gheorghiu-Dej even argued that De-Stalinization had been imposed by his team right after 1952. At a party meeting in March 1956, two members of the Politburo who were supporters of Khruschevite reforms, Miron Constantinescu and Iosif Chişinevschi , criticized Gheorghiu-Dej's leadership and identified him with Romanian Stalinism. They were purged in 1957, themselves accused of being Stalinists and of having been plotting with Pauker. Through Ceaușescu's voice, Gheorghiu-Dej also marginalized another group of old members of

15252-566: The appointment of more Communist officials and sympathizers, while claiming democratic legitimacy and alleging that Sănătescu had dictatorial ambitions. The FND was soon joined by the Liberal group around Tătărescu, Nicolae L. Lupu 's Democratic Peasants' Party (the latter claimed the legacy from the defunct Peasants' Party ), and Anton Alexandrescu 's faction (separated from the National Peasants' Party ). Sănătescu resigned in November, but

15416-458: The basis of democratic centralism ; it was also reported that only half of the PSD's 500,000 members joined the newly founded grouping. Capitalizing on these gains, the Communist government shunted most of the remaining parties aside after the 1948 elections (the Ploughmen's Front and the Hungarian People's Union dissolved themselves in 1953). The PMR fought the elections as the dominant partner of

15580-447: The beginning of devoicing of asyllabic [u] after consonants. Text analysis revealed words that are now lost from modern vocabulary or used only in local varieties. These words were of various provenience for example: Latin ( cure - to run, mâneca - to leave), Old Church Slavonic ( drăghicame - gem, precious stone, prilăsti - to trick, to cheat), Hungarian ( bizăntui - to bear witness). The modern age of Romanian starts in 1780 with

15744-486: The closing of Romanian-Soviet cultural ventures such as Editura Cartea Rusă at the end of the decade. Industrialization along the PMR's own directives highlighted Romanian independence—one of its consequences was the massive steel-producing industrial complex in Galați , which, being dependent on imports of iron from overseas, was for long a major strain on the Romanian economy. In 1957, Gheorghiu-Dej and Emil Bodnăraş persuaded

15908-812: The collapse of the Russian Republic and the subsequent Russian Civil War allowed the Romanians of Bessarabia to set up the Moldavian Democratic Republic , which then proceeded to unite with Romania. " Greater Romania " was fulfilled, and the ambitions of the nationalists and irredentists were satisfied. However, there were now sizable non-Romanian minorities (especially Hungarians in Transylvania and Slavic groups in Bessarabia). The new multiethnic and multicultural reality fundamentally conflicted with nationalists' desire for

16072-422: The colloquial speech and writing. Outside the political arena the language is most often called "Romanian". In the breakaway territory of Transnistria, it is co-official with Ukrainian and Russian. In the 2014 census , out of the 2,804,801 people living in Moldova, 24% (652,394) stated Romanian as their most common language, whereas 56% stated Moldovan. While in the urban centers speakers are split evenly between

16236-608: The country Moldovan . In December 2013, a decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence took precedence over the Constitution and the state language should be called Romanian. In 2023, the Moldovan parliament passed a law officially adopting the designation "Romanian" in all legal instruments, implementing the 2013 court decision. Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are

16400-637: The country. The Kingdom of Romania first expanded its territory with the acquisition of southern Dobruja from Bulgaria in 1913 during the Second Balkan War , which nonetheless only had a minority of Romanians. The greatest and most important territorial expansion was initiated at the end of the First World War in 1918; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire allowed Transylvania to unite with Romania ; and

16564-606: The cultural movement called the Transylvanian School was founded at a time when Romanians in the region faced social and political disenfranchisement. In the 1791 document Supplex Libellus Valachorum Transsilvaniae ("Petition of the Vlachs [Romanians] of Transylvania", the School demanded equal rights for the Romanian population and asserted a Romanian national continuity stretching back to Roman Dacia . The document

16728-469: The development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin alphabet became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Modern Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis. In the process of language evolution from fewer than 2500 attested words from Late Antiquity to

16892-544: The differences as 'accents' or 'speeches' (in Romanian: accent or grai ). Romanian nationalism The predecessors of the modern Romanian state were the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia , which for most of their existence were vassals of the Ottoman Empire . One of the earliest proponents of Romanian nationalism was the Moldavian prince Iacob Heraclid (ruled 1561-1563), who declared that

