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128-585: Under King Carol II , repressive measures against the Iron Guard gathered pace in the late 1930s; a cycle of violence on both sides left many dead, including Prime Minister Armand Călinescu and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , the Guard's founder and leader. After Carol abdicated in September 1940 and the Guard ascended to power, its members thirsted for revenge, seeking to eliminate those who had participated in

256-625: A medievalist , Byzantinist , Latinist , Slavist , art historian and philosopher of history . Holding teaching positions at the University of Bucharest , the University of Paris and several other academic institutions, Iorga was founder of the International Congress of Byzantine Studies and the Institute of South-East European Studies (ISSEE). His activity also included the transformation of Vălenii de Munte town into

384-507: A socialist poet (in Contemporanul ) and critic (in both Lupta and Literatură și Știință ). Also in 1890, Iorga married Maria Tasu, whom he was to divorce in 1900. He had previously been in love with an Ecaterina C. Botez, but, after some hesitation, decided to marry into the family of Junimea man Vasile Tasu, much better situated in the social circles. Xenopol, who was Iorga's matchmaker, also tried to obtain for Iorga

512-467: A "miserable pension of pittance"). Aged thirteen, while on extended visit to his maternal uncle Emanuel "Manole" Arghiropol, he also made his press debut with paid contributions to Arghiropol's Romanul newspaper, including anecdotes and editorial pieces on European politics. The year 1886 was described by Iorga as "the catastrophe of my school life in Botoșani": on temporary suspension for not having greeted

640-520: A "morning star" by the local press and deemed a "wonder of a man" by his teacher A. D. Xenopol , Iorga was honored by the faculty with a special banquet. Three academics (Xenopol, Nicolae Culianu , Ioan Caragiani ) formally brought Iorga to the attention of the Education Ministry, proposing him for the state-sponsored program which allowed academic achievers to study abroad. The interval witnessed Iorga's brief affiliation with Junimea ,

768-472: A 7 average which only entitled him to a substitute professor's position. The achievement, at age 23, was still remarkable in its context. The first of his lectures came later that year as personal insight on the historical method , Despre concepția actuală a istoriei și geneza ei ("On the Present-day Concept of History and Its Genesis"). He was again out of the country in 1895, visiting

896-454: A Bad Patriot"). His scholarly activities resulted in a second trip into Transylvania, a second portion of his Bistrița archives collection, the 11th Hurmuzachi volume, and two works on Early Modern Romanian history: Acte din secolul al XVI-lea relative la Petru Șchiopul ("16th Century Acts Relating to Peter the Lame") and Scurtă istorie a lui Mihai Viteazul ("A Short History of Michael

1024-584: A National Liberal one. The bloody outcome prompted the historian to author and make public a piece of social critique, the Neamul Românesc pamphlet Dumnezeu să-i ierte ("God Forgive Them"). The text, together with his program of agrarian conferences and his subscription lists for the benefit of victims' relatives again made him an adversary of the National Liberals, who referred to Iorga as an instigator. The historian did however struck

1152-400: A band of terrorists... I was reserving the punishment of those held at Jilava for the justice system of the country. But the street decreed otherwise, proceeding to implement justice itself". Sima replied that such a deed would not be repeated, to which Antonescu drew his attention to the fact that Nicolae Iorga 's safety was threatened by Legionaries and he should take steps to ensure no harm

1280-596: A chord with Stere, who had been made prefect of Iași County , and who, going against his party's wishes, inaugurated an informal collaboration between Iorga and the Poporanists. The political class as a whole was particularly apprehensive of Iorga's contacts with the League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians  [ ro ] and their common irredentist agenda, which risked undermining relations with

1408-522: A cultural and academic center. In parallel with his academic contributions, Nicolae Iorga was a prominent right-of-centre activist, whose political theory bridged conservatism, Romanian nationalism , and agrarianism . From Marxist beginnings, he switched sides and became a maverick disciple of the Junimea movement. Iorga later became a leadership figure at Sămănătorul , the influential literary magazine with populist leanings, and militated within

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1536-573: A file on the historian, informing Romanian Premier Sturdza about nationalist agitation. The perception that Iorga was a xenophobe also drew condemnation from more moderate traditionalist circles, in particular the Viața Literară weekly. Its panelists, Ilarie Chendi and young Eugen Lovinescu , ridiculed Iorga's claim of superiority; Chendi in particular criticized the rejection of writers based on their ethnic origin and not their ultimate merit (while alleging, to Iorga's annoyance, that Iorga himself

1664-577: A historical source. He published several new books in 1899: Manuscrise din biblioteci străine ("Manuscripts from Foreign Libraries", 2 vols.), Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ("Romanian Documents from the Bistrița Archives") and a French-language book on the Crusades , titled Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades ("Notes and Excerpts Covering the History of

1792-775: A hub of student activity, self-financed through the sale of postcards. Its success caused alarm in Austria-Hungary: Budapesti Hírlap newspaper described Iorga's school as an instrument for radicalizing Romanian Transylvanians. Iorga also alienated the main Romanian organizations in Transylvania: the Romanian National Party (PNR) dreaded his proposal to boycott the Diet of Hungary , particularly since PNR leaders were contemplating

1920-583: A lengthy scandal. The pieces often targeted senior scholars who, as favorites or activists of the National Liberal Party , opposed both Junimea and the Maiorescu-endorsed Conservative Party : his estranged friends Hasdeu and Tocilescu, as well as V. A. Urechia and Dimitrie Sturdza . The episode, described by Iorga himself as a stormy but patriotic debut in public affairs, prompted his adversaries at

2048-485: A literary club with conservative leanings, whose informal leader was literary and political theorist Titu Maiorescu . In 1890, literary critic Ștefan Vârgolici and cultural promoter Iacob Negruzzi published Iorga's essay on poet Veronica Micle in the Junimist tribune Convorbiri Literare . Having earlier attended the funeral of writer Ion Creangă , a dissident Junimist and Romanian literature classic, he took

2176-702: A loyalist "Greater Austria" devolution project . The consequences hit Iorga in May 1909, when he was stopped from visiting Bukovina, officially branded a persona non grata , and expelled from Austrian soil (in June, it was made illegal for Bukovinian schoolteachers to attend Iorga's lectures). A month later, Iorga greeted in Bucharest the English scholar R.W. Seton-Watson . This noted critic of Austria-Hungary became Iorga's admiring friend, and helped popularize his ideas in

