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208-499: Promoting an idealized interpretation of local history , basing its aesthetic ideals on the work of national poet and conservative essayist Mihai Eminescu , the publication advertised itself as the voice of oppressed Romanians in Transylvania and other areas controlled by Austria-Hungary prior to World War I . Its irredentism , as well as its outspoken criticism of the political and cultural establishment, made Sămănătorul

416-564: A Sămănătorul contributor and even to have supported the 1906 campaign against French influence. For part of its existence, the magazine even hosted translations of texts by French Symbolists, decadents or Parnassians . While these associations were seen by George Călinescu as additional proof that Sămănătorul lacked a coherent program, Cernat discusses them as part of a wider transition at the end of which Symbolism reemerged as classical and assimilable. The internalized Symbolist tendency irritated Iorga, who, in 1905, used Sămănătorul to condemn

624-543: A May 1903 article titled O nouă epocă de cultură ("A New Cultural Epoch"), which called for setting up a national culture beyond social class distinctions, and referred to the "wicked monkey business" and spiritual "corruption" arriving from the Western world . He later took charge of a permanent Sămănătorul column, carrying the title Cronică ("Chronicle"). Iorga's other contributions were polemical pieces, targeting various of his colleagues who opposed what he defined as

832-585: A Roman campaign across the Balkan Mountains by Theophylact Simocatta and Theophanes the Confessor evidence the development of a Romance language in the late 6th century. The words were shouted "in native parlance" by a local soldier in 587 or 588. The 11th-century Persian writer, Gardizi , wrote about a Christian people "from the Roman Empire" called N.n.d.r , inhabiting the lands along

1040-611: A campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by Castra of Hinova , Rusidava and Castra of Pietroasele . The limes passed to

1248-412: A civilization that has alienated man from his natural, original existence." Such pronouncements on the matter were reported with critical detachment by historians: Veiga writes that the peasant promoted by Sămănătorul was "archaic and eternal, very 'decorative' and bucolic ", while Sandqvist refers to both Sămănătorists and Poporanists as producing "nationalistic anthems", "unctuous songs of praise to

1456-496: A conservative and nationalist, had been a maverick member of the Junimea literary club. Researcher Ioana Both describes the "reactionary" circle formed around the magazine as a main source for the "cult of Eminescu", as well as for some of the earliest Eminescu anthologies. In a 1903 article for the magazine, Iorga welcomed the publication of his posthumous writings as the revelation of a "new Eminescu", or "a complete man" opposed to

1664-530: A current", and that they compensated by publishing traditional authors such as Vlahuță. Sămănătorul also competed for the public's attention with the left-leaning populist movement, Poporanism —the latter owing some inspiration for its rural socialism to the Narodnik movement of the Russian Empire . Despite the generic disagreements, the two groups shared views on a number of topical issues, and even

1872-494: A favorite target of ridicule for the young modernist or avant-garde writers and artists. In Sandqvist's opinion, this answered to "a certain exclusivism" of the two established currents, which, he notes, only served to provoke "an avant-garde reaction." One of the first avant-garde magazines to host articles specifically aiming the traditionalist currents was Simbolul , published by Tristan Tzara , Ion Vinea and Marcel Janco in 1912. Vinea in particular followed up with attacks on

2080-491: A former Junimist somewhat close to traditionalist circles such as Vatra , found Sămănătorist literature amusing, and made it a target of his sarcasm. The left-leaning Henri Sanielevici , a pioneer of sociological criticism , was also known for setting up in 1905 the Galați -based review Curentul Nou , which was in large part dedicated to anti- Sămănătorism . Among the main points of contention between Sanielevici and Iorga were

2288-406: A great admirer of Grigorescu, had already dedicated him a monograph in which he stated his special appreciation for the painter's pastoral themes: "And how handsome the shepherds guarding Grigorescu's flocks! And how proud. It's as if they were kings, monarchs of the mountains, that is how they walk, how they stand, how they gaze upon their realms." Such praise of Grigorescu was regularly featured in

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2496-694: A light blue and black uniform of nineteenth century style with plumed kepis , white fringed epaulettes and red facings, and white gloves. Likewise, the Mounted Detachment wears a similar late-nineteenth century style uniform, adding the white plumed pickelhaube . Unlike the Romanian Police, the Gendarmerie is a military body, and uses the same ranking system as the Romanian Land Forces . The Romanian Gendarmerie

2704-517: A literature based on urban models. As early as 1905, Densusianu had begun a polemic with Sămănătorul and the Poporanists by means of his own publication, Vieața Nouă , accusing his adversaries of hopelessly trying to cut Romania from the worldwide context and from progress itself. Despite such heated exchanges, the magazine stressed the importance of a writers' solidarity: Iorga's articles on this topic are credited by some with having helped in

2912-468: A magazine published by Minulescu in 1912) and Gala Galaction (who joined poet Tudor Arghezi and socialist journalist N. D. Cocea in editing a succession of leftist and modernist reviews). By the 1920s, Sămănătorism had firmly established itself as a tendency in Romanian academia, and, according to Lucian Nastasă, held back innovative approaches and promoted conformity. Iorga himself, convinced that

3120-467: A major component of Sămănătorism , interprets it as the "model of Volksgemeinschaft —real or fictitious". In order to recover that cohesion, the historian was proposing a specific set of institutions, from political bodies representing the villages ( obști ) to credit unions working for the benefit of peasants. A figure who inspired much of Sămănătorul ' s outlook was the deceased national poet and cultural critic Mihai Eminescu , who, as both

3328-612: A more politically explicit expression to the literary aesthetics of Sămănătorul ." In Stanomir's account, the "avatars" represented by the Democratic Nationalist program and Neamul Românesc are, like Sămănătorul , episodes in a "series marked by the recovery and valorization of the Eminescian assets". Despite its intention of addressing the peasantry, Sămănătorul is thought to have mostly appealed to white-collar workers . Călinescu, who contrasted its approach with

3536-488: A new direction in historiography ( școala critică , "the critical school"): Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu , Grigore Tocilescu , V. A. Urechia and A. D. Xenopol among them. One such piece read: "With all my powers, I follow a cultural and moral ideal for my country, and whoever shall stand in the way of this, my life's most cherished goal, is my enemy, an enemy I will never spare no matter what, however unpleasant or painful this may prove, no matter what troubles I may encounter as

3744-609: A new journal, Neamul Românesc , and created, together with the Iași -based agitator A. C. Cuza , the Democratic Nationalist Party , which stood for a similar agenda but added explicitly antisemitic content targeting the Jewish Romanian community . That same year, a left-wing dissident group, comprising Sadoveanu, parted with Sămănătorul to affiliate with Viața Românească journal, newly founded by

3952-629: A number of partisans. Lucian Boia identified the main difference as one between the " patriarchal " views of the Sămănătorists and the "more social" perspective of Poporanism. A similar point was earlier made by Călinescu, who noted that the Poporanists were "nationalist democrats" rather than socialists, and that they advocated amending the traditionalist pronouncements for reaching the same basic goals. Historian Ion Ilincioiu describes both movements as being rooted in "Romantic philosophy", Sămănătorul ' s "aggressive" anti-capitalism being opposed to

4160-576: A period of turmoil in Rome. From this evidence and references to Dacian kings elsewhere, it is suggested that Scorilo probably ruled from the 30s or 40s AD through to 69–70. The Dacians regularly raided into Roman territory in Moesia . The emperors Tiberius and Caligula solved this problem by paying protection money to the Dacians in the form of annual subsidies. This policy appears to have coincided with

4368-643: A poor impression of Parisian society (in particular its Latin Quarter ) from the early 1890s, when he had first visited the city. His claim, echoing the sentiments expressed decades earlier by Eminescu, was that France's influence stood for two distinct models: a negative one, of "coffeehouses and taverns" which had wrongly been perceived as factors of civilization by "our youth"; and a positive one, represented by "the French literary and scientific societies", and supported by "the sacred family of French bourgeoisie, which

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4576-479: A popular venue for young Romanian intellectuals from both the Kingdom of Romania and the regions surrounding it. The traditionalist literary faction coalescing around the magazine was generally opposed to modernist literature and the aesthetics of modern art , but was more tolerant of Symbolism . In time, Sămănătorul became host to a subgroup of the local Symbolist movement . Although short-lived, Sămănătorul

4784-673: A public that was more visibly aligned with the European values of the day." Among the main purposes of Iorga's new magazines was a campaign against its opponents on the cultural scene, particularly modernism and the new avant-garde. Drum Drept , which stated its respect for the other surviving platforms of traditionalism (including the Poporanist Viaţa Românească ), was noted for its rejection of literary critics who viewed Sămănătorist aesthetics with dislike or reserve: Densusianu, Dragomirescu, Lovinescu. The anti-modernist campaign

4992-464: A result." His position received endorsement from another Sămănătorul contributor, literary chronicler Ilarie Chendi , who alleged that, since Romanian literature was facing "spiritual decadence", the main exponents of a moral consciousness were historians of the new directions (a reference to Iorga, Ion Bogdan and Dimitrie Onciul ). Iorga's criticism of his older peers often focused on topical and personal issues, such as when he argued that Xenopol

5200-472: A secularist approach to politics. On the other side, the lack of religious ideals in the literature promoted by Iorga's neo- Sămănătorist magazines was discussed as a negative trait by Crainic and by Petre Pandrea , at the time a colleague and disciple of Nae Ionescu, who also noted that "the only exception" to this literary secularism was poet Vasile Voiculescu (published by both Cuget Clar and Gândirea ). History of Romania The Romanian state