17056-413: The early years of this regime Romanian nationalism was suppressed in favor of Russification. After 1955, a process of de-satellization occurred, ending the period of unchallenged Soviet domination. During the rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu (1965-1989), a form of Romanian nationalism (known as national communism ) began to be promoted, involving the formation of a cult of personality around Ceaușescu and

17220-401: The election that confirmed the Bloc won around 48 percent of the vote. He concluded that had the election been conducted fairly, the opposition parties could have won enough votes between them to form a coalition government, albeit with far less than the 80 percent support opposition supporters long claimed. The following months were dedicated to confronting the National Peasants' Party , which

17384-571: The exception of 1954–1955, when his office of PMR leader was taken over by Gheorghe Apostol ). From the moment it came to power and until Stalin's death, as the Cold War erupted, the PMR endorsed Soviet requirements for the Eastern Bloc . Aligning the country with the Cominform , it officially condemned Josip Broz Tito 's independent actions in Yugoslavia ; Tito was routinely attacked by

17548-422: The external and internal wings: while Gheorghiu-Dej retained his general secretary position, Ana Pauker , Teohari Georgescu , and Vasile Luca became the other main leaders. The Central Committee had 27 full members and 8 candidate members The post-1945 constant growth in membership, by far the highest of all Eastern Bloc countries, was to provide a base of support for Gheorghiu-Dej. The conference also saw

17712-413: The first Romanian school, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu . The end of this period is marked by the first printing of magazines and newspapers in Romanian, in particular Curierul Românesc and Albina Românească . Starting from 1831 and lasting until 1880 the modern phase is characterized by the development of literary styles: scientific, administrative, and belletristic . It quickly reached a high point with

17876-584: The first mention of the PCdR as the Romanian Communist Party (PCR), the new name being used as a propaganda tool suggesting a closer connection with the national interest . Party control over the security forces was successfully used on 8 November 1945, when the opposition parties organised a demonstration in front of the Royal Palace to express solidarity with King Michael, who was still refusing to sign his name to new legislation, on

18040-550: The forming of a splinter group around Gheorghe Tătărescu , the National Liberal Party-Tătărescu , who later entered an alliance with the Communist Party). Soon after 23 August, the Communists also engaged in a campaign against Romania's main political group of the time, the National Peasants' Party, and its leaders Iuliu Maniu and Ion Mihalache . In Victor Frunză 's account, the conflict's first stage

18204-479: The gradual development of bilingualism . Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular. The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict spurred by an increase in Romanian nationalism. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstva asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and

18368-478: The idealization of Romanian history ( protochronism ). Ceaușescu went as far as to semi-rehabilitate Ion Antonescu (deeming him a "misunderstood patriot") and denouncing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact which had allowed the Soviets to take Bessarabia in 1940. The communist era in Romania ended with the overthrow of Ceaușescu in 1989. Today the main expression of Romanian nationalism is the promotion of

18532-548: The influence of the Mukacheve eparchy in Ukraine. The language spoken during this period had a phonological system of seven vowels and twenty-nine consonants. Particular to Old Romanian are the distribution of /z/, as the allophone of /dz/ from Common Romanian , in the Wallachian and south-east Transylvanian varieties, the presence of palatal sonorants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, nowadays preserved only regionally in Banat and Oltenia , and

18696-460: The language and use of the demonym Romanians ( Români ) for speakers of this language predates the foundation of the modern Romanian state. Romanians always used the general term rumân / român or regional terms like ardeleni (or ungureni ), moldoveni or munteni to designate themselves. Both the name of rumână or rumâniască for the Romanian language and the self-designation rumân/român are attested as early as

18860-514: The language can be found all over the world, mostly due to emigration of Romanian nationals and the return of immigrants to Romania back to their original countries. Romanian speakers account for 0.5% of the world's population, and 4% of the Romance-speaking population of the world. Romanian is the single official and national language in Romania and Moldova, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in

19024-545: The language, working together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Department for Romanians Abroad. Since 2013, the Romanian Language Day is celebrated on every 31 August . Romanian is the official language of the Republic of Moldova. The 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian, and the Constitution of Moldova as originally adopted in 1994 named the state language of

