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137-547: The Sambre–Oise Canal saw one of the last Allied victories of World War I before the Armistice with Germany which came into effect at 11.00 am on 11 November 1918. The forcing of the Sambre–Oise Canal took place on 4 November 1918. Participating in the operation were the 2nd Battalion Royal Sussex , as well as the 2nd Manchesters , to which the poet Wilfred Owen belonged. The Lancashire Fusiliers also took part in

274-764: A British Expeditionary Force of 100,000 men would be landed in France; in addition, the Royal Navy would be responsible for the North Sea , the Channel and protecting Northern France, with the French navy concentrated in the Mediterranean . Britain was committed to support France in a war against Germany but this was not widely understood outside government or the upper ranks of the military. As late as 1 August,

411-549: A Roman Catholic while most Greek people were Orthodox Christian , and the fact that his marriage to Queen Amalia remained childless. Furthermore, the new kingdom tried to eliminate the traditional banditry , something that in many cases meant conflict with some old revolutionary fighters ( klephtes ) who continued to exercise this practice. The Bavarian Regents ruled until 1837, when at the insistence of Britain and France, they were recalled, and Otto after that appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran most of

548-811: A German ultimatum demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4 August, the Germans invaded and the Belgian government called for British assistance under the 1839 Treaty; by the end of 1914, over 95% of the country was occupied but the Belgian Army held their lines on the Yser Front throughout the war. Kingdom of Greece Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1844–1924; 1935–1941; 1944–1973) The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek : Βασίλειον τῆς Ἑλλάδος [vaˈsili.on tis eˈlaðos] )

685-492: A clear majority of the Liberal government and its supporters wanted to stay out of the war. While Liberal leaders H. H. Asquith and Edward Grey considered Britain legally and morally committed to support France regardless, waiting until Germany triggered the 1839 Treaty provided the best chance of preserving Liberal party unity. The German high command was aware entering Belgium would lead to British intervention but decided

822-500: A group of Bavarian Regents ruled in his name and made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping most significant state offices away from them. Nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps, him being

959-549: A major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitution and reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy. French and British military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases were made. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-Turkish War in Libya. Through spring 1912, a series of bilateral agreements among

1096-478: A military rebellion, forcing Otto to accept the inevitable and leave the country. The Greeks then asked Britain to send Queen Victoria 's son Prince Alfred as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other Powers. Instead, a young Danish prince became King George I . George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith. As

1233-591: A peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek . Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament

1370-618: A plan for the re-occupation of Tenedos, which the Greek destroyers used as a base, by an amphibious operation. The operation was scheduled for 4 January. On that day, weather conditions were ideal, and the fleet was ready, but the Yenihan regiment earmarked for the operation failed to arrive on time. The naval staff nevertheless ordered the fleet to sortie, and an engagement developed with the Greek fleet, without any significant results on either side. Similar sorties followed on 10 and 11 January, but

1507-753: A reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British king, Britain ceded the United States of the Ionian Islands to Greece. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Church was a part of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . The Ottoman authorities, who were Muslim, did not interfere with the church. With the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, however, the government decided to take control of the church, breaking away from

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1644-548: A route into the crumbling Ottoman Empire, where Germany also had significant interests. Combined with the increase in Russian military strength, both Austria and Germany felt threatened by Serbian expansion; when Austria invaded Serbia on 28 July 1914, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov viewed it as an Austro-German conspiracy to end Russian influence in the Balkans. In addition to its own territory, Russia viewed itself as

1781-867: The Admiralty that did the same for the Royal Navy . Theatre commanders like Douglas Haig on the Western Front or Edmund Allenby in Palestine then reported to the CIGS. After the Indian Army, the largest individual units were the Australian Corps and Canadian Corps in France, which by 1918 were commanded by their own generals, John Monash and Arthur Currie . Contingents from South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland served in theatres including France, Gallipoli , German East Africa and

1918-636: The Asia Minor Campaign . A military coup d'état restored the monarchy in 1935 and Greece became a kingdom again until 1973. The kingdom was finally dissolved in the aftermath of a seven-year military dictatorship (1967–1974) and the Third Hellenic Republic was established following a referendum held in 1974. The Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire , also known as the Byzantine Empire, which ruled most of

2055-686: The Balkan League to prevent further Austrian expansion. Austria viewed Serbia with hostility partly due to its links with Russia, whose claim to be the protector of South Slavs extended to those within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as the Czechs and Slovaks . Serbia also potentially gave Russia the ability to achieve their long-held objective of capturing Constantinople and the Dardanelles . Austria-Hungary supported

2192-716: The British Empire , many of whom made significant contributions to the Allied war effort, both in the provision of troops and civilian labourers. It was split into Crown Colonies administered by the Colonial Office in London, such as Nigeria , and the self-governing Dominions of Canada , Newfoundland , New Zealand , Australia and South Africa . These controlled their own domestic policies and military expenditure but not foreign policy. In terms of population,

2329-991: The British Indian Army served in different theatres of the war, primarily France and the Middle East . From 1914 to 1916, overall Imperial diplomatic, political and military strategy was controlled by the British War Cabinet in London; in 1917 it was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet , which included representatives from the Dominions. Under the War Cabinet were the Chief of the Imperial General Staff or CIGS , responsible for all Imperial ground forces, and

2466-465: The Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Commission to pay off the country's debtors. Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic . Many of the educated elite saw this as

2603-626: The Crimean War the British occupied Piraeus to prevent Greece declaring war on the Ottomans as a Russian ally. A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Otto's continuing interference in government. In 1862, the King dismissed his prime minister, the former admiral Konstantinos Kanaris , the most prominent politician of the period. This dismissal provoked