5408-451: A series of Dacian kings before Decebalus, placing a ruler called "Coryllus" between Comosicus and the independently attested Duras , who preceded Decebalus as king. Coryllus is supposed to have presided over a long peaceful 40-year rule, however, the name Coryllus is not mentioned by any other historian, and it has been argued that it "is a misspelling of Scorilo, a relatively common Dacian name". On this basis, Coryllus has been equated with

5616-559: A special impact in Bessarabia , a former province of the Russian Empire which formed part of Greater Romania: soon after the political union, traditionalism acquired a special force, but its position was challenged by young writers who followed Symbolism or Expressionism ( Alexandru Robot among them). Although motivated by nationalist didacticism and supportive of Cuget Clar , writer Nicolai Costenco and his Viața Basarabiei review were more receptive of innovation, and even pioneered

5824-533: A symbiosis between the two cultural extremes. In tandem, echoes of Sămănătorist ideology were fueling some of the new movements aiming to reconfigure Romania's political scene. One such current was the version of agrarianism represented, in a post- land reforms age, by the Peasants' Party and the National Peasants' Party (both of which represented mutations of Poporanism). In tandem, the magazine

6032-528: A theory according to which Romanian peasants living in the Early and High Middle Ages had organized themselves into communal republics ruled by representative democracy , and was arguing that the Romanian state itself had grown organically around an unattested uncodified constitution . This went in tandem with his suggestion that there was an ancient solidarity between the traditional social classes of free peasants and boyars . Veiga, who views this concept as

6240-689: Is Popovici's belief that democracy was an enemy of national identity (coupled with his claim that Romania had an opportunity to choose between the two systems). While Sămănătorul had emerged from a partnership with the National Liberals, Iorga's background made him close to Romania's traditionalist conservatism , represented at the time by the Junimea and the Conservative Party (the National Liberal's competitor within

6448-1009: Is a full member of the Association of the European and Mediterranean Police Forces and Gendarmeries with Military Status ( FIEP ), along with the National Gendarmerie , the Italian Carabinieri , the Spanish Guardia Civil , the Portuguese Guarda Nacional Republicana , the Turkish Gendarmerie , the Moroccan Royal Gendarmerie and the Dutch Royal Marechaussee . After Romania 's accession to

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6656-462: Is a technical administrative unit under the command of General Inspectorate of the Gendarmerie. Its primary duties include administration of the buildings and other facilities inside the Inspectorate courtyard, the Gendarmerie's shooting range, vehicle repair and maintenance and farms providing food for the personnel of the Gendarmerie. The farms are located north of Bucharest. The commanders of

6864-425: Is described by Râpeanu as owed to a loss of direction: "[ Sămănătorul ] no longer enjoyed the same impact, no longer sparked the interest or the polemics of 1903–1906. It brought nothing new to the landscape of Romanian literature. One could say that, in parting with Sămănătorul , N. Iorga took its soul with him." Among the last major issues affecting the journal's history was the peasants' revolt of 1907 , which aired

7072-540: Is identical to Decebalus. The Roman governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinus , raised an army and went to war with the Dacians following the Dacian (Getae) raids into Roman territory. Diurpaneus and his people defeated and decapitated Oppius Sabinus. When news of the defeat reached Rome, the citizens became fearful that the conquering enemy would invade and spread destruction further into the Empire. Because of this fear, Domitian

7280-434: Is the nation's foundation." He also claimed that the upper class' preference for French was tantamount to a loss of national character, "the history of a ruling class' decline and a people's straying away from the natural path indicated by its past and leading into its future." Some of these views were echoed by other key affiliates of Sămănătorul , such as Coșbuc (who believed that the commonplace use of foreign languages among

7488-635: Is the national Gendarmerie force of Romania , tasked with high-risk and specialized law enforcement duties. It is one of the two main police forces in Romania (the other being the Romanian Police - a civilian force ), both having jurisdiction over the civilian population. The gendarmerie is subordinated Ministry of Internal Affairs and does not have responsibility for policing the Romanian Armed Forces . This duty lies with

7696-410: Is true that the very same readers were left with horror for all things 'alien', 'unhealthy', but when did it ever happen that the multitudes reach a level required for the understanding of more refined art? One could say that Semănătorul and all the other like-minded publications assumed the thankless mission of promoting Junimist ideas all around, while renouncing the [art for art's sake principle] at

7904-1006: The Alexandru Ioan Cuza Police Academy in Bucharest. In addition, the Mihai Viteazul Military School in Bucharest offers post-graduate courses (in collaboration with the French Gendarmerie ) for commissioned officers, while the Grigore Alexandru Ghica Military School in Drăgășani and Petru Rareș Military School in Fălticeni train non-commissioned officers. Also known as "Baza de Aprovizionare pentru Luptă și Gospodărire" (B.A.L.G.), "Baza de Administrare și Deservire" or "U.M. 0260"

8112-570: The Peștera cu Oase ("Cave with Bones") was uncovered in 2002. The Romanian fossils are among the oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Europe. The Neolithic-Age Cucuteni area in northeastern Romania was the western region of one of the earliest European civilizations, known as the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture . The earliest-known salt works is at Poiana Slatinei near the village of Lunca ; it

8320-455: The sica , a distinctive Dacian weapon. Numerous Roman military diplomas issued for Dacian soldiers discovered after 1990 indicate that veterans preferred to return to their place of origin; per usual Roman practice, these veterans were given Roman citizenship upon their discharge. In an attempt to fill the cities, cultivate the fields, and mine the ore, a large-scale attempt at colonization took place with colonists coming in "from all over

8528-755: The Black Sea to the source of the river Tisa and from the Balkan Mountains to Bohemia . During that period, the Geto-Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Olbia) and from present-day Slovakia's mountains to the Balkan mountains. In 53 BC, Julius Caesar stated that the lands of the Dacians started on

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8736-629: The Caspian Sea , until the 1st millennium BC. Scholars have suggested that there were links between the two peoples since ancient times. The historian David Gordon White has, moreover, stated that the "Dacians ... appear to be related to the Dahae". By the end of the first century AD, all the inhabitants of the lands which now form Romania were known to the Romans as Daci, with the exception of some Celtic and Germanic tribes who infiltrated from

8944-524: The King of Romania arrives into [the city] persecuted by the filthy business-minded existence of another nation. Through his acts and his deeds, our past and present are again inextricably linked in opposition to the pagan and hostile alien. For no matter how long the polluted wave of the gain-seeking ones shall be sweeping over us, the land is ours. And the wind shall at once take with it the chaff it brought upon us, and we shall endure." A leading presence among

9152-708: The Kingdom of Romania . In June–August 1940, as a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Second Vienna Award , Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union and Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In November 1940, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact and, consequently, in June ;1941 entered World War II on the Axis side , fighting against

9360-459: The Marcomanni , leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome. To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over

9568-776: The Military Police subordinated to the Romanian Land Forces . The first Gendarmerie corps was created on 3 April 1850 in Moldavia by Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica . After the Union of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 under Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza , the Gendarmerie was subordinated to the Ministry of War as a separate armed force. During the Romanian War of Independence of 1877–1878, it mainly served as military police , but it also took part in combat. In 1893,

9776-545: The Roman province Dacia Traiana . Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of client states , which led to less direct campaigning than in the west. The weapon most associated with the Dacian forces that fought against Trajan's army during his invasions of Dacia was the falx , a single-edged scythe-like weapon. The falx

9984-673: The Romanian Orthodox Church was the guarantee of Romanian identity, therefore discarding the implicit secularism of Sămănătorist thought. Crainic's "Orthodoxist" views, Veiga notes, were closely related to the ideas of Russian émigré authors, from the Christian existentialism of Nikolai Berdyaev to the political radicalism of the Eurasianist theorists. Defining his group's exact relation to Sămănătorism in one of his Gândirea articles, Crainic stated: "Over

10192-570: The Sămănătorist legacy by means of other publications, primarily Facla and Chemarea , while his colleague in Iași , dramatist and future critic Benjamin Fondane , vocally rejected Sămănătorists and Poporanists as "talentless writers" destined to be "forgotten". According to Dan Grigorescu , Sămănătorul magazine and its affiliates had a paradoxical role as a "catalyst" for Expressionism , which manifested itself in Romanian art beginning in

10400-408: The Sămănătorist tenets were still applicable, set up a series of journals which advertised themselves as reincarnations of the defunct publication; in addition to Neamul Românesc ' s literary supplement, these were: Drum Drept (1913–1947, merged with Ramuri in 1914) and Cuget Clar (or Noul Sămănător , "The New Sower", 1936–1940). Among the disciples who followed him in this attempt

10608-682: The Sămănătorists met the advocates of socialism , who had survived the fall of the Romanian Social Democratic Workers' Party . Although the two currents disagreed over central issues, they also held a set of common beliefs, particularly in matters of literary theory. While he had entered a polemic with Vieața , the leading socialist figure and literary critic Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea admired (and probably inspired) Vlahuţă's branch of didacticism, preferring it to early Junimism . According to Călinescu,

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10816-445: The elitism and professionalization advocated by Junimea , concluded: "[ Semănătorul ] primarily gathered writers of little culture, officers, young men who did not complete their education [and] autodidacts [...]. The magazine made itself well liked by schoolteachers, provincial professors, Romanians outside the borders, and, in spreading throughout these environments, it educated the masses in view of accepting proper literature. It