19188-608: The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East was found in Israel, where Romanian was spoken by 5% of the population. Romanian is also spoken as a second language by people from Arabic-speaking countries who have studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. Small Romanian-speaking communities are to be found in Kazakhstan and Russia. Romanian

19352-658: The late 15th century and ended in the early decades of the 18th century, by which time Romanian had begun to be regularly used by the Church. The oldest Romanian texts of a literary nature are religious manuscripts ( Codicele Voronețean , Psaltirea Scheiană ), translations of essential Christian texts. These are considered either propagandistic results of confessional rivalries, for instance between Lutheranism and Calvinism , or as initiatives by Romanian monks stationed at Peri Monastery in Maramureș to distance themselves from

19516-513: The loss of Northern Transylvania. During the war, Antonescu pursued a policy of colonization in the Transnistria Governorate, marking a shift from a nationalist policy that valued separation from foreign nationalities to one that promoted expansionism and dominance over those perceived as lesser peoples (Slavs and Jews). This was seen as beneficial to the Romanian people because it involved the suppression of peoples perceived as

19680-565: The majority of the former, alongside Romanian and Bessarabian Jews in general, to camps, prisons and makeshift ghettos in occupied Transnistria ( see Holocaust in Romania ). Most Jews from the PCdR category were held in Vapniarka , where improper feeding caused an outbreak of paralysis, and in Rîbnița , where some 50 were victims of the authorities' criminal negligence and were shot by retreating German troops in March 1944. In June 1943, at

19844-533: The media regarding the forgery of the census results. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia determines that in the regions of the Republic of Serbia inhabited by national minorities, their own languages and scripts shall be officially used as well, in the manner established by law. The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina determines that, together with the Serbian language and

20008-455: The monarch that he appoint Communist sympathizer Petru Groza as Prime Minister, with the Soviet government suggesting it would reinstate Romanian sovereignty over Northern Transylvania only in such a scenario. Frunză claimed however that Vyshinsky also intimated a Soviet takeover of the country if the King failed to comply, and that, under pressure from Soviet troops who were supposedly disarming

20172-608: The monarch went to his summer home in Sinaia and refused to sign any government decrees or bills (a period colloquially known as greva regală —"the royal strike"). Following Anglo-American mediation, Groza agreed to include politicians from outside his electoral alliance, appointing two secondary figures in their parties (the National Liberal Mihail Romniceanu and the National Peasants' Emil Hațieganu ) as Ministers without Portfolio (January 1946). At

20336-556: The more active propagandists, such as Pompiliu Ștefu . A statistic of the Siguranţa reports that, in Bucharest, between January 1941 and September 1942, 143 individuals were tried for communism, of which 19 were sentenced to death and 78 to prison terms or forced labour . The antisemitic Antonescu regime established a distinction between PCdR members of Jewish Romanian origin and those of ethnic Romanian or other heritage, deporting

20500-409: The northern dialect. Two other languages, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian , developed from the southern version of Common Romanian. These two languages are now spoken in lands to the south of the Jireček Line . Of the features that individualize Common Romanian, inherited from Latin or subsequently developed, of particular importance are: The use of the denomination Romanian ( română ) for

20664-549: The occasion of his name day . Demonstrators were faced with gunshots; around 10 people were killed, and many wounded. The official account, according to which the Groza government responded to a coup attempt, was disputed by Frunză. The PCR and its allies, grouped in the Bloc of Democratic Parties, won the Romanian elections of 19 November , although there is evidence of widespread electoral fraud . Years later, historian Petre Ţurlea reviewed an incomplete confidential PCR report about

20828-479: The official language with the Constitution of 1923 . Romanian has preserved a part of the Latin declension , but whereas Latin had six cases , from a morphological viewpoint, Romanian has only three: the nominative / accusative , genitive / dative , and marginally the vocative . Romanian nouns also preserve the neuter gender , although instead of functioning as a separate gender with its own forms in adjectives,

20992-494: The official press, and the Romanian-Yugoslav Danube border became the scene of massive agitprop displays ( see Tito–Stalin split and Informbiro ). Uncomfortable and possibly threatened by the reformist measures adopted by Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev , Gheorghiu-Dej began to steer Romania towards a more "independent" path while remaining within the Soviet orbit during the late 1950s. Following