2740-520: The Dardanelles campaign , offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views became apparent: Constantine had been educated in Germany , was married to Sophia of Prussia , sister of Kaiser Wilhelm , and was convinced of the Central Powers ' victory. Venizelos, on the other hand, was an ardent anglophile , and believed in an Allied victory. Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose

2877-685: The Dodecanese , which had been occupied by Italy in 1911. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population. In March 1913, an anarchist, Alexandros Schinas , assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox. His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic Greek nationalism (the Megali Idea ), evoking

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3014-663: The Eastern Mediterranean . The Great Powers supported Greece to regain its independence and following a decisive battle in the Navarino Bay , a ceasefire was agreed in London (see Treaty of London (1827) ). The autonomy of Greece was ultimately recognised by the London Protocol of 1828 and its full independence from the Ottoman Empire by the Protocol of London of 1830 . In 1831, the assassination of

3151-713: The Entente or the Triple Entente was an international military coalition of countries led by France , the United Kingdom , Russia , the United States , Italy , and Japan against the Central Powers of Germany , Austria-Hungary , the Ottoman Empire , and Bulgaria in World War I (1914–1918). By the end of the first decade of the 20th century, the major European powers were divided between

3288-633: The High Commissioner being Prince George of Greece . Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s there were constant disturbances in Macedonia . Here the Greeks were in competition not only with the Ottomans but also with the Bulgarians, engaged in an armed propaganda struggle for the hearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called " Macedonian Struggle ". In July 1908,

3425-683: The League of the Three Emperors , then with Germany in the 1887–1890 Reinsurance Treaty ; both collapsed due to the competing interests of Austria and Russia in the Balkans . While France took advantage of this to agree the 1894 Franco-Russian Alliance , Britain viewed Russia with deep suspicion; in 1800, over 3,000 kilometres separated the Russian Empire and British India, by 1902, it was 30 km in some areas. This threatened to bring

3562-739: The Mariana , Caroline , and Marshall Islands , while in 1917, a Japanese naval squadron was sent to support the Allies in the Mediterranean Sea . Japan's primary interest was in China and in January 1915, the Chinese government was presented with a secret ultimatum of Twenty-One Demands , demanding extensive economic and political concessions. While these were eventually modified, the result

3699-738: The Paris Peace Conference recognized the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States as "the Principal Allied and Associated Powers". When the war began in 1914, the Central Powers were opposed by the Triple Entente , formed in 1907 when the agreement between the United Kingdom and Russia complemented existing agreements between the three powers. Fighting commenced when Austria invaded Serbia on 28 July 1914, purportedly in response to

3836-620: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Romania was forced to do the same in the May 1918 Treaty of Bucharest but on 10 November, it repudiated the Treaty and once more declared war on the Central Powers. These changes meant the Allies who negotiated the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 included the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States; Part One of the Treaty agreed to

3973-537: The Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance . The Triple Entente was made up of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. The Triple Alliance was originally composed of Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy, but Italy remained neutral in 1914. As the war progressed, each coalition added new members. Japan joined the Entente in 1914 and, despite proclaiming its neutrality at the beginning of the war, Italy also joined

4110-529: The Young Turk Revolution broke out in the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria–Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Bulgaria declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. On Crete, the local population, led by a young politician named Eleftherios Venizelos , declared Enosis , union with Greece, provoking another crisis. The fact that

4247-619: The Yser Front throughout the war. This allowed Belgium to be treated as an Ally, in contrast to Luxembourg which retained control over domestic affairs but was occupied by the German military . In the East, between 7 and 9 August the Russians entered German East Prussia on 7 August, Austrian Eastern Galicia . Japan joined the Entente by declaring war on Germany on 23 August, then Austria on 25 August. On 2 September, Japanese forces surrounded

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4384-402: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to Emperor Franz Joseph I ; this brought Serbia's ally Montenegro into the war on 8 August and it attacked the Austrian naval base at Cattaro , modern Kotor. At the same time, German troops carried out the Schlieffen Plan , entering neutral Belgium and Luxembourg ; over 95% of Belgium was occupied but the Belgian Army held their lines on

4521-401: The 19th century, Britain sought to maintain the European balance of power without formal alliances, a policy known as splendid isolation . This left it dangerously exposed as Europe divided into opposing power blocs and the 1895–1905 Conservative government negotiated first the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance , then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with France. The first tangible result of this shift

4658-528: The Aegean. By mid-November Greek naval detachments had seized the islands of Imbros , Thasos , Agios Efstratios , Samothrace , Psara and Ikaria , while landings were undertaken on the larger islands of Lesbos and Chios only on 21 and 27 November respectively. Substantial Ottoman garrisons were present on the latter, and their resistance was fierce. They withdrew into the mountainous interior and were not subdued until 22 December and 3 January respectively. Samos , officially an autonomous principality ,

4795-413: The Aegean. It was hoped that the Averof , the only major Greek unit fast enough to catch the Hamidiye , would be drawn in pursuit and leave the remainder of the Greek fleet weakened. In the event, Hamidiye slipped through the Greek patrols on the night of 14–15 January and bombarded the harbor of the Greek island of Syros , sinking the Greek auxiliary cruiser Makedonia which lay in anchor there (it

4932-424: The Allies. In November 1916 the French occupied Piraeus , bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired at them, leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist forces. There were also riots against supporters of Venizelos in Athens (the Noemvriana ). Following the February Revolution in Russia, however, the Tsar's support for his cousin was removed, and Constantine