11024-451: The petty and medium bourgeoisie threatened by the crisis of capitalism, Sămănătorism can be identified with those groups of intellectual movements seeking to preserve national identity in front of threats, by resorting to an idealized past." Alongside the "identity crisis" provoked by "the traumatic advance of industrial modernization inside a country with a majority peasant and illiterate population", researcher Paul Cernat discusses

11232-630: The poporan ("people's") and realist literature illustrated by the work of Junimists such as Ion Creangă or Ioan Slavici . There followed numerous rapprochements, made possible by the measure to which Junimism was opening itself to traditionalism and nationalism shortly after 1900. Sămănătorul ' s existence coincided with a final transition in Junimist ideology, during which the club's magazine, Convorbiri Literare , came to be led by scientist Simion Mehedinţi , who adopted an agenda closer to that of nationalist groups. According to Z. Ornea ,

11440-512: The "Chendists" (among them Zaharia Bârsan , George Coșbuc , Ion Gorun and Andrei Naum ) are said to have been avoiding their Sămănătorist rivals at the Kübler, where the Sămănătorists only held session during mornings. Among the first direct ideological successors of Sămănătorul was Iorga's own Democratic Nationalist Party . According to Veiga: "In this new phase, Iorga did not resort to very different arguments, but merely sought to render

11648-433: The "decline" of local boyar aristocracy as issues preparing the ground for Sămănătorul and like-minded journals. Likewise, Swedish art historian Tom Sandqvist views Sămănătorul ' s focus on the peasant community as a source of legitimate culture as connected with economic change and "emerging industrialization ": "In the mid-1870s grain prices had declined catastrophically, and it became more and more obvious that

11856-407: The "identity break among the 'conservative' wing of autochthonous Symbolism." Another paradox was the presence of writers with modernist tendencies among the occasional contributors to Sămănătorul , including the radical Minulescu and the moderate Densusianu. Eugen Lovinescu , who moved between currents and later became a figure of eclectic modernism, is also known to have tried his hand at becoming

12064-509: The "imposition of a Romantic paradigm", a process in which "the stem of ' reactionarism ' [produced] a form of heterodox conservatism". While Maiorescu and his circle of followers generally upheld the values of art for art's sake and neoclassicism in front of didacticism , there was a measure of overlap with traditionalist currents in Maiorescu's theories about the inspirational value of Romanian folklore , as well as in his endorsement of

12272-447: The "old school" of historians, Nastasă notes, Iorga was in large part reacting against historians who did not value ethnocentrism in history, as well as airing professional and personal grievances. The 1906 campaign against cultural Francophilia was nevertheless explained by Iorga himself not as hostility toward French culture , but mainly as a belief that Romania needed to emancipate itself from foreign influence. Iorga had maintained

12480-574: The 1909 establishment of a Romanian Writers' Society . By then, Sămănătorul was itself acquiring a Symbolist section (albeit one more akin to the neoromantic school), primarily illustrated by Iosif and fellow poet Dimitrie Anghel (who also used the magazine as a testing ground for their collaborative poetry experiments, which were signed with the common pen name A. Mirea ). Also included in this faction were other young authors, such as Ştefan Petică , Al. T. Stamatiad , Alice Călugăru and Elena Farago . According to Cernat, such collaborations evidenced

12688-498: The 1910s, and which contemplated urban life as a tragic experience: "However odd it may seem, Sămănătorism created a favorable atmosphere for ideas akin to those which would lead to the revelation of Expressionist attitudes in the Occident." Some former Sămănătorists migrated toward Symbolist or post-Symbolist publications, as in the cases of traditionalist-inspired prose writers I. Dragoslav (who began collaborating with Insula ,

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12896-710: The 1917 campaign ( see also Romanian Campaign (World War I) ). The Gendarmerie oversaw the demobilization of the Army in July 1918 and the re- mobilization in October 1918 and maintained the public order in the new territories. Upon the entry of Romania into the Second World War on 22 June 1941, the Gendarmerie took over its military police duties again. It was also involved in the deportation of Jews and Roma to Transnistria in 1941 and 1942 ( see also Romania and

13104-753: The 1930s, the campaign against non-traditionalist literary works made its way into the pages of Iorga's own synthesis of literary history, Istoria literaturii româneşti contemporane ("The History of Contemporary Romanian Literature"), which partly consisted of excerpts from his earlier articles. In tandem, his rival Lovinescu was developing criticism of the neo- Sămănătorist agenda into an ideology, which fused urban-themed modernism, classical liberalism and literary impressionism with direct references to some of Maiorescu's art for art's sake principles. His essays described Sămănătorul and its descendants as factors preventing cultural development, and named Sămănătorism "the cemetery of Romanian poetry". Neo- Sămănătorism had

13312-431: The 1st century AD, Duras between c. 69 AD to 87 AD, and Decebalus between 87 AD to 106 AD. Dacia became a province of the Roman Empire in 106 AD, conquered by Emperor Trajan . However the Free Dacians outside of the Roman Empire remain independent under Pieporus , king of Dacian Costoboci in the 2nd century AD, and possibly Tarbus in the 2nd century AD. The Dacia of King Burebista (82–44 BC) stretched from

13520-630: The 3rd century BC, Moskon in the 3rd century BC, Dromichaetes in the 3rd century BC, Zalmodegicus around 200 BC, Rhemaxos also around 200 BC, Rubobostes before 168 BC, Zoltes after 168 BC, Oroles in the 2nd century BC, Dicomes in the 1st century BC, Rholes in the 1st century BC, Dapyx in the 1st century BC, Zyraxes in the 1st century BC, Burebista between 82–44 BC, Deceneus between 44 BC and around 27 BC, Thiamarkos between 1st century BC and 1st century AD, Cotiso between c. 40 BC and c.9 BC, Comosicus between 9 BC and 30 AD, Scorilo between c. 30 AD and 70 AD Coson in

13728-499: The Carpathian range – modern Moldavia and Wallachia – who had not been brought under direct Roman rule at the time of Trajan's conquest of Transylvania Dacia. After they generated a new degree of political unity among themselves in the course of the third century, these Dacian groups came to be known collectively as the Carpi. Jandarmeria Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83 Law enforcement Special operations The Jandarmeria Română ( Romanian pronunciation: [ʒandarmeˈri.a roˈmɨnə] )

13936-402: The Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia". Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the Gothic tribes , slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the Goths succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor Aurelian 's withdrawal, in 275. At

14144-422: The Dacian area c.9 BC. Vinicius was the first Roman commander to cross the Danube and invade Dacia itself. Ioana A. Oltean argues that Cotiso probably died at some point during this campaign. According to Jordanes Cotiso was succeeded by Comosicus , about whom nothing is known beyond the name. King Scorilo was Comosicus ' successor and may have been the father of Decebalus. The Roman historian Jordanes lists

14352-427: The Dacian gold mines of Transylvania . The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles, and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa , Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over

14560-464: The Dacians became Romanised (see also Origin of Romanians ). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor Commodus , Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger , both distinguished themselves in the campaign. According to Lactantius , the Roman emperor Decius (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the Carpo-Dacians of Zosimus "having undertaken an expedition against

14768-483: The Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east. From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under Decebalus were engaged in two wars with the Romans. In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia. In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under Cornelius Fuscus , were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus

14976-705: The Dacians' power in the Carpathian basin increased after they defeated the Celts , who held power in the region since the Celtic invasion of Transylvania in the 4th century BC. A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles . Conflicts with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani , greatly weakened

15184-704: The Danube. He describes them as "more numerous than the Hungarians, but weaker". Historian Adolf Armbruster identified this people as the Romanians. Hungarian historiography identifies this people as the Bulgarians . The Dacians were known as Geta (plural Getae ) in Ancient Greek writings, and as Dacus (plural Daci ) or Getae in Roman documents, but also as Dagae and Gaete as depicted on

15392-891: The European Union, the Jandarmeria sought to be accepted as permanent observer to the European Gendarmerie Force , as a first step towards full membership. On 3 March 2009, the Romanian Gendarmerie became a full member. Since February 2002, 115 Romanian gendarmes have been deployed in Peć , Kosovo , as part of the UNMIK police force . Beginning with 2008 Romanian Gendarmerie was part of EULEX Mission in Kosovo (Rule of Law) and it participated with

15600-499: The Gendarmerie since its establishment in 1893: During the period up to 1915 the Romanian Gendarmerie wore a distinctive dress comprising a shako with white plume, dark blue tunic with red facings, white trefoil epaulettes and aiguillettes plus light blue trousers with red stripes. Mounted units of the Gendarmerie wore a silver helmet with spike and white plume, a similar tunic to the foot branch but with yellow epaulettes and aiguillettes, white breeches and high boots. Currently

15808-691: The Germans, who are enemies to the Romans. During the War of Actium , King Cotiso found himself courted by the two Roman antagonists, Octavian and Mark Antony. Cotiso was in a strong position to dictate terms of any alliance. Octavian/ Augustus worried about the frontier and possible alliance between Mark Antony and the Dacians, and plotted an expedition against Dacia around 35 BC. Despite several small conflicts, no serious campaigns were mounted. King Cotiso chose to ally himself with Mark Antony. According to Alban Dewes Winspear and Lenore Kramp Geweke he "proposed that

16016-652: The Holocaust ). After the war, the Communist regime purged and disbanded (on 23 January 1949) the Gendarmerie, its personnel being redistributed to the newly created Directorate for Security Troops , modeled after the NKVD Internal Troops . The Romanian Gendarmerie was re-established on 5 July 1990. Starting in 2006, the corps abandoned conscription and in 2007 it became an all-professional military force. Its mission: Law no. 550/2004 regarding