21156-407: The participants. According to Frunză, this culminated in a 13 February 1945 demonstration outside the Royal Palace , and followed a week later by street fighting between Georgescu's Communist forces and supporters of the National Peasants' Party in Bucharest. In a period of escalating chaos, Rădescu called for elections. The Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrey Vyshinsky went to Bucharest to request

21320-405: The party and country. After 1953, the party gradually theorized a "national path" to communism. At the same time, however, the party delayed the time to join its Warsaw Pact brethren in de-Stalinization . The PCR's nationalist and national communist stance was continued under the leadership of Nicolae Ceaușescu. Following an episode of liberalization in the late 1960s, Ceaușescu again adopted

21484-496: The party issued several local and national publications at various points in its history (including, after 1944, România Liberă ). The party was founded in 1921 when the Bolshevik -inspired maximalist faction won control of Romania's Social-Democratic party—the Socialist Party of Romania , successor to the defunct Romanian Social-Democratic Workers' Party and the short-lived Social Democratic Party of Romania (the latter

21648-483: The party—alleging that their various political attitudes were proof of" right-wing deviationism ". Out of a membership of approximately one million, between 300,000 and 465,000 members, almost half of the party, was removed in the successive purges. The specific target for the "verification campaign", as it was officially called, were former Iron Guard affiliates. The move against Pauker's group echoed Stalinist purges of Jews in particular from other Communist Parties in

21812-418: The printing in 1780 of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae , the pre-modern phase was characterized by the publishing of school textbooks, appearance of first normative works in Romanian, numerous translations, and the beginning of a conscious stage of re-latinization of the language. Notable contributions, besides that of the Transylvanian School , are the activities of Gheorghe Lazăr , founder of

21976-659: The printing in Vienna of a very important grammar book titled Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae . The author of the book, Samuil Micu-Klein , and the revisor, Gheorghe Șincai , both members of the Transylvanian School , chose to use Latin as the language of the text and presented the phonetical and grammatical features of Romanian in comparison to its ancestor. The Modern age of Romanian language can be further divided into three phases: pre-modern or modernizing between 1780 and 1830, modern phase between 1831 and 1880, and contemporary from 1880 onwards. Beginning with

22140-524: The printing of Dacia Literară , a journal founded by Mihail Kogălniceanu and representing a literary society, which together with other publications like Propășirea and Gazeta de Transilvania spread the ideas of Romantic nationalism and later contributed to the formation of other societies that took part in the Revolutions of 1848 . Their members and those that shared their views are collectively known in Romania as "of '48"( pașoptiști ),

22304-472: The regional varieties are small, limited to regular phonetic changes, few grammar aspects, and lexical particularities. There is a single written and spoken standard (literary) Romanian language used by all speakers, regardless of region. Like most natural languages, Romanian dialects are part of a dialect continuum . The dialects of Romanian are also referred to as 'sub-dialects' and are distinguished primarily by phonetic differences. Romanians themselves speak of

22468-501: The right of self-determination ). In 1924, the Comintern provoked Romanian authorities by encouraging the Tatarbunary Uprising in southern Bessarabia, in an attempt to create a Moldavian republic on Romanian territory; also in that year, a Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , roughly corresponding to Transnistria , was established inside the Soviet Union. At the same time, the left-wing political spectrum

22632-553: The same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts. It has been the sole official language since the adoption of the Law on State Language of the Moldavian SSR in 1989. This law mandates the use of Moldovan in all the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, as well as asserting the existence of a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". It is also used in schools, mass media, education and in

22796-548: The severing of connections with Moscow in France and Czechoslovakia . Consequently, the executive committee of the Comintern called on Romanian Communists to infiltrate the National Renaissance Front (FRN), the newly created sole legal party of Carol's dictatorship, and attempt to attract members of its structures to the revolutionary cause. Until 1944, the group active inside Romania became split between

22960-437: The success of state repression in driving the party underground and limiting its activities; and finally, the party's "anti-national" policy, as it began to be stated in the 1920s—supervised by the Comintern, this policy called for the breakup of Greater Romania , which was regarded as a colonial entity "illegally occupying" Transylvania , Dobruja , Bessarabia and Bukovina (regions that, the communists argued, had been denied