2304-609: A parliamentary vote. Parliament was initially suspended and reinstated only later, in 1946. Michael I was crowned and anointed by the Orthodox Patriarch , Nicodim Munteanu , in the Patriarchal Cathedral of Bucharest , on the day of his second accession, 6 September 1940. However, legally, Michael I could not exercise much authority besides some prerogatives such as being the Supreme Head of

2432-464: A patriotic essay by Ferdinand's wife Marie of Edinburgh . The heightened sense of crisis prompted Iorga to issue appeals against defeatism and reissue Neamul Românesc from Iași, explaining: "I realized at once what moral use could come out of this for the thousands of discouraged and disillusioned people and against the traitors who were creeping up all over the place." The goal was again reflected in his complementary lectures (where he discussed

2560-511: A public stand against the defamation of another such figure, the dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale , groundlessly accused of plagiarism by journalist Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion . He expanded his contribution as an opinion journalist, publishing with some regularity in various local or national periodicals of various leanings, from the socialist Contemporanul and Era Nouă to Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu 's Revista Nouă . This period saw his debut as

2688-414: A referendum to restore the monarchy, with around half the population (in early 2018) believing monarchy to be a better organisational form than a republic. This is a graphical lifespan timeline of Kings, Heirs and Claimants to the Romanian throne . The kings, the heirs and the claimants are listed in chronological order. Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940)

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2816-537: A regular basis, until ca. 1936. He was reelected to the lower chamber in the June 1918 election , becoming President of the body and, due to the rapid political developments, the first person to hold this office in the history of Greater Romania . The year also brought his participation alongside Allied envoys in the 360th anniversary of Michael the Brave's birth. On 1 December, later celebrated as Great Union Day , Iorga

2944-528: A source of "darkness and slavery", whereas the more liberal regime of Bukovina offered its subjects "golden chains". Nicolae Iorga ran in the 1905 election and won a seat in Parliament 's lower chamber . He remained politically independent until 1906, when he attached himself to the Conservative Party, making one final attempt to change the course of Junimism . His move was contrasted by

3072-479: A special dispensation from the Kingdom of Romania 's Education Ministry , and, as a result, applied for and passed his third term examinations, effectively graduating one year ahead of his class. Before the end of the year, he also passed his license examination magna cum laude , with a thesis on Greek literature , an achievement which consecrated his reputation inside both academia and the public sphere. Hailed as

3200-583: A teacher, Iorga opted to leave the city and apply for the National High School of Iași , being received into the scholarship program and praised by his new principal, the philologist Vasile Burlă . Iorga was already fluent in French, Italian, Latin and Greek; he later referred to Greek studies as "the most refined form of human reasoning". By age seventeen, Iorga was becoming more rebellious. He first grew interested in political activities for

3328-626: A teaching position at Iași University. The attempt was opposed by other professors, on grounds of Iorga's youth and politics. Instead, Iorga was briefly a high school professor of Latin in the southern city of Ploiești , following a public competition overseen by writer Alexandru Odobescu . The time he spent there allowed him to expand his circle of acquaintances and personal friends, meeting writers Caragiale and Alexandru Vlahuță , historians Hasdeu and Grigore Tocilescu , and Marxist theorist Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea . Having received

3456-507: A wave of Francophobia among young urbanites, Iorga boycotted the National Theater , punishing its staff for staging a play entirely in French, and disturbing public order. According to one of Iorga's young disciples, the future journalist Pamfil Șeicaru , the mood was such that Iorga could have led a successful coup d'état . These events had several political consequences. The Siguranța Statului intelligence agency soon opened

3584-599: Is sometimes credited as a tutor to Crown Prince Carol (future King Carol II), who reportedly attended the Vălenii school. In his October 1915 polemic with Vasile Sion , a Germanophile physician, Iorga at once justified suspicion of the German Romanians and praised those Romanians who were deserting the Austrian Army . The Ententists' focus on Transylvania pitted them against the Poporanists, who deplored

3712-619: The Army and designating a plenipotentiary prime minister Conducător ("Leader"). On 23 August 1944, with the Soviet Army already deep inside Romania's territory , Michael I deposed the German -allied dictator Ion Antonescu at the urging of the opposition parties and aligned the country with the Allies . Helped by the presence of Soviet forces, communists gradually took control of

3840-637: The Bucharest Treaty , an effective armistice. The conditions were judged humiliating by Iorga ("Our ancestors would have preferred death"); he refused to regain his University of Bucharest chair. The German authorities in Bucharest reacted by blacklisting the historian. Iorga only returned to Bucharest as Romania resumed its contacts with the Allies and the Deutsches Heer left the country. The political uncertainty ended by late autumn, when

3968-567: The Byzantine Empire . At home, he and pupil Vasile Pârvan were involved in a conflict with fellow historian Orest Tafrali , officially over archeological theory, but also because of a regional conflict in academia: Bucharest and Transylvania against Tafrali's Iași. A seminal moment in Iorga's political career took place during the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt , erupting under a Conservative cabinet and repressed with much violence by

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4096-558: The Cantacuzinos and the Craiovești is questioned by other researchers. Iorga is generally believed to have been born on 17 January 1871, although his birth certificate provides a date of 6 June. In 1876, aged thirty-seven or thirty-eight, Nicu Sr. died of an unknown illness, orphaning Nicolae and his younger brother George. Nicolae would later write that the loss of his father dominated the image he had of his childhood. In 1878, he

4224-642: The Cantacuzinos "), Istoriile domnilor Țării Românești ("The Histories of Wallachian Princes"). Iorga was by then making known his newly found interest in cultural nationalism and national didacticism , as expressed by him in an open letter to Goga's Budapest-based Luceafărul magazine. After further interventions from Goga and linguist Sextil Pușcariu , Luceafărul became Iorga's main mouthpiece outside Romania. Returning to Bucharest in 1903, Iorga followed Lamprecht's suggestion and focused on writing his first overview of Romanian national history, known in Romanian as Istoria românilor ("The History of

4352-614: The Hurmuzachi brothers collection of historical documents, the position being granted to him by the Romanian Academy . The appointment, first proposed to the institution by Xenopol, overlapped with disputes over the Hurmuzachi inheritance, and came only after Iorga's formal pledge that he would renounce all potential copyrights resulting from his contribution. He also published the second part of Acte și fragmente and