16224-952: The Internal Affairs Ministry. The Romanian Gendarmerie is divided in 41 territorial inspectorates, corresponding to each county ( județ ), and the General Directorate of the Gendarmerie in Bucharest . Additionally, eight Gendarmerie Mobile Groups ( Grupări Mobile ) operate on a territorial basis, with headquarters in Bacău , Brașov , Cluj Napoca , Constanța , Craiova , Ploiești , Târgu Mureș and Timișoara . The " Vlad Țepeș " Special Intervention Brigade has national jurisdiction. It handles special and high-risk situations, such as heavy rioting, hostage rescue and counter-terrorist operations. The officer cadets are trained for becoming commissioned officers at

16432-714: The Ister Danube on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Black Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyragetae ; but I cannot tell the precise boundarie The Dacians spoke a dialect of the Thracian language but were influenced culturally by the neighbouring Scythians in

16640-597: The Justice Minister, the Public Minister for policing duties, and to the War Minister for all the aspects regarding military discipline, command and troops' training. The Peasants' Revolt of 1907 revealed the unpreparedness of the Gendarmerie and its inability to control and quell the rebellion. As a result, another bill ( Legea Jandarmeriei ) was adopted on 24 March 1908. The new law re-organized

16848-531: The Kingdom's two-party system ). The main point of contention between him and the other groups was irredentist policy: like Nicolae Filipescu and other dissenting Conservative, Iorga objected to the political current's inclination toward preserving the status quo on the Transylvanian issue. Discussing this ideological transition, Ioan Stanomir noted: "The hybridization [of Iorga's discourse] allows for

17056-787: The Military Schools Directorates, and the Logistics, IT and Communication Directorates respectively. The task of the General Inspectorate is to plan, manage, coordinate and control the territorial inspectorates, the Mobile Squads, the Special Intervention Brigade and the military schools. The General Inspectorate of the Gendarmerie also acts as an interface of the organization with the other law enforcement agencies and

17264-522: The Poporanists Constantin Stere and Garabet Ibrăileanu . A third dissident wing emerged at the same stage: Chendi, Iorga's former associate, left the circle in 1906 to create the rival periodical Viața Literară (set up and disestablished in 1907). According to Cernat, Sămănătorul itself experienced " reactionary ideologization" following the breakups. The paper steadily declined over the following four years. This phenomenon

17472-400: The Poporanists' attempt at reforming the system from within. Sămănătorul ' s views on aesthetics, Romanian literature and Romanian art were closely connected to its discourse about Romanian specificity, the peasant class and didacticism. Discussing the Sămănătorist stage of Iorga's career, Sandqvist notes: "In Iorga's opinion literature and culture in general must be oriented toward

17680-523: The Roman cities in the province of Moesia . Although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on

17888-443: The Roman depopulation of Dacia. Prior to its incorporation into the empire, Dacia was a kingdom ruled by one king, and did not possess a regional tribal structure that could easily be turned into the Roman civitas system as used successfully in other provinces of the empire. As per usual Roman practice, Dacian males were recruited into auxiliary units and dispatched across the empire. The Vexillation Dacorum Parthica accompanied

18096-479: The Roman world". The colonists were a heterogeneous mix: of the some 3,000 names preserved in inscriptions found by the 1990s, 74% (c. 2,200) were Latin, 14% (c. 420) were Greek, 4% (c. 120) were Illyrian , 2.3% (c. 70) were Celtic , 2% (c. 60) were Thraco-Dacian , and another 2% (c. 60) were Semites from Syria. Regardless of their place of origin, the settlers and colonists were a physical manifestation of Roman civilisation and imperial culture, bringing with them

18304-487: The Romanian gendarmes wear dark blue berets /caps, shirts/T-shirts and trousers as everyday uniforms, while the winter uniforms include fur trimmed clothes and a fur hat . The dress uniform consists of a light blue tunic, white shirt, dark blue tie and dark blue trousers for the commissioned officers, and a dark blue tunic, white shirt and dark blue trousers for the NCO's and privates. The Honour Guard ( Garda de Onoare ) wears

18512-491: The Romanian peasant and the Romanian village", as well as "pathetic glorifying of the past". According to Paul Cernat , the Sămănătorist worldview favored, instead of both modernity and art for art's sake, "an idyllic, rudimentary-populist, picturesque - ethnographic and sentimental moralism ." Other researchers have also described Sămănătorist writings as being primarily characterized by excessive patriarchal nostalgia. One essential theme of Sămănătorist literary theory

18720-487: The Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, much of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. The conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of

18928-451: The Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle Oltenia . In 376 the region was conquered by Huns , who kept it until the death of Attila in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by Ardaric , used it as their base, until in 566 it was destroyed by Lombards . Lombards abandoned the country and the Avars (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom

19136-422: The Romans. According to Strabo's Geographica , the original name of the Dacians was Δάοι " Daoi ". The name Daoi (one of the ancient Geto-Dacian tribes) was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the countries north of Danube that had not yet been conquered by Greece or Rome. The ethnographic name Daci is found under various forms within ancient sources. Greeks used

19344-594: The Rural Gendarmerie ( Jandarmeria Rurală ) was established by the Law for the Organization of the Rural Gendarmerie ( Legea pentru organizarea Jandarmeriei rurale ) as a military corps under the authority of the Ministry of Justice for policing the countryside and under the authority of Ministry of War for military police functions. The bill was proposed by Lascăr Catargiu 's Conservative government and it

19552-471: The Scorilo named on an ancient Dacian pot bearing the words “Decebalus per Scorilo”. Though far from certain, this has also been translated as "Decebalus son of Scorilo". If so, this might mean that Decebalus was the son of Scorilo, with Duras possibly being either an older son or a brother of Scorilo. A Dacian king ( dux Dacorum ) called Scorilo is also mentioned by Frontinus , who says he was in power during

19760-658: The Soviet Union until August 1944, when it joined the Allies and recovered Northern Transylvania. Following the war and occupation by the Red Army , Romania became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact . After the 1989 Revolution , Romania began a transition towards democracy and a market economy . Remains of 34,950-year-old modern humans were discovered in present-day Romania when

19968-616: The Transylvanian Ipolit Strâmbu and the Brăila native Arthur Verona , followed closely by Ștefan Popescu . The Tinerimea Artistică society, which grouped some of the Sămănătorist -inspired painters alongside older and younger artists, upheld Nicolae Grigorescu's style as an alternative to the academic art of the day, and borrowed elements from newer European-wide manifestations of Art Nouveau , but did not articulate an aesthetic program. The rise of Sămănătorism

20176-457: The academic scene, Găvănescul was referred to as "a scoundrel and a coward" in one of his new articles for Sămănătorul . Another such piece criticized researcher George Ionescu-Gion , whose published work on the history of Bucharest was judged inconsistent and poorly structured by Iorga (arguments he retracted decades later). In tandem, his articles for the magazine defended linguist Sextil Puşcariu , who had sided with his colleague's methods but

20384-412: The aged founder of Junimea had, for reasons unknown, chosen not to enter a fight with a didacticist current he would have otherwise been likely to reject. Before Maiorescu's retirement, Mehedinţi had even contributed to Iorga's journal and, Ornea notes, remained "a Sămănătorist of strict observance who only lacked the gifts of an apostle." In highlighting the closeness between Convorbiri Literare and

20592-478: The alliance and joined the party of Mark Antony. Suetonius (LXIII, Life of Augustus ) says Mark Antony wrote that Augustus betrothed his daughter Julia to marry Cotiso to create an alliance between the two men. This failed when Cotiso betrayed Augustus. According to Cassius Dio , the story about the proposed marriages is hardly credible and may have been invented by Mark Antony as propaganda to offset his own alliance with Cleopatra. After Augustus's victory in

20800-533: The army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to give up wine. During his reign, the limits of the Dacian Kingdom were extended to their maximum. The Bastarnae and Boii were conquered, and even the Greek towns of Olbia and Apollonia on the Black Sea ( Pontus Euxinus ) recognized Burebista 's authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory

21008-724: The boundaries of Roman Dacia , Carpi ( Free Dacians ) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom Constantine the Great fought. The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the Breviarium historiae Romanae by Eutropius , Roman citizens "from

21216-522: The civil wars, the Romans punished the Dacian ruler, who was apparently defeated in battle around 25 BC. In his account of his achievements as emperor, the Res Gestae , Augustus claimed that the Dacians had been subdued. This was not entirely true, because Dacian troops frequently crossed the Danube to ravage parts of Pannonia and Moesia. He may have survived until the campaign of Marcus Vinicius in

21424-739: The command of a General Inspector ( Inspector-general ) appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. The General Inspector is assisted by 3 deputies. The first deputy ( prim-adjunct ) is the chief of the Gendarmerie Staff and heads the Operational Planning and Management, Guard and Institutional Protection and the Public Order and Security Directorates. The other two deputies manage the Human Resources and

21632-470: The cultivated was expanding the gap between the elite and the mass of the people). Primarily focused on condemning the perceived pessimism of other currents, Primele vorbe editorial also stated the goal of doing away with the "mockery" and "sullying" of Romanian language by "those who scatter empty phrases". The attack on foreign influence was nevertheless limited, being contained by the ambiguous stances of its leaders. According to Valeriu Râpeanu : "There