5069-451: The Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria , Montenegro and Serbia ) formed the Balkan League , which in October 1912 declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman intelligence had disastrously misread Greek military intentions. In retrospect, it would appear that the Ottoman staff believed that the Greek attack would be shared equally between the two primary avenues of approach, Macedonia and Epirus. The 2nd Army staff had therefore evenly balanced

5206-492: The Balkans. Once this was gone, the defeat of the Ottoman Army became inevitable. To be sure, the Bulgarians and the Serbs played a significant role in the defeat of the main Ottoman armies. Their great victories at Kirk Kilise , Lule Burgas , Kumanovo , and Monastir shattered the Eastern and Vardar armies. However, these victories were not decisive in the sense that they ended the war. The Ottoman field armies survived, and in Thrace, they actually grew stronger day by day. In

5343-427: The British army and Royal Navy were committed to support France in the event of war with Germany but even in the British government, very few were aware of the extent of these commitments. In response to Germany's declaration of war on Russia, France issued a general mobilisation in expectation of war on 2 August and on 3 August, Germany also declared war on France. Germany's ultimatum to Belgium brought Britain into

5480-416: The Byzantine emperors of that name. Besides, as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars , his popularity was enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his Prime Minister. When World War I broke out in 1914, despite Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, both leaders preferred to maintain a neutral stance. However, when, in early 1915, the Allied Powers asked for Greek help in

5617-472: The Dardanelles and their forts. The Ottomans suffered 41 killed and 101 wounded. It was the last attempt of the Ottoman Navy to leave the Dardanelles, thereby leaving the Greeks dominant in the Aegean. On 5 February [ O.S. 24 January] 1913, a Greek Farman MF.7 , piloted by Lt. Moutousis and with Ensign Moraitinis as an observer, carried out an aerial reconnaissance of the Ottoman fleet in its anchorage at Nagara , and launched four bombs on

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5754-485: The Dardanelles to Suez was instituted, which disrupted the Ottomans' flow of supplies (only the Black Sea routes to Romania remained open) and left some 250,000 Ottoman troops immobilized in Asia. In the Ionian Sea , the Greek fleet operated without opposition, ferrying supplies for the army units in the Epirus front. Furthermore, the Greeks bombarded and then blockaded the port of Vlorë in Albania on 3 December, and Durrës on 27 February. A naval blockade extending from

5891-523: The East. The growth of the Russian railway network and increase in speed of mobilisation made rapid victory over France even more important; to accommodate the additional 170,000 troops approved by the 1913 Army Bill, the 'incursion' now became a full-scale invasion. The Germans accepted the risk of British intervention; in common with most of Europe, they expected it to be a short war while their London Ambassador claimed civil war in Ireland would prevent Britain from assisting its Entente partners. On 3 August,

6028-415: The Eastern Mediterranean region for over 1100 years, had been fatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into the Balkan peninsula capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, but by 1500 most of

6165-484: The Entente in 1915. The term "Allies" became more widely used than "Entente" , although the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and Italy were also referred to as the Quadruple Entente and, together with Japan, as the Quintuple Entente . The colonies administered by the countries that fought for the Allies were also part of the Entente powers such as American Philippines , Belgian Congo , British India , French Algeria , and Japanese Korea . The United States joined near

6302-556: The Entente in return for German territories in the Pacific, greatly annoying the Australian government which also wanted them. On 7 August 1914, Britain officially asked for assistance in destroying German naval units in China and Japan formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914, followed by Austria-Hungary on 25 August 1914. On 2 September 1914, Japanese forces surrounded the German Treaty Port of Qingdao , then known as Tsingtao, which surrendered on 7 November. The Imperial Japanese Navy simultaneously occupied German colonies in

6439-399: The French and German militaries accepted Germany would almost certainly violate Belgian neutrality in the event of war, the extent of that was unclear. The original Schlieffen Plan only required a limited incursion into the Belgian Ardennes , rather than a full-scale invasion; in September 1911, the Belgian Foreign Minister told a British Embassy official they would not call for assistance if

6576-424: The French lost nearly 300,000 dead on the Western Front, more than Britain suffered in the whole of WWII and the gaps were partly filled by colonial troops, over 500,000 of whom served on the Western Front over the period 1914–1918. Colonial troops also fought at Gallipoli , occupied Togo and Kamerun in West Africa and had a minor role in the Middle East, where France was the traditional protector of Christians in

6713-404: The German Treaty Port of Tsingtao (now Qingdao) in China and occupied German colonies in the Pacific, including the Mariana , Caroline , and Marshall Islands . Despite its membership of the Triple Alliance , Italy remained neutral until 23 May 1915 when it joined the Entente, declaring war on Austria but not Germany. On 17 January 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente; this

6850-452: The Germans limited themselves to that. While neither Britain or France could allow Germany to occupy Belgium unopposed, a Belgian refusal to ask for help would complicate matters for the British Liberal government , which contained a significant isolationist element. However, the key German objective was to avoid war on two fronts; France had to be defeated before Russia could fully mobilise and give time for German forces to be transferred to

6987-444: The Greek army to continue its advance into northern Epirus , the southern part of modern Albania, which it occupied. There its advance stopped, although the Serbian line of control was very close to the north. On the outbreak of hostilities on 18 October, the Greek fleet , placed under the newly promoted Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis , sailed for the island of Lemnos , occupying it three days later (although fighting continued on

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7124-401: The Greek fleet's unpreparedness resulting from the premature outbreak of the war, such an early Ottoman attack might well have been able to achieve a crucial victory. Instead, the Ottoman Navy spent the first two months of the war in operations against the Bulgarians in the Black Sea, giving the Greeks valuable time to complete their preparations and allowing them to consolidate their control of