4480-516: The League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians  [ ro ] , and personally organized the large pro-Entente rallies in Bucharest. A prudent anti-Austrian, Iorga adopted the interventionist agenda with noted delay. His hesitation was ridiculed by hawkish Eugen Lovinescu as pro-Transylvanian but anti-war , costing Iorga his office in the Cultural League. The historian later confessed that, like Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu and

4608-468: The League for the Cultural Unity of All Romanians  [ ro ] , founding vocally conservative publications such as Neamul Românesc , Drum Drept , Cuget Clar and Floarea Darurilor . His support for the cause of ethnic Romanians in Austria-Hungary made him a prominent figure in the pro- Entente camp by the time of World War I , and ensured him a special political role during

4736-910: The Moldavian Prince Peter the Lame , his son Ștefăniță, and Romania's national hero, the Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave . He also met, befriended and often collaborated with fellow historians from European countries other than Romania: the editors of Revue de l'Orient Latin , who first published studies Iorga later grouped in the six volumes of Notes et extraits ("Notices and Excerpts") and Frantz Funck-Brentano , who enlisted his parallel contribution for Revue Critique . Iorga's articles were also featured in two magazines for ethnic Romanian communities in Austria-Hungary : Familia and Vatra . Making his comeback to Romania in October 1894, Iorga settled in

4864-516: The Ottoman Empire was recognized in 1878 by the Treaty of Berlin . In an expression of full sovereignty , the principality was elevated to a kingdom in 1881, with Carol I becoming King of Romania. Carol I died in 1914, and was succeeded by his nephew, Ferdinand I . In 1927, Ferdinand I died, and the country was left in the care of a regency headed by Prince Nicholas of Romania , during

4992-448: The Ottoman Empire . Alexander I became domnitor (ruling prince) after the official unification of the two formerly separate states, being elected prince of both states in 1859. He was deposed in 1866 by a broad coalition of the main political parties, after which parliament offered the throne to Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen who subsequently became the new "Domnitor of Romania" (as Carol I ). Romania's independence from

5120-753: The Second Balkan War , during which Romania fought alongside Serbia and against the Kingdom of Bulgaria . The subsequent taking of Southern Dobruja , supported by Maiorescu and the Conservatives, was seen by Iorga as callous and imperialistic . Iorga's interest in the Balkan crisis was illustrated by two of the forty books he put out that year: Istoria statelor balcanice ("The History of Balkan States") and Notele unui istoric cu privire la evenimentele din Balcani ("A Historian's Notes on

5248-422: The University of Berlin 's PhD program. His working paper, on Thomas III of Saluzzo , was not received, because Iorga had not spent three years in training, as required. As an alternative, he gave formal pledge that the paper in question was entirely his own work, but his statement was invalidated by technicality: Iorga's work had been redacted by a more proficient speaker of German, whose intervention did not touch

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5376-605: The "national principle") and a new set of works; these featured musings on the Allied commitment ( Relations des Roumains avec les Alliès , "The Romanians' Relations with the Allies"; Histoire des relations entre la France et les roumains , "The History of Relations between France and the Romanians"), the national character ( Sufletul românesc , "The Romanian Soul") or columns against the loss of morale ( Armistițiul , "The Armistice"). His ideal of moral regeneration through

5504-585: The "old" historians and the Junimists , Iorga was still active at the forefront of historical research. In 1904, he published the historical geography work Drumuri și orașe din România ("Roads and Towns of Romania") and, upon the special request of National Liberal Education Minister Spiru Haret , a work dedicated to the celebrated Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great , published upon the 400th anniversary of

5632-502: The 15 minutes the massacre lasted. Among those assassinated were former Prime Minister Gheorghe Argeșanu (who had presided over the reprisals following Armand Călinescu's assassination), former Justice Minister Victor Iamandi , former Bucharest police prefect and interior minister Gabriel Marinescu , several high-ranking officers of the Gendarmerie, including its head inspector General Ioan Bengliu , Colonel Zeciu (who had organised

5760-625: The 18th Century"). It was presented to the academy's consideration, but rejected, prompting the scholar to resign in protest. To receive his imprimatur later in the year, Iorga appealed to fellow intellectuals, earning pledges and a sizable grant from the aristocratic Callimachi family . Before the end of that year, the Iorgas were in the Austro-Hungarian city of Budapest . While there, the historian set up tight contacts with Romanian intellectuals who originated from Transylvania and who, in

5888-623: The 300th commemoration of Prince Michael's death, which ethnic Romanian students transformed into a rally against Austro-Hungarian educational restrictions, Iorga addressed the crowds and was openly greeted by the protest's leaders, poet Octavian Goga and Orthodox priest Ioan Lupaș . In 1902, he published new tracts on Transylvanian or Wallachian topics: Legăturile Principatelor române cu Ardealul ("The Romanian Principalities' Links with Transylvania"), Sate și preoți din Ardeal ("Priests and Villages of Transylvania"), Despre Cantacuzini ("On

6016-799: The Age of Reforms"), a book on the 1859 Moldo–Wallachian Union ( Unirea principatelor , "The Principalities' Union"), and a critical edition of poems by Eminescu. Visiting Iași for the Union Jubilee, Iorga issued a public and emotional apology to Xenopol for having criticized him in the previous decade. At that stage in his life, Iorga became an honorary member of the Romanian Writers' Society . He had militated for its creation in both Sămănătorul and Neamul Românesc , but also wrote against its system of fees. Once liberated from government restriction in 1909, his Vălenii school grew into

6144-558: The Allied victory on the Western Front sealed Germany's defeat. Celebrating the Compiègne Armistice , Iorga wrote: "There can be no greater day for the entire world". Iorga however found that Bucharest had become "a filthy hell under lead skies." His celebrated return also included the premiere of Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare at the National Theater , which continued to host productions of his dramatic texts on

6272-504: The Austrians over Transylvania and Bukovina. However, Iorga's popularity was still increasing, and, carried by this sentiment, he was first elected to Chamber during the elections of that same year . Iorga and his new family had relocated several times, renting a home in Bucharest's Gara de Nord (Buzești) quarter. After renewed but failed attempts to become an Iași University professor, he decided, in 1908, to set his base away from