21840-543: The cultural tenets of local far right and fascist groups. During the interwar period , it also made a significant impact in Bessarabia (a region since divided between Moldova and Ukraine ). The Sămănătorist ideology itself was traditionally criticized for encouraging isolationism and xenophobia , as well as for its flirtation with antisemitism . In literary and art criticism, the term Sămănătorist acquired pejorative connotations, denoting specific pastoral and patriotic clichés. The establishment of Sămănătorul

22048-621: The dispersion of ideas among the general public, in line with Haret's own agenda. Literary historian George Călinescu connects the programs of Vieața (whose name, an antiquated spelling for viața , means "the life") and its successor by commenting on their titles: "[ Sămănătorul ] was supposed to deal with 'life' and 'plant' ideas into the masses." He also notes that the notion had been highlighted by Vlahuţă in one of his poems, also titled Sămănătorul : Pășește-n țarină sămănătorul Și-n brazda neagră, umedă de rouă, Aruncă-ntr-un noroc viața nouă, Pe care va lega-o viitorul. The sower steps into

22256-513: The earliest nationalist currents which promoted isolationism and promoting the Romanians' "own specific genius", rather than trying to remedy Romanian marginality on the world stage by accepting Westernization . He paraphrases this view as: "[Romanians] are not Western and nor should they try to become Western." Cultural historian Lucian Nastasă refers to Sămănătorul ' s attitudes as an attempt to impose "defensive prophylaxis " on Western ideas, and "a sort of spiritual autarky ". In criticizing

22464-548: The early years were Zaharia Bârsan , Paul Bujor , Ilarie Chendi , Virgil Cioflec , Alexandru Davila , Sextil Pușcariu and Constantin Xeni , alongside the lesser known Ion Ciocârlan and Maria Cunțan . The new publication received support and funds from Spiru Haret , the National Liberal Education Minister , who saw in it an opportunity for improving the lifestyle of peasants, for raising

22672-408: The east and by the Celtic invaders of Transylvania in the 4th century. Due to the fluctuating nature of the Dacian states, especially before the time of Burebista and before the 1st century AD, the Dacians would often be split into different kingdoms. Known rulers of the Dacians include Charnabon in the 5th century BC, Cothelas in the 4th century BC, Rex Histrianorum mentioned in 339 BC, Dual in

22880-613: The eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest). Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista. It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership. Before 168 BC, under the rule of king Rubobostes in present-day Transylvania ,

23088-745: The emperor Septimius Severus during his Parthian expedition, while the cohort I Ulpia Dacorum was posted to Cappadocia . Others included the II Aurelia Dacorum in Pannonia Superior , the cohort I Aelia Dacorum in Roman Britain, and the II Augusta Dacorum milliaria in Moesia Inferior. There are a number of preserved relics originating from cohort I Aelia Dacorum , with one inscription describing

23296-417: The entire Sămănătorist movement was a mutation of Dobrogeanu-Gherea's ideology, which "subordinated art to a social goal": "The nationalists kept the central point which suited them, that is art as a means, and only replaced the goal [...]. Even some of the ideals are shared between them. The socialists display interest in the peasants, this being our proletarian class for the time being; the nationalists, as

23504-423: The far right, Trăirist philosopher Nae Ionescu , paid homages to Sămănătorul and Iorga's thought. The Gândirist claim to Sămănătorul lineage was received with reserve by Iorga. While Istoria literaturii româneşti contemporane included Crainic and his magazines with the "signs of improvement" from modernism, it also made a point of criticizing "Othodoxism" as unrealistic and undesirable, and openly stated

23712-487: The field And into the black furrow, moist with dew, He casts his chance for a new life, One which the future only can ensure. The finality of this program was seen by Râpeanu as comprised by the poem's final part, which reads: Tu fii ostașul jertfei mari, depline: Ca dintr-un bob să odrăslească mia, Cu sângele tău cald stropește glia! You be the soldier of the highest, fullest sacrifice: For one grain to father one thousand others, Let your warm blood spill over

23920-572: The floral imagery of Anghel's writings as having been inspired by an urban and "boyar" garden. Five years later, when both had ended their association with the magazine, Iorga returned with an article in Neamul Românesc , explaining that he considered Anghel's poems to be a form of "contempt" for a traditionalist venue. In Călinescu's opinion, Iorga was by then giving a disproportionately positive reception to writers of little value, which he held to mean that, under Iorga's direction, Sămănătorul

24128-527: The following sense: they think they do not die and that the one who dies joins Zalmoxis , a divine being. Strabo 's account of the lands inhabited by the Getae : As for the southern part of Germany beyond the Albis , the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi ; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae , which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along

24336-408: The following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, attacking the Dacian capital in the siege of Sarmizegethusa , and razing it to the ground, the defeated Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide. In the following years, a new city was built on the ruins of the Dacian capital named Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa . With part of Dacia quelled as

24544-568: The forms Δάκοι " Dakoi " ( Strabo , Dio Cassius , and Dioscorides ) and Δάοι "Daoi" (singular Daos). The form Δάοι "Daoi" was frequently used according to Stephan of Byzantium . Latins used the forms Davus , Dacus , and a derived form Dacisci (Vopiscus and inscriptions). There are similarities between the ethnonyms of the Dacians and those of Dahae (Greek Δάσαι Δάοι, Δάαι, Δαι, Δάσαι Dáoi , Dáai , Dai , Dasai ; Latin Dahae , Daci ), an Indo-European people located east of

24752-405: The furrow! In 1903, Sămănătorul was joined by Mihail Sadoveanu , the future novelist, who was described by critic Tudor Vianu as the group's greatest asset. It was also that year when Nicolae Iorga began publishing his first articles for the paper. In Sanqvist's definition, Iorga, "one of the most representatives of Romanian ethno-nationalism beside the philosopher and poet Lucian Blaga ",

24960-574: The ideologies of Hungary 's Dezső Szabó or the Népi írók , Válasz or Kelet Népe groups, as well as with the political program of Estonia 's Jaan Tõnisson . Commentators have also found specific similarities between Sămănătorul and various cultural or political movements in Poland, from the Galician intellectuals' interest in the local peasantry during the late 19th century ( Chłopomania ) to

25168-559: The ideology of Roman Dmowski 's National Democracy . Literary critic Mircea Anghelescu also places the Sămănătorist movement's beginnings in conjunction with intellectual fashions prevalent in Romanian culture during the national revival and before World War I : the patriotic travel literature of Vasile Alecsandri , Grigore Alexandrescu and George Melidon ; the Neo-Brâncovenesc style in Romanian architecture ; and

25376-488: The image of the grateful farmer and the 'natural' village community as bearer of true Romanian culture was false and did not correspond very well with a reality characterized by utmost poverty, misery, autocratic boyars, ruthless profiteers, moneylenders, and village gendarmes ". The emergence of Sămănătorism and Poporanism, Sandqvist notes, happened "in spite of this—or rather because of it", since both still proclaimed "the special character of Romanian culture as deriving from

25584-602: The institution, making it a component of the Army with provost duties and transferring commissioned officers from the Army to the Gendarmerie. The Romanian Gendarmerie was engaged during the Second Balkan War and the First World War with military police duties, policing the front , guarding important installations and organizing the evacuation during the 1916 retreat. The corps also saw actual combat during

25792-565: The integration of a nationalist and populist seam." In addition to referencing the Junimist Eminescu, the arguments put forth by Iorga owed much to the Junimea doyen and Conservative Party politician Titu Maiorescu . Like Maiorescu, Eminescu and Iorga both cautioned against the National Liberal version of modernization and Westernization, which they viewed as too imitative and fast-pace to be naturally absorbed by Romanian society ("forms without substance"). However, Stanomir notes,

26000-509: The intellectual leader was also a vocal supporter of scientific racism and racial antisemitism . Popovici's essay Naționalism sau democrație ("Nationalism or Democracy"), serialized by Sămănătorul from 1909 to 1910, outlined its author's growing admiration for authoritarianism . While the conservative tone was preserved by references to the 18th century theorist Edmund Burke and by an outspoken critique of social contract philosophy, Naționalism sau democrație mirrored other theories about

26208-603: The interest of intellectuals nationwide, and for endorsing planned changes to the state-sponsored education system . It is sometimes described as a successor to Semănătorul , a magazine published in Bârlad during the 1870s, and to a similarly titled magazine published in Galaţi during 1899. In the years after it was set up, Sămănătorul inspired the creation of like-minded smaller journals published in provincial cities, from Craiova 's Ramuri to Bârlad's Făt Frumos . Its doctrine

26416-664: The interest of the citizens, of the community and in the support of the state institutions, exclusively on the basis and in the execution of the law. Article 3. - (1) The Romanian Gendarmerie cooperates, in fulfilling its attributions according to the law, with the other components of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, with structures of the defense and national security system and collaborates with organizations, institutions and authorities of central and local public administration, organizations non-governmental organizations, with other legal entities, as well as with natural persons. (2) The Romanian Gendarmerie participates, in accordance with

26624-484: The land that we have learned to love from Sămănătorul we see arching itself the azure tarpaulin of the Orthodox Church. We see this substance of this Church blending in with the ethnic substance." His own literary style was seen as a more robust form of neo- Sămănătorism by Lovinescu, and deemed "Orthodoxism with Semănătorist modulations" by literary historian Mircea A. Diaconu . In tandem, Crainic's rival on

26832-526: The late Roman map Tabula Peutingeriana . It was Herodotus who first used the ethnonym Getae in his Histories . In Greek and Latin, in the writings of Julius Caesar , Strabo , and Pliny the Elder , the people became known as 'the Dacians'. Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks. Latin poets often used the name Getae . Modern historians prefer to use