7261-403: The Greek government under Theodoros Diligiannis , bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state with

7398-420: The Greek government, led by Dimitrios Rallis , proved unable likewise to take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold, rankled with many Greeks, especially with young officers. These formed a secret society, the " Military League ", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues and seeking reforms. The resulting Goudi coup on 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as

7535-432: The Greek region and the first of them was launched on 6 March 1821, in the Danubian principalities . It was put down by the Ottomans, but the torch had been lit and by the end of the same month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt. In 1821, the Greek-speaking populations of Peloponnesus revolted against the Ottoman Empire . Following a region-wide struggle that lasted several months, the Greek War of Independence led to

7672-412: The Greek throne; however, he turned down the offer. Otto von Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria was chosen as its first king . Otto arrived at the provisional capital, Nafplion , in 1833 aboard a British warship . Otto's reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia , left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his reign,

7809-400: The Greek torpedo boat No. 14 under Lt. Periklis Argyropoulos off Ayvalık . The main Ottoman fleet remained inside the Dardanelles for the early part of the war, while the Greek destroyers continuously patrolled the Straits' exit to report on a possible sortie. Kountouriotis suggested mining the straits, but was not taken up for fear of international reactions. On 7 December, the head of

7946-419: The Italian Army , died on 1 July 1914, taking many of the prospects for Italian support with him. The Italian Prime Minister Antonio Salandra argued that as the Alliance was defensive in nature, Austria's aggression against Serbia and Italy's exclusion from the decision-making process meant it was not obliged to join them. His caution was understandable because France and Britain either supplied or controlled

8083-422: The Middle East. Australian troops separately occupied German New Guinea , with the South Africans doing the same in German South West Africa ; this resulted in the Maritz rebellion by former Boers, which was quickly suppressed. After the war, New Guinea and South-West Africa became Protectorates , held until 1975 and 1990 respectively. Between 1873 and 1887, Russia was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary in

8220-423: The Ottoman Empire, the centrepiece being the planned Berlin–Baghdad railway , with Serbia the only section not controlled by a pro-German state. The exact role played by Serbian officials in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is still debated but despite complying with most of their demands, Austria-Hungary invaded on 28 July 1914. While Serbia successfully repulsed the Austro-Hungarian army in 1914, it

8357-460: The Ottoman commander Hasan Tahsin Pasha surrendered Thessaloniki and its garrison of 26,000 men to the Greeks on 9 November [ O.S. 27 October] 1912. Two Corps HQs ( Ustruma and VIII), two Nizamiye divisions (14th and 22nd) and four Redif divisions (Salonika, Drama, Naslic and Serez) were thus lost to the Ottoman order of battle. Additionally, the Ottoman forces lost 70 artillery pieces, 30 machine guns and 70,000 rifles (Thessaloniki

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8494-440: The Ottoman fleet Tahir Bey was replaced by Ramiz Naman Bey, the leader of the hawkish faction among the officer corps. A new strategy was agreed, whereby the Ottomans were to take advantage of any absence of the Greek flagship Averof to attack the other Greek ships. The Ottoman staff formulated a plan to lure a number of the Greek destroyers on patrol into a trap. A first such effort on 12 December failed due to boiler trouble, but

8631-407: The Ottoman fleet again sallied from the straits towards Lemnos, it was defeated for a second time in the Naval Battle of Lemnos . This time, the Ottoman warships concentrated their fire on the Averof , which again made use of its superior speed and tried to " cross the T " of the Ottoman fleet. Barbaros Hayreddin was again heavily damaged, and the Ottoman fleet was forced to return to the shelter of

8768-432: The Ottoman fleet suffered heavy damage to the Barbaros Hayreddin and 18 dead and 41 wounded (most during their disorderly retreat) and the Greeks one dead and seven wounded. In the aftermath of Elli, on 20 December the energetic Lt. Commander Rauf Bey was placed in effective command of the Ottoman fleet. Two days later he led his forces out, hoping again to trap the patrolling Greek destroyers between two divisions of

8905-403: The Ottoman fleet, one heading for Imbros and the other waiting at the entrance of the straits. The plan failed as the Greek ships quickly broke contact, while at the same time the Mecidiye came under attack by the Greek submarine Delfin , which launched a torpedo against it but missed; the first such attack in history. During this time, the Ottoman Army continued to press upon a reluctant Navy

9042-437: The Ottoman provinces of Syria , Palestine and Lebanon . Prior to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan was a semi-feudal, largely agrarian state with few natural resources and limited technology. By 1914, it had transformed itself into a modern industrial state, with a powerful military; by defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War during 1894–1895, it established itself as the primary power in East Asia and colonised

9179-414: The Ottomans in 1877 , popular Greek sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece in the context of the Treaty of Berlin , while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete . Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897,

9316-406: The Russian pilot N. de Sackoff, flying for the Greeks, became the first pilot ever shot down in combat, when his biplane was hit by ground fire following a bomb run on the walls of Fort Bizani . He came down near small town of Preveza , on the coast north of the Ionian island of Lefkas , secured local Greek assistance, repaired his plane and resumed flight back to base. The fall of Ioannina allowed

9453-457: The Serbs. The Greek division, surprised by the presence of the Ottoman Corps, isolated from the rest of Greek army and outnumbered by the now counterattacking Ottomans centred on Bitola , was forced to retreat. As a result, the Serbs beat the Greeks to Bitola. In the Epirus front the Greek army was initially heavily outnumbered, but due to the passive attitude of the Ottomans succeeded in conquering Preveza (21 October 1912) and pushing north to