6400-620: The Austro-Hungarian Army and briefly occupied much of the region. However, following a massive counterattack on multiple fronts by the Central Powers, the campaign ended in massive defeat, forcing the Romanian Army and the entire administration to evacuate the southern areas, Bucharest included, in front of a German-led invasion. Iorga's home in Vălenii de Munte was among the property items left behind and seized by

6528-630: The Balkan Events"). Noted among the others is the study focusing on the early 18th century reign of Wallachian Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu ( Viața și domnia lui Constantin vodă Brâncoveanu , "The Life and Rule of Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu"). That same year, Iorga issued the first series of his Drum Drept monthly, later merged with the Sămănătorist magazine Ramuri . Iorga managed to publish roughly as many new titles in 1914,

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6656-435: The Brave"). His controversial public attitude had nevertheless attracted an official ban on his Academy reports, and also meant that he was ruled out from the national Academy prize (for which distinction he had submitted Documente românești din arhivele Bistriței ). The period also witnessed a chill in the Iorga's relationship with Xenopol. In 1901, shortly after his divorce from Maria, Iorga married Ecaterina (Catinca),

6784-554: The Bucharest Prefect of Police in charge of the Legionary squads guarding the prisoners, believed Antonescu had changed his mind about executing those responsible for Codreanu's death and refused to comply with the order. This alerted the military authorities, who decided to replace the squads with regular military guards and move the prisoners themselves. Zăvoianu was informed of this decision on November 26, and that night

6912-609: The Carlist regime, including former prime ministers Constantin Argetoianu and Gheorghe Tătărescu (saved by the quick intervention of Lt. Col. Alexandru Rioșanu), former prime minister Ion Gigurtu (saved by Sima) and former ministers Mihail Ghelmegeanu and Nicolae Marinescu; they were brought to the Police Prefecture with the intention of executing them, but spirited away to safety in the heavily fortified building of

7040-410: The Crusades", 2 vols.). Xenopol proposed his pupil for a Romanian Academy membership, to replace the suicidal Odobescu, but his proposition could not gather support. Also in 1899, Nicolae Iorga inaugurated his contribution to the Bucharest-based French-language newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine , publishing polemical articles on the activity of his various colleagues and, as a consequence, provoking

7168-446: The English-speaking world. In 1910, the year when he toured the Old Kingdom 's conference circuit, Nicolae Iorga again rallied with Cuza to establish the explicitly antisemitic Democratic Nationalist Party . Partly building on the antisemitic component of the 1907 revolts, its doctrines depicted the Jewish-Romanian community and Jews in general as a danger for Romania's development. During its early decades, it used as its symbol

7296-400: The Entente , Iorga expressed his joy in a piece named Ceasul ("The Hour"): "the hour we have been expecting for over two centuries, for which we have been living our entire national life, for which we have been working and writing, fighting and thinking, has at long last arrived." The Romanian campaign initially went well, as the Romanian Army penetrated deep into Transylvania, defeated

7424-460: The Great's Resurrection") and Un domn pribeag ("An Outcast Prince"). Additionally, Iorga produced the first of several studies dealing with Balkan geopolitics in the charged context leading up to the Balkan Wars ( România, vecinii săi și chestia Orientală , "Romania, Her Neighbors and the Eastern Question "). He also made a noted contribution to ethnography , with Portul popular românesc (" Romanian Folk Dress "). In 1913, Iorga

7552-435: The Guard inaugurated its own National Legionary dictatorship, but was ultimately assassinated by a Guardist commando . Nicolae Iorga was born in Botoșani into a family of Greek origin. His father, Nicu Iorga, was a practicing lawyer; he ultimately descended from a Greek merchant who had settled in Botoșani in the 18th century five generations before Nicolae Iorga's birth. His mother, Zulnia Iorga ( née Arghiropol),

7680-527: The Guard. The court ordered the arrest of those to be investigated, had them imprisoned at Jilava , and entrusted them to the custody of special Legionary formations, described by Alexandru Creţianu as "nothing less than an improvised version of the SS strong-arm squads". The investigation underway, the court, wishing to obtain testimony from the detainees in order to prepare for their trials, ordered several of them to be transferred to another jail, where their depositions would be taken. However, Ștefan Zăvoianu,

7808-458: The Hungarian Land"), Negoțul și meșteșugurile în trecutul românesc ("Trade and Crafts of the Romanian Past") etc. In 1907, he began issuing a second periodical, the cultural magazine Floarea Darurilor , and published with Editura Minerva an early installment of his companion to Romanian literature (second volume 1908, third volume 1909). His published scientific contributions for that year include, among others, an English-language study on

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7936-530: The Interior Ministry. Codreanu, whose body was discovered on November 25, was reburied on November 30, along with the Decemviri and Nicadori . The Guard would claim that the assassins acted solely out of fury and a desire for revenge (the remains of their hero were being unearthed a short distance away as the massacre proceeded), and while the discovery doubtless stirred them to action, the procurement of arms and prison plans involved detailed planning that took time and premeditation. In July 1941, Zăvoianu, along with

8064-421: The National Liberal cabinet, he had been waiting for a better moment to strike. In the end, his "Ententist" efforts were closely supported by public figures such as Alexandru I. Lapedatu and Ion Petrovici , as well as by Take Ionescu 's National Action advocacy group. Iorga was also introduced to the private circle of Romania's young King , Ferdinand I , whom he found well-intentioned but weak-willed. Iorga

8192-519: The Netherlands and, again, Italy, in search of documents, publishing the first section of his extended historical records' collection Acte și fragmente cu privire la istoria românilor ("Acts and Excerpts Regarding the History of Romanians"), his Romanian Atheneum conference on Michael the Brave's rivalry with condottiero Giorgio Basta , and his debut in travel literature ( Amintiri din Italia , "Recollections from Italy"). The next year came Iorga's official appointment as curator and publisher of

8320-437: The Romanian Military") and Stephen the Great's Orthodox profile ( Ștefan cel Mare și mănăstirea Neamțului , "Stephen the Great and Neamț Monastery "). His academic activity also resulted in a lengthy conflict with art historian Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș , his godfather and former friend, sparked when Iorga, defending his own academic postings, objected to making Art History a separate subject at University. Reinstated into