23124-456: The time of the Romanian fascist period (1937-1944), nationalist attitudes had developed to an extreme form and were imbued with antisemitism as well. The most intense fascist movement was that of the Iron Guard , which briefly governed from 1940 to 1941. The Iron Guard espoused a strong religious nationalism, with its leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu writing that the group was a "spiritual school...[which] strikes to transform and revolutionise

23288-543: The time, Groza's party and the PCR came to disagree on some issues (with the Front publicly affirming its support for private land ownership), before the Ploughmen's Front was eventually pressured into supporting Communist tenets. In the meantime, the first measure taken by the cabinet was a new land reform that advertised, among others, an interest into peasant issues and a respect for property (in front of common fears that

23452-496: The time, it was headed by former inmates of Caransebeș prison); replaced with the troika formed by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej , Constantin Pîrvulescu , and Iosif Rangheț , Foriș was discreetly assassinated in 1946. Several assessments view Foriș's dismissal as the complete rupture in historical continuity between the PCdR established in 1921 and what became the ruling party of Communist Romania . On 23 August 1944, King Michael,

23616-478: The two names (with the capital Chișinău showing a strong preference for the name "Romanian", i.e. 3:2), in the countryside hardly a quarter of Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their native language. Unofficial results of this census first showed a stronger preference for the name Romanian, however the initial reports were later dismissed by the Institute for Statistics, which led to speculations in

23780-551: The unrecognised state of Transnistria , Moldovan is one of the official languages. However, unlike all other dialects of Romanian, this variety of Moldovan is written in Cyrillic script . Romanian is taught in some areas that have Romanian minority communities, such as Vojvodina in Serbia, Bulgaria, Ukraine and Hungary. The Romanian Cultural Institute (ICR) has since 1992 organised summer courses in Romanian for language teachers. There are also non-Romanians who study Romanian as

23944-551: The upper echelon faced investigation from Georgi Dimitrov (as well as other Comintern officials) on charges of " Trotskyism ", and, since the FRN had crumbled, several low-ranking party officials actually began collaborating with the new regime. At around the same time, a small section of the exterior wing remained active in France, where it eventually joined the Resistance to German occupation —it included Gheorghe Gaston Marin and

24108-428: The use of Romanian in official government publications, public education and legal contracts. Advertisements as well as other public messages must bear a translation of foreign words, while trade signs and logos shall be written predominantly in Romanian. The Romanian Language Institute (Institutul Limbii Române), established by the Ministry of Education of Romania, promotes Romanian and supports people willing to study

24272-545: The vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects , and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian . This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian , Megleno-Romanian , Istro-Romanian , and Daco-Romanian. Due to limited attestation between

24436-400: Was deportation to the inhospitable Bărăgan Plain . Nationalism and national communism penetrated official discourse, largely owing to Gheorghiu-Dej's call for economic independence and distancing from the Comecon . Moves to withdraw the country from Soviet overseeing were taken in quick succession after 1953. Khrushchev allowed Constantinescu to dissolve the SovRoms in 1954, followed by

24600-401: Was annihilated after the Tămădău Affair and show trial of its entire leadership. On 30 December 1947, the Communist Party's power was consolidated when King Michael was forced to abdicate . The Communist-dominated legislature then abolished the monarchy and proclaimed Romania a " People's Republic ", firmly aligned with the Soviet Union. According to the king, his signature was obtained after

24764-648: Was at the time a member of the Communist Party of Poland . The interior wing began organizing itself as a more efficient conspiratorial network through regained Comintern control. The onset of the Great Depression in Romania , and the series of strikes infiltrated (and sometimes provoked) by the interior wing signified relative successes ( see Lupeni Strike of 1929 ), but gains were not capitalized—as lack of ideological appeal and suspicion of Stalinist directives remained notable factors. In parallel, its leadership suffered changes that were meant to place it under an ethnic Romanian and working-class leadership—the emergence of

24928-423: Was by then merely nominal. On 21 May 1877, Romania declared independence from the Ottomans in the midst of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , with these events and the associated fighting known in Romanian historiography as the " Romanian War of Independence ". Following the victory of the Russian Empire and Romania, the ruling prince Carol I assumed the title of King , reflecting the fully independent status of