9590-400: The Triple Entente with France, which at this stage was largely informal. In 1908, Austria annexed the former Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina ; Russia responded by creating the Balkan League in order to prevent further Austrian expansion. In the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , Serbia , Bulgaria and Greece captured most of the remaining Ottoman possessions in Europe; disputes over

9727-577: The actual results of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles would be powerful factors in the rise of Benito Mussolini . In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire ; with Russian support, it gained full independence after the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War . Many Serbs viewed Russia as protector of the South Slavs in general but also specifically against Bulgaria, where Russian objectives increasingly collided with Bulgarian nationalism . When Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, Russia responded by creating

9864-570: The administration and the army. But Greece still had no legislature and no constitution. Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in Athens in September 1843. Otto agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November. The new constitution created a bicameral parliament , consisting of an Assembly ( Vouli ) and a Senate ( Gerousia ). Power then passed into

10001-542: The allies". The Treaty of London ended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell out over the partition of Macedonia . In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia, beginning the Second Balkan War , but was beaten back. The Treaty of Bucharest , which concluded the war, left Greece with southern Epirus, the southern-half of Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean islands, except for

10138-456: The anchored ships. Although it scored no hits, this operation is regarded as the first naval-air operation in military history. General Nikola Ivanov , commander of the 2nd Bulgarian Army , acknowledged the role of the Greek fleet in the overall Balkan League victory by stating that "the activity of the entire Greek fleet and above all the Averof was the chief factor in the general success of

10275-506: The battle. The British forces were to cross some fields surrounded by high hedges, then cross the canal at a point where there was a lockhouse. The Germans had this area defended with machine guns and rifle teams. As the 2nd Battalion advanced on the canal, the Royal Engineers placed small footbridges across the lock. Some Royal Sussex Regiment men actually climbed up onto the lock gates, one of them firing his Lewis gun from

10412-507: The battleship squadron moved on north under cover of the forts at Kumkale and engaged the Greek fleet, coming from Imbros, at 9:40. Leaving the older battleships behind, Kountouriotis led the Averof into independent action: utilizing its superior speed, it cut across the Ottoman fleet's bow. Under fire from two sides, the Ottomans were quickly forced to withdraw to the Dardanelles. The whole engagement lasted less than an hour, in which

10549-639: The city of Ioannina, and therefore had to wait for reinforcements from the Macedonian front. After the campaign in Macedonia was over, a large part of the Army was redeployed to Epirus, where Crown Prince Constantine himself assumed command. In the Battle of Bizani the Ottoman positions were breached and Ioannina taken on 6 March [ O.S. 22 February] 1913. During the siege, on 8 February 1913,

10686-601: The combat strength of the seven Ottoman divisions between the Yanya Corps and VIII Corps , in Epirus and Macedonia respectively. The Greek Army also fielded seven divisions, but, having the initiative, concentrated all seven against VIII Corps, leaving only a number of independent battalions of scarcely divisional strength in the Epirus front. This had fatal consequences for the Western Group of Armies, since it led to

10823-539: The constitution for a secret organization in Freemasonic fashion. Its purpose was to unite all Greeks in an armed organization to overthrow Turkish rule. The three founders were Nikolaos Skoufas from the Arta province, Emmanuil Xanthos from Patmos , and Athanasios Tsakalov from Ioannina . Soon after they initiated a fourth member, Panagiotis Anagnostopoulos from Andritsaina . Many revolts were planned across

10960-576: The country lacked international recognition and had no robust alliances in the Western world. Following the recapture of the Greek territories by the Ottoman Empire, the great powers of that time (the United Kingdom , the Russian Empire , and the Kingdom of France ) saw the Greek counter-offensive as an opportunity to weaken the Ottoman Empire further and in essence increase their influence in

11097-470: The creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion of Greek nationalism and the Megali idea . Greece remained a quite impoverished country throughout the 19th century. The country lacked raw materials, infrastructure and capital. Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and

11234-416: The defender of its fellow Slavs and on 30 July, mobilized in support of Serbia. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August, followed by Austria-Hungary on 6th; after Ottoman warships bombarded Odesa in late October, the Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. French defeat in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War led to the loss of the two provinces of Alsace-Lorraine and

11371-549: The direction of Ioannina . On 5 November, Major Spyros Spyromilios led a revolt in the coastal area of Himarë and expelled the Ottoman garrison without facing significant resistance, while on 20 November Greek troops from western Macedonia entered Korçë . However, Greek forces in the Epirote front had not the numbers to initiate an offensive against the German-designed defensive positions of Bizani that protected

11508-512: The division of these resulted in the Second Balkan War , in which Bulgaria was comprehensively defeated by its former allies. Russia's industrial base and railway network had significantly improved since 1905, although from a relatively low base; in 1913, Tsar Nicholas approved an increase in the Russian Army of over 500,000 men. Although there was no formal alliance between Russia and Serbia, their close bilateral links provided Russia with

11645-534: The early loss of the strategic centre of all three Macedonian fronts, the city of Thessaloniki , a fact that sealed their fate. In an unexpectedly brilliant and rapid campaign, the Army of Thessaly seized the city. In the absence of secure sea lines of communications, the retention of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople corridor was essential to the overall strategic posture of the Ottoman Empire in

11782-448: The end of the war in 1917 (the same year in which Russia withdrew from the conflict) as an "associated power" rather than an official ally. Other "associated members" included Serbia , Belgium , Montenegro , Asir , Nejd and Hasa , Portugal , Romania , Hejaz , Panama , Cuba , Greece , China , Siam , Brazil , Armenia , Luxembourg , Guatemala , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , Haiti , Liberia , and Honduras . The treaties signed at