8448-466: The Romanians (Romanian: Regele Românilor ) was the title of the monarch of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when the Romanian Workers' Party proclaimed the Romanian People's Republic following Michael I 's forced abdication . The state had been internationally recognized as a principality since 1862, after the creation of the United Principalities , a personal union between Moldavia and Wallachia , at that time vassal states of

8576-399: The Romanians of Bessarabia. That region, the Poporanist lobby argued, was being actively oppressed by the Russian Empire with the acquiescence of other Entente powers. Poporanist theorist Garabet Ibrăileanu , editor of Viața Românească review, later accused Iorga of not ever speaking in support of the Bessarabians. Political themes were again reflected in Nicolae Iorga's 1915 report to

8704-569: The Romanians"), as well as a volume on literary history and Romanian philosophy , Faze sufletești și cărți reprezentative la români ("Spiritual Phases and Relevant Books of the Romanians"). Before spring 1916, he was commuting between Bucharest and Iași, substituting the ailing Xenopol at Iași University. He also gave a final touch to the collection Studii și documente ("Studies and Documents"), comprising his commentary on 30,000 individual documents and spread over 31 tomes. In late summer 1916, as Brătianu's government sealed an alliance with

8832-488: The Romanians"). He was also involved in a new project of researching the content of archives throughout Moldavia and Wallachia, and, having reassessed the nationalist politics of Junimist poet Mihai Eminescu , helped collect and publish a companion to Eminescu's work. Also in 1903, Nicolae Iorga became one of the managers of Sămănătorul review. The moment brought Iorga's emancipation from Maiorescu's influence, his break with mainstream Junimism , and his affiliation to

8960-458: The academy ( Dreptul la viață al statelor mici , "The Small States' Right to Exist") and in various of the 37 books he published that year: Istoria românilor din Ardeal și Ungaria ("The History of the Romanians in Transylvania and Hungary"), Politica austriacă față de Serbia ("The Austrian Policy on Serbia") etc. Also in 1915, Iorga completed his economic history treatise, Istoria comerțului la români ("The History of Commerce among

9088-407: The academy and made a full member, he gave his May 1911 reception speech with a philosophy of history subject ( Două concepții istorice , "Two Historical Outlooks") and was introduced on the occasion by Xenopol. In August of that year, he was again in Transylvania, at Blaj , where he paid homage to the Romanian-run ASTRA Cultural Society . He made his first contribution to Romanian drama with

9216-608: The academy to demand the termination of his membership for undignified behavior. Tocilescu felt insulted by the allegations, challenged Iorga to a duel, but his friends intervened to mediate. Another scientist who encountered Iorga's wrath was George Ionescu-Gion , against whom Iorga enlisted negative arguments that, as he later admitted, were exaggerated. Among Iorga's main defenders were academics Dimitrie Onciul , N. Petrașcu , and, outside Romania, Gustav Weigand . The young polemicist persevered in supporting this anti-establishment cause, moving on from L'Indépendance Roumaine to

9344-482: The administration. On 30 December 1947, King Michael I was forced to sign his abdication. The same day, Parliament proclaimed the country a people's republic. The young former king and former queen mother Elena were forced to leave Romania on January 3, 1948, in the royal train, at the request of the communist-dominated government . Royal properties were nationalized later that year. After the Revolution of 1989 ,

9472-709: The capital city of Bucharest . He changed residence several times, until eventually settling in Grădina Icoanei area. He agreed to compete in a sort of debating society, with lectures which only saw print in 1944. He applied for the Medieval History Chair at the University of Bucharest , submitting a dissertation in front of an examination commission comprising historians and philosophers (Caragiani, Odobescu, Xenopol, alongside Aron Densușianu , Constantin Leonardescu and Petre Râșcanu ), but totaled

9600-484: The cause of Romanian irredentism became a leading characteristic of his biography during World War I . In 1915, while Romania was still keeping neutral, he sided with the dominant nationalist, Francophile and pro- Entente camp, urging for Romania to wage war on the Central Powers as a means of obtaining Transylvania, Bukovina and other regions held by Austria-Hungary; to this goal, he became an active member of

9728-497: The creation of Greater Romania, Iorga was focusing his public activity on exposing collaborators of the wartime occupiers. The subject was central to a 1919 speech he held in front of the academy, where he obtained the public condemnation of actively Germanophile academicians, having earlier vetoed the membership of Poporanist Constantin Stere . He failed at enlisting support for the purge of Germanophile professors from University, but

9856-631: The essay Gânduri și sfaturi ale unui om ca oricare altul ("Thoughts and Advices from a Man Just like Any Other"). He also paid a visit to the Romanians of Bukovina region, in Austrian territory, as well as to those of Bessarabia, who were subjects of the Russian Empire , and wrote about their cultural struggles in his 1905 accounts Neamul romănesc în Bucovina ("The Romanian People of Bukovina"), Neamul romănesc în Basarabia ("...of Bessarabia"). These referred to Tsarist autocracy as

9984-566: The first time but displayed convictions which he later strongly disavowed; a self-described Marxist , Iorga promoted the left-wing magazine Viața Socială and lectured on Das Kapital . Seeing himself confined in the National College's "ugly and disgusting" boarding school, he defied its rules and was suspended a second time, losing scholarship privileges. Before readmission, he decided not to fall back on his family's financial support and instead returned to tutoring others. Iorga

10112-693: The former Legionary police officers Gheorghe Crețu, Octavian Marcu, Constantin Savu, and Ioan Tănăsescu, and the Legionary Dumitru Anghel, were sentenced to death and shot for perpetrating the massacre. That month, Dumitru Grozea and thirteen of his accomplices, mainly former police officers and Iorga's assassins, were condemned to death in absentia . 44°20′06″N 26°06′27″E  /  44.33500°N 26.10750°E  / 44.33500; 26.10750 King of Romania The King of Romania ( Romanian : Regele României ) or King of

10240-516: The former king visited Romania to an enthusiastic reception in the streets of Bucharest ; the royal estates and properties in Romania were restored. However, the country preserved its republican character. The former king was respected and recognized by the Parliament. His grandson regularly visits different organisations in Romania. Princess Margareta and her husband bestow royal orders in

10368-464: The four-year engagement of his scholarship still applicable, Nicolae Iorga decided to spend his remaining time abroad, researching more city archives in Germany (Munich), Austria (Innsbruck) and Italy (Florence, Milan, Naples, Rome, Venice etc.) In this instance, his primordial focus was on historical figures from his Romanian homeland, the defunct Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia :

10496-611: The group of left-nationalists from the Poporanist faction, who were allied to the National Liberals and, soon after, in open conflict with Iorga. Although from the same cultural family as Sămănătorul , the Poporanist theorist Constantin Stere was dismissed by Iorga's articles, despite Sadoveanu's attempts to settle the matter. A peak in Nicolae Iorga's own nationalist campaigning occurred that year: profiting from

10624-659: The historical sources, at archives in Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. Between 1890 and the end of 1893, he had published three works: his debut in poetry ( Poezii , "Poems"), the first volume of Schițe din literatura română ("Sketches on Romanian Literature", 1893; second volume 1894), and his Leipzig thesis, printed in Paris as Thomas III, marquis �de Saluces. Étude historique et littéraire ("Thomas, Margrave of Saluzzo. Historical and Literary Study"). Living in poor conditions (as reported by visiting scholar Teohari Antonescu ),

10752-426: The interwar existence of Greater Romania . Initiator of large-scale campaigns to defend Romanian culture in front of perceived threats, Iorga sparked most controversy with his antisemitic rhetoric, and was for long an associate of the far-right ideologue A. C. Cuza . He was an adversary of the dominant National Liberals , later involved with the opposition Romanian National Party . Later in his life, Iorga opposed

10880-536: The introductory volumes for his German-language companion to Ottoman history ( Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches , "History of the Ottoman Empire"), a study on Romanian Orthodox institutions ( Istoria bisericii românești , "The History of the Romanian Church"), and an anthology on Romanian Romanticism . He followed up in 1909 with a volume of parliamentary speeches, În era reformelor ("In

11008-502: The killing of Codreanu and thirteen other Legionnaires), Majors Aristide Macoveanu and Iosif Dinulescu (who had prepared and carried out the killing), Staff Sergeant Sârbu (who had actually tightened the wire around Codreanu's neck, strangling him), as well as Mihail Vârfureanu (a former Legionnaire who turned informant and was responsible for female Guardist Nicoleta Nicolescu's assassination). Also killed were former Chief of Secret Police Mihail Moruzov and his deputy, Niki Ștefănescu, who

11136-522: The latter immediately called a special meeting of the Council of Ministers, demanding that the government and the Legion issue a joint public statement disassociating themselves from and condemning the recent events. When asked why they did not attempt to prevent bloodshed, the Legionary ministers denied having any foreknowledge and tried to act as surprised as anyone else. Still, they all attempted to justify

11264-629: The military: "May the dogs of this world feast on us sooner than to find our happiness, tranquility and prosperity granted by the hostile foreigner." He did however allow some of his notebooks to be stored in Moscow, along with the Romanian Treasure , and sheltered his own family in Odessa. Iorga, who reissued Neamul Românesc in Iași, resumed his activity at Iași University and began working on

11392-434: The monarch's death as Istoria lui Ștefan cel Mare ("The History of Stephen the Great"). Iorga later confessed that the book was an integral part of his and Haret's didacticist agenda, supposed to be "spread to the very bottom of the country in thousands of copies". During those months, Iorga also helped discover novelist Mihail Sadoveanu , who was for a while the leading figure of Sămănătorist literature. In 1905,

11520-407: The murders, claiming it was the general impression among Legionaries that the court had no intention of punishing any of the accused, whom they assumed would eventually go free. Antonescu, unswayed, declared that: "the handful of reprobates who have committed this crime will be punished in an exemplary manner. I will not allow that the country and the future of the nation be compromised by the action of

11648-456: The name of the former king for selected Romanians. The royal house is still popular and in 2014 Prime Minister Victor Ponta promised a referendum on whether or not to reinstate the monarchy if he were re-elected. A square was named in honour of the ex-king in 2012. Following the death of the former king in 2017, and the largely positive reaction of the crowds to the royal family at his funeral, Romanian politicians have discussed whether to hold

11776-557: The newly established publication România Jună , interrupting himself for trips to Italy, the Netherlands and Galicia-Lodomeria . In 1900, he collected the scattered polemical articles into the French-language books Opinions sincères. La vie intellectuelle des roumains en 1899 ("Honest Opinions. The Romanians' Intellectual Life in 1899") and Opinions pérnicieuses d'un mauvais patriote ("The Pernicious Opinions of

11904-527: The occupiers, and, according to Iorga's own claim, was vandalized by the Deutsches Heer . Still a member of Parliament, Iorga joined the authorities in the provisional capital of Iași, but opposed the plans of relocating government out of besieged Moldavia and into the Russian Republic . The argument was made in one of his parliamentary speeches, printed as a pamphlet and circulated among

12032-404: The order to shoot at around 11:45 p.m., whereupon each executioner was sent to a particular cell, ordered the prisoners to stand and shot them. The executioners then gathered before the guards; together they went and paid homage before Codreanu's remains. In all, 64 people were killed in the 19 cells of the prison. Each victim was shot at least twice; in all, some 579 bullets were fired during

12160-427: The play centered on, and named after, Michael the Brave ( Mihai Viteazul ), one of around twenty new titles for that year—alongside his collected aphorisms ( Cugetări , "Musings") and a memoir of his life in culture ( Oameni cari au fost , "People Who Are Gone"). In 1912, he published, among other works, Trei drame ("Three Dramatic Plays"), grouping Mihai Viteazul, Învierea lui Ștefan cel Mare ("Stephen

12288-565: The printed rendition of the de Mézières study ( Philippe de Mézières, 1337–1405 ). Following an October 1895 reexamination, he was granted full professorship with a 9.19 average. 1895 was also the year when Iorga began his collaboration with the Iași-based academic and political agitator A. C. Cuza, making his earliest steps in antisemitic politics, founding with him a group known as the Universal ()and Romanian Antisemitic Alliance. In 1897,

12416-537: The radically fascist Iron Guard , and, after much oscillation, came to endorse its rival King Carol II . Involved in a personal dispute with the Guard's leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , and indirectly contributing to his killing, Iorga was also a prominent figure in Carol's corporatist and authoritarian party, the National Renaissance Front . He remained an independent voice of opposition after