27040-544: The late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted. In celebration of this victory Constantine took the title Gothicus Maximus and claimed the subjugated territory as the new province of Gothia. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led

27248-410: The latter's didacticism and its application: Sanielevici claimed that, by endorsing Sadoveanu's early works, which depicted scenes of adultery and rape , Iorga had effectively contradicted his own views about morality in art. One of the most prominent conflicts was that between Ilarie Chendi and his former colleagues, even though Chendi was still being inspired by Sămănătorist aesthetics. Chendi and

27456-412: The law, in actions organized within the Association of European and Mediterranean Police and Gendarmerie Forces with Military Status or in those organized by similar bodies of other states and fulfills peacekeeping missions, according to international commitments assumed by Romania. Its duties include: The General Inspectorate of the Gendarmerie is the central structure of the Romanian Gendarmerie under

27664-516: The laws in force, as well as the protection of fundamental state institutions and the fight against acts of terrorism. jurisprudence (2) The Romanian Gendarmerie, through attributions, organization, training and territorial disposition, contributes to guaranteeing the sovereignty, independence, authority, unity and security of the state, constitutional democracy on the entire national territory both in peacetime and in crisis situations. Article 2. - The Romanian Gendarmerie carries out its activity in

27872-446: The literary world, regardless of value, failing to see an actual difference between Vasile Pop and Sadoveanu. Sadoveanu had also noticed this trait, and recalled not having been flattered by Iorga's explicit comparison between his works and those of Pop. Objections to Sămănătorist attitudes were also being expressed outside the modernist circles. Romania's celebrated dramatist and comediographer Ion Luca Caragiale , although himself

28080-523: The local product of Marxist guidelines was "sub-mediocre", the theorist himself being "perfectly aware" of such inadequacies. Zamfir concludes that "the more and more vociferous nationalists around Sămănătorul " were one of the factors to replace "socially-themed" currents, and that their success prompted Dobrogeanu-Gherea to part with literature. Likewise, Râpeanu notes that, contrary to the Marxist leader's expectations, Contemporanul and its 1890s satellite Literatură și Știință had not "managed to set up

28288-445: The magazine Literatorul . The controversy was taken to the public sphere: a regular of the Kübler Coffeehouse , Macedonski is reported to have publicly mocked the Sămănătorists who had reserved the table opposite him. By 1908, criticism of traditionalist currents was taking the forefront in the activities of other Symbolist figures: the rebellious poet Ion Minulescu and the professional critic Ovid Densusianu , who openly suggested

28496-491: The magazine Vieața , while Coșbuc had done the same with Vatra . Among the original staff of writers were several formerly associated with Vieața : Ștefan Octavian Iosif , Dimitrie Anghel , Ion Gorun , Constanța Hodoș and Vasile Pop . The regular contributors included Ion Agârbiceanu , I. A. Bassarabescu , Panait Cerna , Elena Farago , Emil Gârleanu , Octavian Goga , Constantin Sandu-Aldea , Ioan Slavici and I. E. Torouțiu . Other notable collaborators throughout

28704-457: The magazine continued to maintain a "secondary role" when compared other platforms of its kind. Iorga's form of campaigning produced significant results in March 1906, when, incited by the Bucharest National Theater 's decision to host a performance in French (instead of translating the play into Romanian ), he organized a boycott and mass student rallies which degenerated into street battles. Later in 1906, Iorga had ended his association with

28912-572: The magazine's art column, signed by writer and collector Virgil Cioflec , and in Iorga's art essays, which describe Grigorescu as a discoverer of Romania's genius loci . The magazine hailed the painter as the model to follow, but only selected those aspects of his work which it could fit within its approach, largely ignoring his urban-themed works. Sămănătorism directly encouraged visual artists occasionally described as "Grigorescu's epigones ", who concentrated on rural, pastoral and picturesque subjects. The category notably includes two genre painters ,

29120-460: The magazine. On October 22 of that year, Sămănătorul announced that the split occurred in amiable terms: "Mr. N. Ioga [...] announces us that his many duties prevent him from carrying on as the magazine's [editorial] director, but that he wishes us best of luck and wants us to triumph". However, according to one account, he had decided to leave after his editorial policy had made him the target of criticism in other magazines. Iorga went on to publish

29328-428: The modern times which had "shattered" mankind. The same author deemed Eminescu's activism an " Annunciation " for the new ideology of a "healthy race". According to Iorga's rival, cultural historian and classical liberal thinker Eugen Lovinescu , the historian shared in particular the " reactionary " attitudes of Eminescu: a "hatred" of the bourgeoisie who endorsed Romanian liberalism , support for " protectionism " and

29536-456: The most effective Romanizing mechanism: the use of Latin as the new lingua franca . The first settlement at Sarmizegetusa was made up of Roman citizens who had retired from their legions. Based upon the location of names scattered throughout the province, it has been argued that a large percentage of colonists originated from Noricum and western Pannonia. Specialist miners (the Pirusti tribesmen ) were brought in from Dalmatia. Although

29744-414: The name Geto-Dacians . Strabo describes the Getae and Dacians as distinct but cognate tribes. This distinction refers to the regions they occupied. Strabo and Pliny the Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language. By contrast, the name of Dacians , whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes who adjoined the Pannonians and therefore first became known to

29952-523: The new publication sought to reinstate and closely follow Maiorescu's early theories, seeking to extend their application into the 20th century. However, Dragomirescu's own ideological approach was also relatively close to that of Sămănătorul , accepting some of its nationalist and didacticist guidelines. Convorbiri Critice therefore became the center of a club comprising various authors formerly affiliated with either Sămănătorul or Făt Frumos . Another isolated Junimist to resist Sămănătorist literature

30160-508: The newer discourse, with its references to a supposedly ancient legislation and radical criticism of the 1866 Constitution , was a radical break with the Junimea worldview: "The distance between Iorga's critique and the Junimist hypothesis is obvious and can be identified in the weight that national tradition is assigned with the ideological discourse. At no moment in its evolution did Junimism , as an ideal form of conservative liberalism , intend to correlate constitutional deconstruction with

30368-502: The north of Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși and ended at Sasyk Lagoon near the Dniester River. Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. Some Roman territories north of the Danube resisted until Justinian . Victohali , Taifals , and Thervingians are tribes mentioned inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that Gepids were disputing Transylvania with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia, became federati of

30576-404: The nostalgia for " patriarchal life". Another main element of Sămănătorul ' s preoccupations was didacticism , twinned with calls for education reform : the magazine urged the education system to actively and primarily dedicate itself to the cause of peasants. This closely followed the National Liberal agenda, which had facilitated innovation in the field after 1898, and was in tune with

30784-424: The notion of Romanian specificity through the lens of Romantic nationalism . This vision, Veiga notes, was "the first systematic attempt" of its kind in Romania, and implied recourse to "intellectual myths." Attached to the portrayal of peasants as models of excellence was Iorga's own scholarly perspective on Romanian history and the origin of the Romanians . By that moment in his career, Iorga had come to construct

30992-530: The organic, popular, nature of Romanian statehood, and borrowed from the racial theories of Eminescu, Arthur de Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain . The approach, Stanomir writes, was "counterfactual". The essay also depicted Jews in general as anti-Romanian , profiteering and manipulative, while claiming that they exercised their power by controlling the Cisleithanian and Romanian press ( Neue Freie Presse , Neues Wiener Tagblatt , Adevărul , Dimineața ). Its title alluded to its central theme, which

31200-458: The organization and functioning of the Romanian Gendarmerie Art. 1. - (1) The Romanian Gendarmerie is the specialized institution of the state, with military status, component of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which exercises, under the law, its attributions regarding the defense of public order and peace, of the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens, public and private property, the prevention and detection of crime and other violations of

31408-455: The patriarchal image of rustic life." On the margin of the Sămănătorul circle, this Sămănătorist sensibility was specifically identified in some poems written by Octavian Goga during the same years. In matters of style, the Sămănătorist circle was also interested in prolonging the legacy of Junimist writers, starting with Vlahuţă (who adhered closely to or imitated Eminescu's poetics ). The Junimist affiliate and folk writer Ion Creangă

31616-402: The peasants they themselves are, are of course revolutionary peasantists." Critic Mihai Zamfir , who notes that Dobrogeanu-Gherea was by then blending his Marxism into a "more autochthonous" perspective on politics, also argues that he and his colleagues at Contemporanul review were by then becoming aware that Romanian socialist literature was failing their expectations. In his assessment,

31824-458: The political theorists contributing to Sămănătorul was the Transylvanian Aurel Popovici . Political scientist and literary critic Ioan Stanomir notes a paradox in the synthesis of platforms endorsed by Popovici: a proponent of federalization in Austria-Hungary rather than an advocate of the irredentist cause (inventor of the United States of Greater Austria concept), but a conservative voice in line with those of his Sămănătorul colleagues,

32032-429: The praise of an ancient constitution that would have preceded modernity. The fundamental flaw of the 1866 Constitution [in Junimea ' s opinion] was most of all its inadequacy, and this inadequacy could be gradually corrected by stimulating a bourgeois environment and by increasing the constitutional norm's very efficiency." Overall, Stanomir proposes, Sămănătorism stood for a break with Junimist " Victorianism " by