11919-464: The entire population. In 1830, the southern provinces of the Netherlands broke away to form the Kingdom of Belgium and their independence was confirmed by the 1839 Treaty of London . Article VII of the Treaty required Belgium to remain perpetually neutral and committed Austria, France, Germany and Russia to guarantee that against aggression by any other state, including the signatories. While

12056-591: The establishment of the League of Nations on 25 January 1919. This came into being on 16 January 1920 with Britain, France, Italy and Japan as permanent members of the Executive Council; the US Senate voted against ratification of the treaty on 19 March, thus preventing the United States from joining the League. For similar statistics of the Central Powers, see Central_Powers#Statistics . For much of

12193-639: The establishment of the Third Republic . The suppression of the Paris Commune by the new regime caused deep political divisions and led to a series of bitter political struggles, such as the Dreyfus affair . As a result, aggressive nationalism or Revanchism was one of the few areas to unite the French. The loss of Alsace-Lorraine deprived France of its natural defence line on the Rhine , while it

12330-566: The establishment of the first autonomous Greek state since the mid-15th century. In January 1822, the First National Assembly of Epidaurus passed the Greek Declaration of Independence (part of the country's First Constitution ), which affirmed the sovereignty of Greece. However, the new Greek state was politically unstable and lacked the resources to preserve its territoriality in the long term. Most importantly,

12467-594: The expansion of its railway network, particularly in border areas with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, Russian defeat in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War damaged its credibility, while Britain's isolation during the Second Boer War meant both countries sought additional allies. This resulted in the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain; like the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention , for domestic British consumption it focused on settling colonial disputes but led to informal co-operation in other areas. By 1914, both

12604-403: The first Governor of Greece, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias , created political and social instability that endangered the country's relationship with its allies. To avoid escalation and in order to strengthen Greece's ties with the great powers, Greece agreed to become a kingdom in 1832 (see London Conference of 1832 ). Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially the first candidate for

12741-708: The hands of a group of politicians, most of whom had been commanders in the War of Independence against the Ottomans. Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the national question. Greeks dreamed of liberating all the Greek lands and reconstituting a state embracing them all, with Constantinople as its capital. This was called the Great Idea ( Megali Idea ), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, notably Crete , Thessaly and Macedonia . During

12878-507: The hip as he went. Eventually the British managed to take the lockhouse and pushed on to their final objective near the Étreux road. Wilfred Owen , officer and poet, was killed as he crossed the Sambre–Oise Canal at the head of a raiding party: Owen's death occurred only a week before the war ended. 50°07′35″N 3°41′15″E  /  50.1264°N 3.6875°E  / 50.1264; 3.6875 Allies of World War I Associated allies and co-belligerents: The Allies ,

13015-631: The idea of an independent Albania , since this would prevent Serbian access to the Austrian-controlled Adriatic Sea . The success of the Albanian revolt in 1912 threatened Serbian ambitions for the incorporation of " Old Serbia " into its domain and exposed the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. This led to the outbreak of the First Balkan War , with Serbia , Montenegro , Bulgaria and Greece capturing most of

13152-566: The import of most of Italy's raw materials, including 90% of its coal. Salandra described the process of choosing a side as 'sacred egoism,' but as the war was expected to end before mid-1915 at the latest, making this decision became increasingly urgent. In line with Italy's obligations under the Triple Alliance, the bulk of the army was concentrated on Italy's border with France; in October, Pollio's replacement, General Luigi Cadorna ,

13289-450: The individual leaders, often bearing their names, two broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by Eleftherios Venizelos , and the conservatives, led initially by Theodoros Deligiannis and later by Thrasivoulos Zaimis . Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century, alternating in office. Trikoupis favoured cooperation with Great Britain in foreign affairs,

13426-412: The island until 27 October) and establishing an anchorage at Moudros Bay . This move was of major strategic importance, as it provided the Greeks with a forward base in close distance to the Dardanelles, the Ottoman fleet's main anchorage and refuge. In view of the Ottoman fleet's superiority in speed and broadside weight, the Greek planners expected it to sortie from the straits early in the war. Given

13563-562: The islands and was eased only by large-scale emigration to the United States. There was little education in the countryside. Nevertheless, there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and elegant public buildings were erected in Athens. Despite the bad financial situation, Athens staged the revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, which proved a great success. The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during

13700-532: The issue of a special " Tomos " decree which brought it back to a normal status. As a result, it retains certain special links with the " Mother Church ". There were only four bishops, and they had political roles. In 1833 Parliament dissolved 400 small monasteries having fewer than five monks or nuns. Priests were not salaried; in rural areas he was a peasant farmer himself dependent for his livelihood on his farm work and from fees and offerings by his parishioners. His ecclesiastical duties were limited to administering

13837-525: The lack of coordination between the Greek and Serbian HQs cost the Greeks a setback in the Battle of Vevi on 15 November [ O.S. 2 November] 1912, when the Greek 5th Infantry Division crossed its way with the VI Ottoman Corps (a part of the Vardar Army consisting of the 16th, 17th and 18th Nizamiye divisions), retreating to Albania following the Battle of Prilep against

13974-675: The largest component (after Britain herself) was the British Raj or British India, which included modern India , Pakistan , Myanmar and Bangladesh . Unlike other colonies which came under the Colonial Office , it was governed directly by the India Office or by princes loyal to the British; it also controlled British interests in the Persian Gulf , such as the Trucial States and Oman . Over one million soldiers of

14111-487: The mighty British navy , and citing the need for a respite after two wars, King Constantine favoured continued neutrality, while Venizelos actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next elections , and again formed the government. When Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally in October 1915, Venizelos invited Entente forces into Greece (the Salonika front ), for which he