12544-440: The reign of Ferdinand's young grandson, Michael I (who was only six years old at the time), his father ( Carol II ) having renounced his rights to the throne in 1925. Carol II, unlike Carol I, in the beginning had no desire to rule Romania, and was frequently out of the country exploring the rest of Europe with his mistress. Michael's first reign would be short lived at only three years, until his father Carol II came back to contest

12672-490: The results as reports for the academy, Iorga was in Transylvania , the largely Romanian-inhabited subregion of Austria-Hungary. Concentrating his efforts on the city archives of Bistrița , Brașov and Sibiu , he made a major breakthrough by establishing that Stolnic Cantacuzino , a 17th-century man of letters and political intriguer, was the real author of an unsigned Wallachian chronicle that had for long been used as

12800-525: The right-facing swastika (卐), promoted by Cuza as the symbol of worldwide antisemitism and, later, of the " Aryans ". Also known as PND, this was Romania's first political group to represent the petty bourgeoisie , using its votes to challenge the tri-decennial two-party system . Also in 1910, Iorga published some thirty new works, covering gender history ( Viața femeilor în trecutul românesc , "The Early Life of Romanian Women"), Romanian military history ( Istoria armatei românești , "The History of

12928-819: The scholarship early in the year, he made his first study trips to Italy (April and June 1890), and subsequently left for a longer stay in France, enlisting at the École pratique des hautes études . He was a contributor for the Encyclopédie française , personally recommended there by Slavist Louis Léger . Reflecting back on this time, he stated: "I never had as much time at my disposal, as much freedom of spirit, as much joy of learning from those great figures of mankind ... than back then, in that summer of 1890". While preparing for his second diploma, Iorga also pursued his interest in philology, learning English, German, and rudiments of other Germanic languages. In 1892, he

13056-644: The sister of his friend and colleague Ioan Bogdan . Her other brother was cultural historian Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică , whose son, painter Catul Bogdan , Iorga would help achieve recognition. Soon after their wedding, the couple were in Venice, where Iorga received Karl Gotthard Lamprecht's offer to write a history of the Romanians to be featured as a section in a collective treatise of world history. Iorga, who had convinced Lamprecht not to assign this task to Xenopol, also completed Istoria literaturii române în secolul al XVIII-lea ("The History of Romanian Literature in

13184-551: The squads shot dead every one of their charges: politicians, senior military officers, and policemen accused of complicity in Codreanu's arrest and execution. The 20-strong execution team, armed with semi-automatic Mauser pistols , was commanded by Dumitru Grozea, head of the Legionary Workers' Corps . Its members were aged between 18 and 25. Gheorghe Crețu, who killed 14 inmates, testified at his trial that Grozea gave

13312-570: The substance of Iorga's research. The ensuing controversy led him to apply for a University of Leipzig PhD: his text, once reviewed by a commission grouping three prominent German scholars ( Adolf Birch-Hirschfeld , Karl Gotthard Lamprecht , Charles Wachsmuth ), earned him the needed diploma in August. On 25 July, Iorga had also received his École pratique diploma for the earlier work on de Mézières, following its review by Gaston Paris and Charles Bémont . He spent his time further investigating

13440-551: The title at the behest of a dissatisfied political faction that staged a sudden ' coup d'état ' (in spite of the fact that only a few years earlier he had renounced in official documents, written and signed in front of his own father, all his future claims to the throne of Romania). After a ten-year rule, Carol II was forced to give up his crown in the wake of an outcry over the Second Vienna Award , which forced Romania to surrender northern Transylvania to Hungary. After

13568-687: The traditionalist, ethno-nationalist and neoromantic current encouraged by the magazine. The Sămănătorist school was by then also grouping other former or active Junimists , and Maiorescu's progressive withdrawal from literary life also created a bridge with Convorbiri Literare : its new editor, Simion Mehedinți , was himself a theorist of traditionalism. A circle of Junimists more sympathetic to Maiorescu's version of conservatism reacted against this realignment by founding its own venue, Convorbiri Critice , edited by Mihail Dragomirescu . In tandem with his full return to cultural and political journalism, which included prolonged debates with both

13696-543: The urban centers, at a villa in Vălenii de Munte town (nestled in the remote hilly area of Prahova County ). Although branded an agitator by Sturdza, he received support in this venture from Education Minister Haret. Once settled, Iorga set up a specialized summer school, his own publishing house, a printing press and the literary supplement of Neamul Românesc , as well as an asylum managed by writer Constanța Marino-Moscu . He published some 25 new works for that year, such as

13824-434: The various legal and illegal actions taken by the king's regime. The more restrained Antonescu sought punishment through legal means. Within his first month in power, he approved an official probe into all those who could not account for becoming wealthy very fast in the last years of Carol's rule, and established a special court to investigate crimes committed by the previous regime's principal figures, or in their name, against

13952-561: The wake of the Transylvanian Memorandum affair, supported ethnic nationalism while objecting to the intermediary Cisleithanian ( Hungarian Crown ) rule and the threat of Magyarization . Interested in recovering the Romanian contributions to Transylvanian history , in particular Michael the Brave's precursory role in Romanian unionism, Iorga spent his time reviewing, copying and translating Hungarian-language historical texts with much assistance from his wife. During

14080-404: The war effort came with an endorsement of land reform projects . Brătianu did not object to the idea, being however concerned that landowners would rebel. Iorga purportedly gave him a sarcastic reply: "just like you've been shooting the peasants to benefit the landowners, you'll then be shooting the landowners to benefit the peasants." In May 1918, Romania yielded to German demands and negotiated

14208-756: The war propaganda daily România , while contributing to R.W. Seton-Watson's international sheet The New Europe . His contribution for that year included a number of brochures dedicated to maintaining morale among soldiers and civilians: Războiul actual și urmările lui în viața morală a omenirii ("The Current War and Its Effects on the Moral Life of Mankind"), Rolul inițiativei private în viața publică ("The Role of Private Initiative in Public Life"), Sfaturi și învățături pentru ostașii României ("Advices and Teachings for Romania's Soldiers") etc. He also translated from English and printed My Country ,

14336-605: The war, he married his longtime mistress, Elena Lupescu . The couple ultimately settled in Portugal, and the "playboy king" never returned to Romania. The kingdom of Romania was a constitutional monarchy for most of its existence with the exception of 1938–1944, during the dictatorships of Carol II (1938–1940) and Ion Antonescu (1940–1944). On 23 August 1944, Michael I restored the last democratic royal Constitution of 1923 . However, during his second reign (1940–1947), Michael I reigned mostly as an extraconstitutional king, without