32240-430: The propagation of Sămănătorist ideas was also helped along by the sentiment that the conservative establishment had abandoned the cause of Romanians living in Transylvania , Bukovina and other regions controlled by Austria-Hungary (particularly those who, the new intellectual leaders cautioned, were threatened by Magyarization policies). The group's protest against the political class' perceived lack of patriotism

32448-421: The rediscovery of national Romanian costume by Romanian Queen Elisabeth (Carmen Sylva) . His colleague Valeriu Râpeanu contrasts the initial rise of Sămănătorism with the moment of "crisis" experienced in Romanian letters , at a time when a generation of major writers— Ion Luca Caragiale , Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , Alexandru Vlahuță etc.—were approaching the end of their careers. In large measure,

32656-446: The reign of King Scorilo. Scorilo's brother was apparently held captive for a period in Rome, but was released in exchange for a promise that the Dacians would not intervene in Rome's volatile power-politics. During the reign of Emperor Nero , troops were withdrawn from the Dacian border. When Nero was overthrown in 69, the empire was plunged into turmoil in the Year of Four Emperors . The Dacians appear to have tried to take advantage of

32864-451: The resources of the Dacians. The Roman historian Trogus Pompeius wrote about king Oroles punishing his soldiers into sleeping at their wives' feet and doing the household chores, because of their initial failure in defeating the invaders. Subsequently, the now "highly motivated" Dacian army defeated the Bastarnae . Burebista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Julius Caesar , ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He reorganised

33072-414: The risk of compromising themselves in front of literary historians less sympathetic to a magazine's goals." Sandqvist also notes that the main group to be attracted by traditionalism, particularly after the 1907 revolt , mostly comprised "underpaid classicists, historians, and lawyers who composed the nation's overstaffed bureaucracy". Before and during World War I , Sămănătorism (like Poporanism) became

33280-413: The same year, Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging

33488-400: The situation to launch an invasion of Moesia in alliance with the Sarmatian Roxolani . The invasion was ill-timed. Licinius Mucianus , a supporter of Vespasian , was advancing with an army through Moesia towards Rome to overthrow Vitellius . The Dacians unexpectedly encountered his forces and suffered a major defeat. Scorilo appears to have died around this time. King Duras ruled between

33696-455: The social tensions of the Kingdom and was met with violence by the National Liberal cabinet of Dimitrie Sturdza . According to Sandqvist, traditionalist perspectives "clashed badly with reality" during the events, leading "almost immediately to a regressive approach among many intellectuals [...] who had previously encouraged and endorsed Romania's turn to the West". A dominant portion of Sămănătorul ' s outlook sought to define and preserve

33904-401: The specific nature of the Romanian people and [...] bring forth a love for the Romanian village and its people. To him art has a specific ethical-ethnic function, a mission to stimulate and to express the Romanian farmer, in accordance with the notion of the need for the artist and the poet to unite in a 'holy' union with the woods, the rivers and the whole of nature in a constant uprising against

34112-411: The territory of present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in Book IV of his Histories , written in c. 440 BC; He writes that the tribal union/confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians . The Dacians are the most law-abiding and the bravest of the Thracians. They believe they are immortal, forever living in

34320-436: The towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia. Under Diocletian , c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the Danube . In 328 the emperor Constantine the Great inaugurated the Constantine's Bridge (Danube) at Sucidava, (today Corabia in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In

34528-486: The towns suggests an urban–rural split between Roman multi-ethnic urban centres and the native Dacian rural population. On at least two occasions the Dacians rebelled against Roman authority: first in 117 AD, which caused the return of Trajan from the east, and in 158 AD when they were put down by Marcus Statius Priscus . Some scholars have used the lack of civitates peregrinae in Roman Dacia, where indigenous peoples were organised into native townships, as evidence for

34736-474: The traditional village community." Researcher Rodica Lascu-Pop presents a similar perspective, discussing Sămănătorism as "an echo of mutations occurring in society at the beginning of the century: the acute crisis of the peasant issue [...], the social gap between the urban and rural environments." The historical moment represented by Sămănătorism has also been linked by historians with various tendencies in Western culture . Its rejection of industrial society

34944-401: The traditionalist venue, George Călinescu also notes that they shared contributors between them, citing the cases of short story writers I. A. Bassarabescu and Nicolae Gane . These developments had as their side effect a schism within Junimea itself, provoked when Maiorescu's disciple Mihail Dragomirescu created his own magazine, Convorbiri Critice . Opposed to Convorbiri Literare ,

35152-539: The unity of Romanians on either side of the Carpathian Mountains . According to historian and comparatist Ștefan Borbély , an additional reflection of the group's educational theory was its encouragement of a "public fantasy" by depicting children as "nasty" human beings who need to be kept in tight check. The rejection of cosmopolitanism by Sămănătorul implied the recourse to arguments that many cultural historians have described as samples of " xenophobia ". Historian of ideas Lucian Boia discusses Sămănătorism among

35360-400: The war should be fought in Macedonia rather than Epirus. Had his proposal been accepted, the subjection of Antonius might have been less easily accomplished." According to Appian , Mark Antony is responsible for the statement that Augustus sought to secure the goodwill of Cotiso by giving him his daughter, and he himself marrying a daughter of Cotiso. According to Suetonius , Cotiso refused

35568-408: The west, and Sarmatian and related people from the east. The Carpi were a sizeable group of tribes, who lived beyond the north-eastern boundary of Roman Dacia. The majority view among modern scholars is that the Carpi were a North Thracian tribe and a subgroup of the Dacians. However, some historians classify them as Slavs. According to Heather, the Carpi were Dacians from the eastern foothills of

35776-494: The wide-ranging reforms pushed by Spiru Haret . In Veiga's account, the interest in educating the lower classes was partly owed to European precedents: the Jules Ferry laws in France and the Realschule system in the German Empire , as well as the efforts of Romanian Transylvanian teachers to compete with the officially-endorsed Hungarian-language institutions of learning. In parallel, the policy reflected Iorga's belief that spreading awareness of Romanian culture would cement

35984-477: The will to demonstrate "the unity of the Romanian population in matters of specific spiritual life" formed one of the characteristics of Sămănătorism . Published in the capital Bucharest , Sămănătorul was co-founded by two already established writers, Alexandru Vlahuță, from the " Old Kingdom ", and the Transylvanian-born George Coșbuc , in late 1901. Both of them were already known as editors of magazines with traditionalist agendas: Vlahuţă had founded and edited

36192-562: The years AD 69 and 87, during the time that Domitian ruled the Roman Empire . He was one of a series of rulers following the Great King Burebista . Duras' immediate successor was Decebalus . Duras may be identical to the "Diurpaneus" (or "Dorpaneus") identified in Roman sources as the Dacian leader who, in the winter of 85, ravaged the southern banks of the Danube , which the Romans defended for many years. Many authors refer to him as "Duras-Diurpaneus". Other scholars argue that Duras and Diurpaneus are different individuals, or that Diurpaneus

36400-462: Was Roman Dacia's military center. The region was soon settled by the retired veterans who had served in the Dacian Wars, principally the Fifth ( Macedonia ) , Ninth ( Claudia ) , and Fourteenth ( Gemina ) legions. While it is certain that colonists in large numbers were imported from all over the empire to settle in Roman Dacia, this appears to be true for the newly created Roman towns only. The lack of epigraphic evidence for native Dacian names in

36608-407: Was a major influence on later Romanian literature and culture in general. Its legacy stood at the center of cultural debates between traditionalism and modernism lasting throughout the 20th century. While Iorga personally tried to revive it with the magazines Drum Drept and Cuget Clar , Sămănătorism was adopted by other traditionalist or agrarian currents, and was a contributing factor to

36816-419: Was a poor judge of literary value, who had promoted mediocre writers (from Xenopol's own wife Cornelia "Riria" Gatovschi to Victor Vojen ). Elsewhere in his articles for the magazine, he called Tocilescu "a scholar of the least substantial species and a critic whose norm is the personal gain". In 1904, also involved in the polemic was Ion Găvănescul . Originally acknowledged by Iorga as a figure of importance on

37024-545: Was able to inflict horrible wounds on opponents, easily disabling or killing the heavily armored Roman legionaries. Trajan erected the Column of Trajan in Rome to commemorate his victory. Roman Dacia, also known as Dacia Felix, was organized as an imperial province . It is estimated that the population of Roman Dacia ranging from 650,000 to 1,200,000. The area was the focus of a massive Roman colonization. New mines were opened and ore extraction intensified, while agriculture, stock breeding, and commerce flourished. Roman Dacia

37232-413: Was also a reference point for the far right or fascist movements which emerged during the late 1920s and early 1930s. The first among such groups was one formed around the poet-philosopher Nichifor Crainic , a sporadic contributor to Iorga's magazines, after he took over leadership of Gândirea journal. Crainic's main innovation was in linking ethnic nationalism and ethnocracy with the notion that

37440-417: Was assumed by Iorga. This moment, Veiga argues, signified a change in policies and appeal: " Sămănătorul only managed to acquire have its own force when it progressively transformed itself into a catalyst for a whole series of young discontent intellectuals". Integrated within such changes of discourse, Veiga writes, were Iorga's "fickle" opinions, which had turned into suspicions that the National Liberal Party

37648-481: Was being himself exposed to criticism from Luceafărul . In 1905, Iorga also used Sămănătorul to express some regret for the tension reached during the conflict between his generation and the older Hasdeu or Xenopol: "It was also the fault of the young men, all of us being too keen on advertising and enriching ourselves, at the expense of old men who had not been much focused on consuming, and were far from being satisfied." In 1905, editorial leadership over Sămănătorul