14248-493: The military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser. Venizelos quickly established himself as an influential political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections . Venizelos became Prime Minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his personality would dominate Greek politics. Venizelos initiated

14385-414: The only important export commodities were currants , raisins and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and Piraeus became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses. By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and public insolvency was declared in 1893. Poverty was rife in the rural areas and

14522-582: The outcome of the battle of Yenidje, the Bulgarian high command urgently dispatched their 7th Rila Division from the north in the direction of the city. The division arrived there a week later, the day after its surrender to the Greeks. Until 10 November, the Greek-occupied zone had been expanded to the line from Lake Dojran to the Pangaion hills west to Kavalla . In southern Yugoslavia however,

14659-583: The patriarch in Constantinople. The government declared the church to be autocephalous (independent) in 1833 in a political decision of the Bavarian regents acting for King Otto , who was a minor. The decision roiled Greek politics for decades as royal authorities took increasing control. The new status was finally recognised as such by the Patriarchate in 1850, under compromise conditions with

14796-534: The plains and islands of Greece were in Ottoman hands; while in contrast, the mountains and highlands of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. In the context of an ardent desire for independence from Turkish rule, and with the explicit influence of similar secret societies elsewhere in Europe, three Greeks came together in 1814 in Odesa to decide

14933-443: The pre-war Greek border to Vlorë was also instituted on 3 December, isolating the newly established Provisional Government of Albania based there from any outside support. Lieutenant Nikolaos Votsis scored a major success for Greek morale on 31 October: he sailed his torpedo boat No. 11, under the cover of night, into the harbor of Thessaloniki , sank the old Ottoman ironclad battleship Feth-i Bülend and escaped unharmed. On

15070-697: The rationalistic and materialistic ideas that had seeped in from secular Western Europe. It promoted catechism schools, and circles for the study of the Bible. At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted a much more democratic constitution in 1864. The powers of the king were reduced and the Senate was abolished, and the franchise was extended to all adult males. Nevertheless, Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it had always been. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis repeatedly occurred as prime ministers. Although parties were centered around

15207-533: The reassurance needed to take on Russia in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War ; victory established Japan in the Chinese province of Manchuria . With Japan as an ally in the Far East, John Fisher , First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1910, was able to refocus British naval resources in the North Sea to counter the threat from the Imperial German Navy . The Alliance was renewed in 1911; in 1914, Japan joined

15344-492: The reign of George I. Initially, the royal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental instability, until the introduction of the dedilomeni principle of parliamentary confidence in 1875 by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis . Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals, however, remained the norm in Greek politics and frustrated the country's development. Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like

15481-448: The remaining Ottoman possessions in Europe. Disputes over the division of these resulted in the Second Balkan War , in which Bulgaria was comprehensively defeated by its former allies. As a result of the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest , Serbia increased its territory by 100% and its population by 64%. However, it now faced a hostile Austria-Hungary, a resentful Bulgaria and resistance in its conquered territories . Germany too had ambitions in

15618-520: The results of these "cat and mouse" operations were always the same: "the Greek destroyers always managed to remain outside the Ottoman warships' range, and each time the cruisers fired a few rounds before breaking off the chase." In preparation for the next attempt to break the Greek blockade, the Ottoman Admiralty decided to create a diversion by sending the light cruiser Hamidiye , captained by Rauf Bey, to raid Greek merchant shipping in

15755-458: The risk was acceptable; they expected a short war while their ambassador in London claimed troubles in Ireland would prevent Britain from assisting France. On 3 August, Germany demanded unimpeded progress through any part of Belgium and when this was refused, invaded early on the morning of 4 August. This changed the situation; the invasion of Belgium consolidated political and public support for

15892-468: The sacraments, supervising funerals, the blessings of crops, and exorcism. Few attended seminaries. By the 1840s, there was a nationwide revival, run by travelling preachers. The government arrested several and tried to shut down the revival, but it proved too powerful when the revivalists denounced three bishops for purchasing their office. By the 1880s the "Anaplasis" ("Regeneration") Movement led to renewed spiritual energy and enlightenment. It fought against

16029-586: The same day, Greek troops of the Epirus Army seized the Ottoman naval base of Preveza . The Ottomans scuttled the four ships present there, but the Greeks were able to salvage the Italian-built torpedo-boats Antalya and Tokat , which were commissioned into the Greek Navy as Nikopolis and Tatoi respectively. On 9 November, the wooden Ottoman armed steamer Trabzon was intercepted and sunk by

16166-507: The second try two days later resulted in an indecisive engagement between the Greek destroyers and the cruiser Mecidiye . The war's first major fleet action, the Naval Battle of Elli , was fought two days later, on 16 December [ O.S. 3 December] 1912. The Ottoman fleet, with four battleships, nine destroyers and six torpedo boats, sailed to the entrance of the straits. The lighter Ottoman vessels remained behind, but

16303-535: The strategic point of view these victories were enabled partially by the weakened condition of the Ottoman armies brought about by the active presence of the Greek army and fleet. With the declaration of war, the Greek Army of Thessaly under Crown Prince Constantine advanced to the north, successfully overcoming Ottoman opposition in the fortified Straits of Sarantaporo. After another victory at Giannitsa on 2 November [ O.S. 20 October] 1912,

16440-646: The then-unified Korea and Formosa, now modern Taiwan . Concerned by Russian expansion in Korea and Manchuria , Britain and Japan signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance on 30 January 1902, agreeing if either were attacked by a third party, the other would remain neutral and if attacked by two or more opponents, the other would come to its aid. This meant Japan could rely on British support in a war with Russia, if either France or Germany, which also had interests in China, decided to join them. This gave Japan