25092-415: Was centered on Communist allegations that Maniu had encouraged violence against the Hungarian community in newly recovered Northern Transylvania . The Communist Party, engaged in a massive recruitment campaign, was able to attract ethnic Romanians in large numbers—workers and intellectuals alike, including some former members of the fascist Iron Guard . By 1947, it grew to around 710,000 members. Although

25256-422: Was dominated by Poporanism , an original ideology which partly reflected Narodnik influence, placed its focus on the peasantry (as it notably did with the early advocacy of cooperative farming by Ion Mihalache 's Peasants' Party ), and usually strongly supported the post-1919 territorial status quo—although they tended to oppose the centralized system it had come to imply. (In turn, the early conflict between

25420-423: Was first effected through the SovRoms (created in the summer of 1945), directing the bulk of Romanian trade towards the Soviet Union. The Communist Party held its first open conference (16–22 October 1945, at the Mihai Viteazul High School in Bucharest ) and agreed to replace the Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej – Constantin Pîrvulescu – Iosif Rangheț troika with a joint leadership reflecting an uneasy balance between

25584-454: Was ignored. The spread of Romantic nationalism throughout Europe in the 19th century affected the Romanians as well. The Wallachian uprising of 1821 , led by Tudor Vladimirescu , has been described by scholars as espousing an early version of Romanian nationalism. The closely related 1848 revolts in Wallachia and Moldavia (part of the broader European revolutions of 1848 ) also had nationalist overtones. Transylvanian Romanians during

25748-403: Was introduced in 1929 by the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , as the party's guiding ideology and would remain so through much of its existence. In 1948, the Communist Party absorbed the Romanian Social Democratic Party and attracted various new members. In the early 1950s, the group around Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej , with support from Stalin, defeated all other factions and achieved full control over

25912-430: Was officially renamed by Nicolae Ceaușescu , who had just been elected secretary general. Other legal, political parties existed in Romania, but their influence was limited and they were subordinate to the constitutionally-authorised leading role of the PCR. All other legal parties and entities were part of the Communist-dominated National Front . The PCR was a communist party , organized based on democratic centralism ,

26076-458: Was persuaded by King Michael to form a second government which collapsed within weeks. General Nicolae Rădescu was asked to form a government and appointed Teohari Georgescu to the Ministry of the Interior , which allowed for the introduction of Communists into the security forces. The Communist Party subsequently launched a campaign against the Rădescu government, including the mass demonstration of 24 February that resulted in four deaths among

26240-425: Was published in Vienna in 1780. Following the annexation of Bessarabia by Russia in 1812, Moldavian was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia , used along with Russian, The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820. Bessarabia during the 1812–1918 era witnessed

26404-446: Was refounded in 1927, reuniting those opposed to communist policies). The establishment was linked with the socialist group's affiliation to the Comintern (just before the latter's Third Congress): after a delegation was sent to Bolshevist Russia , a group of moderates (including Ioan Flueraș , Iosif Jumanca , Leon Ghelerter , and Constantin Popovici ) left at different intervals beginning with January 1921. The party renamed itself

26568-421: Was to be Ana Pauker 's mission to take over and reshape the surviving structure. In 1940, Romania had to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria ( see Soviet occupation of Bessarabia , Treaty of Craiova ); in contrast with the general mood, the PCdR welcomed both gestures along the lines of its earlier activism. Official history, after ca. 1950, stated that

26732-419: Was trying to reach a satisfactory compromise with the Western Allies (and, together with the National Liberals' leader Dinu Brătianu , continued to back negotiations initiated by Antonescu and Barbu Știrbey with the United States and the United Kingdom). In early 1944, as the Red Army reached and crossed the Prut River during the Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive , the self-confidence and status gained by

26896-411: Was used until the late 19th century. The letter is the oldest testimony of Romanian epistolary style and uses a prevalent lexis of Latin origin. However, dating by watermarks has shown the Hurmuzaki Psalter is a copy from around the turn of the 16th century. The slow process of Romanian establishing itself as an official language, used in the public sphere, in literature and ecclesiastically, began in

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