14464-578: The year when he received a Romanian Bene Merenti distinction, and inaugurated the international Institute of South-East European Studies or ISSEE (founded through his efforts), with a lecture on Albanian history . Again invited to Italy, he spoke at the Ateneo Veneto on the relations between the Republic of Venice and the Balkans, and again about Settecento culture. His attention

14592-579: The year when he was elected a corresponding member of the academy, Iorga traveled back to Italy and spent time researching more documents in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , at Dubrovnik . He also oversaw the publication of the 10th Hurmuzachi volume, grouping diplomatic reports authored by Kingdom of Prussia diplomats in the two Danubian Principalities (covering the interval between 1703 and 1844). After spending most of 1898 on researching various subjects and presenting

14720-675: The year when historian Onisifor Ghibu became his close friend and disciple, he followed up with over 23 individual titles, among them the two German-language volumes of Geschichte des Rümanischen Volkes im Rahmen seiner Staatsbildungen ("A History of the Romanian People within the Context of Its National Formation"), Istoria românilor în chipuri și icoane ("The History of the Romanians in Faces and Icons"), Sate și mănăstiri din România ("Villages and Monasteries of Romania") and

14848-403: Was a Greek). Iorga eventually parted with Sămănătorul in late 1906, moving on to set up his own tribune, Neamul Românesc . The schism was allegedly a direct result of his conflicts with other literary venues, and inaugurated a brief collaboration between Iorga and Făt Frumos journalist Emil Gârleanu . The newer magazine, illustrated with idealized portraits of the Romanian peasant,

14976-697: Was a Romanian politician who held top posts, including prime minister and president of the Senate . He was also a historian, literary critic, memoirist, albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament , President of the Deputies' Assembly , and cabinet minister. A child prodigy , polymath and polyglot , Iorga produced an unusually large body of scholarly works, establishing his international reputation as

15104-552: Was a woman of Phanariote Greek descent. Iorga claimed direct descent from the noble Mavrocordatos and Argyros families. He credited the five-generation- boyar status received from his father's side (e.g. the Miclescu and Catargi families) and the "old boyar " roots of his mother (e.g. the Mavrocordatos family) with having turned him into a politician. His parallel claim of being related to noble families such as

15232-493: Was done. Sima agreed, but by the end of the day was informed that Iorga, the venerable historian and former prime minister, had been murdered. Several Guard members had attacked him and Virgil Madgearu , secretary general of the National Peasants' Party , in their homes, kidnapped and shot them, and abandoned their bodies in a roadside ditch. Also on November 27, Zăvoianu and his men rounded up more leading figures of

15360-569: Was enlisted at the Marchian Folescu School, where he discovered a love for intellectual pursuits and took pride in excelling in most academic areas. At age nine, he was allowed by his teachers to lecture his schoolmates on Romanian history. His history teacher, a refugee Pole , sparked his interest in research and his lifelong polonophilia . Iorga also credited this period with having shaped his lifelong views on Romanian language and local culture: "I learned Romanian ... as it

15488-522: Was focused on the Albanians and Arbëreshë —Iorga soon discovered the oldest record of written Albanian , the 1462 Formula e pagëzimit . In 1916, he founded the Bucharest-based academic journal Revista Istorică ("The Historical Review"), a Romanian equivalent for Historische Zeitschrift and The English Historical Review . Nicolae Iorga's involvement in political disputes and

15616-624: Was in England and in Italy, researching historical sources for his French-language thesis on Philippe de Mézières , a Frenchman in the Crusade of 1365 . In tandem, he became a contributor to Revue Historique , a leading French academic journal. Somewhat dissatisfied with French education, Iorga presented his dissertation and, in 1893, left for the German Empire , attempting to enlist in

15744-593: Was in London for an International Congress of History, presenting a proposal for a new approach to medievalism and a paper discussing the sociocultural effects of the fall of Constantinople on Moldavia and Wallachia. He was later in the Kingdom of Serbia , invited by the Belgrade Academy and presenting dissertations on Romania–Serbia relations and the Ottoman decline . Iorga was even called under arms in

15872-688: Was participant in a seminal event of the union with Transylvania , as one of several thousand Romanians who gathered in the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia to demand union on the basis of self-determination . Despite these successes, Iorga was reportedly snubbed by King Ferdinand, and only left to rely on Brătianu for support. Although he was not invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference , he supported Queen Marie in her role of informal negotiator for Romania, and cemented his friendship with her. Shortly after

16000-526: Was shot 38 times. These two were not responsible for excesses against the Iron Guard, but in the past they paid many of its members, including Codreanu's successor as leader, Horia Sima , for services rendered as informants. Zăvoianu knew that the Legion would like to be rid of such inconvenient witnesses before any trials or investigations could take place. As a result of the massacre, the simmering power struggle between Sima and Antonescu reached crisis proportions. Informed of what had taken place on November 27,

16128-501: Was spoken back in the day: plainly, beautifully and above all resolutely and colorfully, without the intrusions of newspapers and best-selling books". He credited the 19th-century polymath Mihail Kogălniceanu , whose works he first read as a child, with having shaped this literary preference. Iorga enrolled in Botoșani's A. T. Laurian gymnasium in 1881, receiving top honors. In 1883, Iorga began tutoring some of his colleagues to supplement his family's main revenue (according to Iorga,

16256-399: Was suspended a third time for reading during a teacher's lesson but graduated in the top "first prize" category (with a 9.24 average) and subsequently took his Baccalaureate with honors. In 1888, Nicolae Iorga passed his entry examination for the University of Iași Faculty of Letters, becoming eligible for a scholarship soon after. Upon the completion of his second term, he also received

16384-548: Was widely popular with Romania's rural intelligentsia (among which it was freely distributed), promoting antisemitic theories and raising opprobrium from the authorities and the urban-oriented press. Also in 1906, Iorga traveled into the Ottoman Empire , visiting Istanbul , and published another set of volumes— Contribuții la istoria literară ("Contributions to Literary History"), Neamul românesc în Ardeal și Țara Ungurească ("The Romanian Nation in Transylvania and

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