16577-621: The two into direct conflict, as did the long-held Russian objective of gaining control of the Bosporus Straits and with it access to the British-dominated Mediterranean Sea . Defeat in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and Britain's isolation during the 1899–1902 Second Boer War led both parties to seek allies. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 settled disputes in Asia and allowed the establishment of

16714-556: The war by presenting what appeared to be a simple moral and strategic choice. The Belgians asked for assistance under the 1839 Treaty and in response, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914. Although Germany's violation of Belgium neutrality was not the only cause of British entry into the war, it was used extensively in government propaganda at home and abroad to make the case for British intervention. This confusion arguably persists today. The declaration of war automatically involved all dominions and colonies and protectorates of

16851-432: The war on 4 August, although France did not declare war on Austria-Hungary until 12 August. As with Britain, France's colonies also became part of the war; pre-1914, French soldiers and politicians advocated using French African recruits to help compensate for France's demographic weakness. But it eventually proved useless, the soldiers from Metropolitan France still undertook all the tasks. From August to December 1914,

16988-582: Was British support for France against Germany in the 1905 Moroccan Crisis . The 1905–1915 Liberal government continued this re-alignment with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . Like the Anglo-Japanese and Entente agreements, it focused on settling colonial disputes but by doing so paved the way for wider co-operation and allowed Britain to refocus resources in response to German naval expansion . Since control of Belgium allowed an opponent to threaten invasion or blockade British trade, preventing it

17125-577: Was a long-standing British strategic interest. Under Article VII of the 1839 Treaty of London , Britain guaranteed Belgian neutrality against aggression by any other state, by force if required. Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg later dismissed this as a 'scrap of paper,' but British law officers routinely confirmed it as a binding legal obligation and its importance was well understood by Germany. The 1911 Agadir Crisis led to secret discussions between France and Britain in case of war with Germany. These agreed that within two weeks of its outbreak,

17262-563: Was a surge of anti-Japanese nationalism in China and an economic boycott of Japanese goods. In addition, the other Allies now saw Japan as a threat, rather than a partner, lead to tensions first with Russia, then the US after it entered the war in April 1917. Despite protests from the other Allies, after the war Japan refused to return Qingdao and the province of Shandong to China. The 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy

17399-580: Was again dismissed by Constantine. In August 1916, after several incidents where both combatants encroached upon the still theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled Thessaloniki, and Venizelos established a separate government there. Constantine was now ruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars ("Old Greece"), and his government was subject to repeated humiliations from

17536-550: Was established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic . It was internationally recognised by the Treaty of Constantinople , where Greece also secured its full independence from the Ottoman Empire after nearly four centuries. The Kingdom of Greece was dissolved in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was established following Greece's defeat by Turkey in

17673-462: Was exhausted by the two Balkan Wars and unable to replace its losses of men and equipment. In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and by the end of the year, a combined Bulgar-Austrian-German army occupied most of Serbia. Between 1914 and 1918, Serbia suffered the greatest proportional losses of any combatant, with over 25% of all those mobilised becoming casualties; including civilians and deaths from disease, over 1.2 million died, nearly 30% of

17810-619: Was later raised and repaired). The Hamidiye then left the Aegean for the Eastern Mediterranean, making stops at Beirut and Port Said before entering the Red Sea . Although providing a major morale boost for the Ottomans, the operation failed to achieve its primary objective, as Kountouriotis refused to leave his post and pursue the Hamidiye . Four days later, on 18 January [ O.S. 5 January] 1913, when

17947-519: Was not attacked until 13 March 1913, out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearby Dodecanese . The clashes there were short-lived as the Ottoman forces withdrew to the Anatolian mainland so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March. At the same time, with the aid of numerous merchant ships converted to auxiliary cruisers , a loose naval blockade on the Ottoman coasts from

18084-464: Was offset when Germany declared war on Portugal in March 1916, while Romania commenced hostilities against Austria on 27 August. On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war as a co-belligerent, along with the associated allies of Liberia , Siam and Greece . After the 1917 October Revolution , Russia left the Entente and agreed to a separate peace with the Central Powers with the signing of

18221-483: Was ordered to begin moving these troops to the North-Eastern one with Austria. Under the April 1915 Treaty of London , Italy agreed to join the Entente in return for Italian-populated territories of Austria-Hungary and other concessions; in return, it declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915 as required, although not on Germany until 1916. Italian resentment at the difference between the promises of 1915 and

18358-537: Was renewed at regular intervals, but was compromised by conflicting objectives between Italy and Austria in the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italian nationalists referred to Austrian-held Istria (including Trieste and Fiume ) and Trento as 'the lost territories' , making the Alliance so controversial that the terms were kept secret until it expired in 1915. Alberto Pollio , the pro-Austrian Chief of Staff of

18495-770: Was the central arms depot for the Western Armies). The Ottoman forces estimated that 15,000 officers and men had been killed during the campaign in Macedonia, bringing total losses up to 41,000 soldiers. Another direct consequence was that the destruction of the Macedonian Army sealed the fate of the Ottoman Vardar Army, which was fighting the Serbs to the north. The fall of Thessaloniki left it strategically isolated, without logistical supply and depth to manoeuvre, ensuring its destruction. Upon learning of

18632-535: Was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka ). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s. All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete , a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and

18769-424: Was weaker demographically than Germany, whose 1911 population was 64.9 million to 39.6 in France, which had the lowest birthrate in Europe. This meant that despite their very different political systems, when Germany allowed the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse, France seized the opportunity to agree the 1894 Franco-Russian Alliance . It also replaced Germany as the primary source of financing for Russian industry and

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