37856-472: Was completed in the second issue by Coșbuc's piece, Uniți ("United"), which condemned what he called "imported" and "sick" literature. The paper frequently alternated the spellings of its name over the following years: founded as Sămănătorul , it became Semănătorul from 1901 to 1902, returned to the original spelling until 1909, and changed back to the e spelling in its final year. The two were literal synonyms for "the sower", but their metaphorical meaning

38064-417: Was debatable: "At the beginning of the 1920s, when modernist artistic formulas where progressively making their offensive [...] felt, Nicolae Iorga was convinced that the ' anarchy ' could be quelled by restating the ethical and ethnic factors as ones subordinating the aesthetic. The times were nevertheless different, and the recovery of old Sămănătorist themes and motifs had less and less powerful effects with

38272-431: Was destroyed by Charlemagne in 791. At the same time, Slavic people arrived. The Hellenic chronicle could possibly qualify to the first testimony of Romanians in Pannonia and Eastern Europe during the time of Attila, implying that the formation of Proto-Romanian (or Common Romanian) from Vulgar Latin started in the 5th century. The words "torna, torna fratre" (return, return brother) recorded in connection with

38480-424: Was endorsing clientelism and a camarilla regime. Despite its growth in influence, the publication had a modest circulation by Romanian standards, reportedly publishing no more than 300 copies per issue. George Călinescu, who indicates that Iorga was trying to link the venue with "a clearer program" and "his own direction", assesses that such goals failed to introduce a fundamentally new approach, and contends that

38688-497: Was first used in the early Neolithic around 6050 BC by the Starčevo culture and later by the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture in the pre- Cucuteni period. The Dacians , who are widely accepted to be the same people as the Getae , were a branch of Thracians who inhabited Dacia , which corresponds with modern Romania, Moldova , northern Bulgaria, south-western Ukraine, Hungary east of the Danube river and West Banat in Serbia . The earliest written evidence of people living in

38896-477: Was formed in 1859 through a personal union of the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia . The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877. During World War I , after declaring its neutrality in 1914, Romania fought together with the Allied Powers from 1916. In the aftermath of the war, Bukovina , Bessarabia , Transylvania , and parts of Banat , Crișana , and Maramureș became part of

39104-400: Was hotly contested by cosmopolitan or decadent trends, which were inspired by French-imported Symbolism and set the ground for avant-garde and modernist literature . The magazine found one of its main rivals in poet and theorist Alexandru Macedonski , recognized as the doyen of the Romanian Symbolist school and an enemy of traditionalist literature even before the year 1900, who put out

39312-488: Was joined with what Veiga defines as "an offshoot of renewed Romanian agitation in Transylvania". In parallel, Veiga notes, the group was also reacting against "an opportunistic international policy" and the penetration of foreign capital on the Kingdom's markets. At the time, however, the National Liberals were reluctantly committed to supporting King Carol I 's alliance with the Central Powers , and, through it, with Austria-Hungary. According to literary historian Z. Ornea ,

39520-403: Was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus. After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of Decebalus , but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up . The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under Tettius Julianus , gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make a humiliating peace following the defeat of Domitian by

39728-412: Was largely replicated in Transylvania by the publication Luceafărul , founded in 1902 by Goga and his fellow activists Alexandru Ciura and Octavian Tăslăuanu . The new magazine's first-ever issue carried the date of December 2, 1901. Printed in cooperation with Editura Minerva publishing company, it was financed and owned by Iosif, who also worked on the editorial staff. The editorial office itself

39936-444: Was linked by researchers to a set of significant events of fin de siècle European economic history . Spanish historian Francisco Veiga placed the emergence of Sămănătorul in direct connection to a European-wide evolution of capitalism and related phenomena affecting the middle class : "In the traumatic circumstances of late 19th and early 20th century imperialist crises [...] and the rejection of urban-industrial society by

40144-411: Was located at Regală Street, No. 6, near Calea Victoriei (on present-day Ion Câmpineanu Street) and in the same building as Minerva's printing presses . The editorial piece introducing the first-ever issue, written by the two main editors but left unsigned, carried the title Primele vorbe ("The First Words"), and expressed concern over the lack of positive messages in Romanian literature. This overview

40352-399: Was more complex. Historian Irina Livezeanu wrote: "The Romanian word and concept is not easy to translate. It derives from the verb a semăna or to sow, or plant (seeds), and suggests that literature should be fundamentally rural and agrarian, concerning itself with the life and customs of the 90 percent of the Romanian population who were indeed peasants or 'sowers'." The term also refers to

40560-399: Was novelist Duiliu Zamfirescu , who spoke out against the views on peasantry promoted by current, as well as against Maiorescu's views on poporan works, and who promoted his own form of conservatism. Reviewing these choices, Ornea argued that there were still essential links between Zamfirescu's views and those of his Sămănătorist adversaries. On the left-wing of the political spectrum,

40768-434: Was obliged to move with his entire army into Illyria and Moesia , the latter of which was now split into Upper and Lower regions. He ordered his commander Cornelius Fuscus to cross the Danube. The Dacians were pushed back across the Danube, but Fuscus suffered a crushing defeat when ambushed by "Diurpaneus". At this point, the probably elderly Duras seems to have peacefully ceded power to Decebalus. King Decebalus ruled

40976-407: Was of great importance to the military stationed throughout the Balkans and became an urban province, with about ten cities known and all of them originating from old military camps . Eight of these held the highest rank of colonia . Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa was the financial, religious, and legislative center and where the imperial procurator (finance officer) had his seat, while Apulum

41184-565: Was on the eastern border of the Hercynian Forest . Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard. During his reign, Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacian capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa Regia . For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King Decebalus . The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In

41392-420: Was one of Sămănătorul ' s recommended sources of inspiration for prose writers. However, Tudor Vianu notes, this was questionable, since Creangă's uncomplicated "rural authenticity" made him "the least Sămănătorist among our writers." Committed to preserving the legacy of painter Nicolae Grigorescu as a mainstay of Romanian visual arts , Sămănătorism also touched the field of art criticism. Vlahuţă,

41600-403: Was promulgated by the King on 30 August 1893. The first article of the Ordinance regarding the Implementation of the Rural Gendarmerie Law mentioned that: The organization of the Rural Gendarmerie, as described in the law, makes this institution a military body, subordinated to the Internal Affairs Minister, with the mission to maintain the public order and security. It is also subordinated to

41808-439: Was taken to a new level by Cuget Clar , noted for its claim that Lovinescu and Arghezi had together turned Romanian literature into what Iorga deemed "monstrosities". It heralded a nationalist offensive, which accused various Romanian writers, usually modernists, of having promoted and endorsed " pornography ". At the time, Iorga and his followers were also stating that the local avant-garde had an alien, primarily Jewish, source. In

42016-526: Was talk of [Iorga's] opacity and the fight against translations and literature in general. N. Iorga was nevertheless demanding [...] the expansion of the translated works area to all sets of European literature : German , English , Italian , Russian , Nordic ." Boia also notes that Iorga was not an isolationist, having already pioneered research into Romania's traditional links with the Eastern European sphere. Iorga's contributions for Sămănătorul occasionally stood as manifestations of his antisemitism, as

42224-403: Was the case with a November 1904 article. The text was structured around the allegation that Iași city had been taken over by the non-emancipated Jews and the policies of Zionism : "Iaşi is three-quarter Jewish. They own its wealth, its life, its activity. The flame of Zionism was lit and burns more brightly over there. We [Romanians] only have two things in Iaşi: the school and the church. And

42432-407: Was the imagery of urban alienation. In Călinescu's definition, the group reacted against what it perceived as "the neuroses [and] the putrefaction of the urban class", and was demanding instead "a 'healthy' literary production, which could only be rural." Art and literary critic Dan Grigorescu notes in this nationalist guideline the opposition between "the 'tentacular' city, the 'killer' city, [and]

42640-456: Was the journalist Pamfil Șeicaru , noted for his more radical political opinions. The new venues prolonged Sămănătorism (or "neo- Sămănătorism ") as a phenomenon of the interwar period , that is after the Transylvania's union and the creation of Greater Romania , based on Iorga's belief that the movement had survived its political context and was still relevant in setting cultural norms. Cultural historian Ileana Ghemeș notes that Iorga's claim

42848-463: Was the publication's "most important contributor", while Neubauer and Cornis-Pope refer to him as "the most powerful and original thinker of the [East-Central European] region." By 1904, Sadoveanu had achieved national fame with his debut volumes, published simultaneously by Minerva and praised by Iorga in his chronicles for the magazine (one of which proclaimed 1904 "the Sadoveanu year"). In parallel, Iorga's slowly introduced his own tenets, beginning with

43056-409: Was thus seen as equivalent to the sentiments expressed in the poems of Robert Frost in the United States or Francis Jammes in France . Comparatists John Neubauer and Marcel Cornis-Pope described the magazine as part of the larger phenomenon of " populism and agrarian nationalism" in East-Central Europe , together with Poland 's Głos magazine and Slovakia 's Naturizmu current, with

43264-489: Was transforming itself into a venue for the least important traditionalist authors. Râpeanu also writes: "Like any critic, [Iorga] could be mistaken, particularly in cases where he did not take into consideration the aesthetic criterion and expressed words of sympathy [...] for minor writers who endeavored, with no calling, to apply the magazine's principles." A similar assessment was provided by literary critic Ion Simuţ , who noted that Iorga tended to promote all his followers in

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